USGA GREEN SECTION
RECORD

A Publication on Turf Management 
by the United States Golf Association

USGA GREEN SECTION

A Publication on Turf Management by the United States Golf Association

© 1970 by United States Golf Association. Permission to reproduce articles or material in the USGA GREEN 
SECTION RECORD is granted to publishers of newspapers and periodicals (unless specifically noted otherwise), 
provided credit is given the USGA and copyright protection is afforded. To reprint material in other media, 
written permission must be obtained from the USGA. In any case, neither articles nor other material may be 
copied or used for any advertising, promotion or commercial purposes.

VOL 8, NO. 4

JULY, 1970

The Golf Course and Ecology by James W. Timmerman 

Solving Drainage Problems at El Macero

by D. W. Henderson, Don T. Bradley, Jack Jagur 

Fairway Renovation at Baltusrol by Joseph R. Flaherty 

Plants to Enhance Environment by Eliot C. Roberts 

Better Turf Through Research 

1

6

11

15

18

Turf Twisters 

Back Cover

Published six times a year in January, March, May, July, September and November by the UNITED STATES 
GOLF ASSOCIATION, 40 EAST 38th ST., NEW YORK, N. Y. 10016. Subscription: $2 a year. Single copies: 35<f. 
Subscriptions and address changes should be sent to the above address. Articles, photographs, and correspond­
ence relevant to published material should be addressed to: United States Golf Association Green Section, 
P. O. Box 567, Garden Grove, Calif. 92642. Second class postage paid at Albany, N. Y. and New York, 
N. Y. Office of Publication: 40 East 38th Street, New York, N. Y. 10016.

Editor: William H. Bengeyfield 

Managing Editor: Robert Sommers

Art Editor: Miss Janet Seagle

Green Section Committee Chairman: Henry H. Russell, P.O. Box 697, Miami, Fla. 33157

Green Section Agronomists and Offices

EASTERN REGION 
P.O. Box 1237 
Highland Park, N. J. 08904
Alexander M. Radko, Director, Eastern Region 
and National Research Director

James W. Timmerman, Eastern Agronomist 

(201) 572-0440

MID-CONTINENT REGION

P.O. Box 592, Crystal Lake, III. 60014
F. Lee Record, Director, Mid-Continent Region 

(312) 943-5022

SOUTHERN REGION 
P.O. Box 4213 
Campus Station, Athens, Ga. 30601
James B. Moncrief, Director, Southern Region 
Holman M. Griffin, Southern Agronomist

WESTERN REGION 
P.O. Box 567 
Garden Grove, Calif. 92642

William H. Bengeyfield, Director, Western Region 

and Publications Editor

G. Duane Orullian, Western Agronomist 

(404) LI 8-2741

(714) 638-0962

COVER PHOTO:
A golf course must be con­
sidered as having an ecology 
of its own. Understanding 
this ecology is essential to 
the performance of turfgrasses 
used for golf turf.

Syringing—a management practice that modifies the microclimate.

by JAMES W. TIMMERMAN, Eastern Agronomist, USGA Green Section

Ecology is a word often used but seldom un­

derstood. With the attention focused on the 
harmful effects of pollution, ecology is fast be­
coming our greatest problem. But, as one noted 
conservationist put it, people have only a vague 
idea of what ecology is all about. The same can 
be said for turfgrasses. Do we, as turf man­
agers, really understand turfgrass ecology?

Classically, ecology has become known as the 
interaction of organisms and their environment. 
This means that any environmental factor— 
climatic, soil, and biotic—whether natural or 
imposed, and their interplay take on meaning 
as an ecological aspect of turfgrass manage­
ment. However, to successfully manage turf 
under golf course conditions requires the em­
ployment of many management practices, such 
as mowing, irrigation, fertilization, etc., that 
grasses growing naturally would not be subjected 
to. From this standpoint, turfgrass ecology then 
encompasses environmental and management 
interrelationships.

Adaptation and Ecology

Adaptation of turfgrasses to a particular re­

gion depends upon all environmental factors 
that affect growth. The more dominant ones are 
climatic, soil, biological, and geographical. These 
factors are interrelated, and the plant's ability 
to survive is governed by how well it can toler­
ate the many forces these factors exert in­
dividually or in combination. Each turfgrass 
specie has tolerance limits, and if these limits 
are exceeded it will not persist.

The most influential factor in determining 
adaptation to a region is climate. It embodies 
temperature, moisture, light, and wind. Based 
on their growth habit, turfgrasses have been 
grouped as either cool-season or warm-season 
grasses. Furthermore, these are broadly clas­
sified as adapted to one of four general climatic 
regions: cool-moist, warm-moist, cool-arid, and 
warm-arid regions. However, differences in geog­
raphy and employment of different management 
practices may render certain grasses adaptable 
to a region where otherwise they would not per­
sist. As an example, grasses of cool-humid or 
warm-humid regions may grow quite well in 
arid regions if irrigation is available.

JULY 1970

1

Usage and Ecology

While environmental factors determine to a 
large degree what grasses are adaptable to a 
region, golf courses must be considered as an 
independent ecosystem within that region. As 
such, how various varieties of grasses are used 
on golf courses is a primary ecological con­
sideration. They must be able to tolerate con­
ditions they are subjected to. Grasses used for 
greens, tees, and fairways must withstand close 
and frequent clipping, tolerate heavy traffic, 
and recover rapidly from injury. Only certain 
varieties of bluegrasses, bentgrasses, and ber- 
mudagrasses have these qualities. Grasses for 
roughs, while not clipped as close or as often, 
must still tolerate traffic and usually more 
shade and less water. Varieties of bluegrass, 
fescue, and bermudagrass meet these require­
ments.

Climate and Ecology

We have already seen that climate is re­
sponsible for the grasses adaptable for golf 
courses. However, the four aspects of climate— 
temperature, light, moisture, and air—also have 
seasonal environmental effects on the grasses 
within a region that determine their performance 
under golf course conditions. While not much 
can be done about the weather, certain man­
agement practices can modify its effects. Fur­
thermore, it must be remembered that no 
aspect of climate acts upon the plant alone. It 
acts in combination with other aspects, and as 
a result it is modified by the other factors.

Temperature—All turfgrasses have three crit­
ical temperatures: minimum, maximum, and 
optimum. Obviously, if the minimum or maxi­
mum temperature is exceeded for any length 
of time the plant will die. But these tempera­
tures are often hard to determine because the 
wind, soil moisture, humidity, light intensity, 
age of plant, and management practices all will 
affect the survival temperature.

Attempts, however, have been made to de­
termine limits and optimum temperatures. Re­
search to date shows optimum temperatures for 
cool-season grasses to be from 60° to 80° F. 
Growth slows to a minimum above 90° to 100°F, 
with root and reserve carbohydrates being de­
pleted. Death due to cold weather is a com­
bination of the effects of low temperature, 
moisture within the plant tissue, and degree of 
plant hardiness. Optimum temperature for ber­
mudagrass is reported as 95°F, with growth 
slowing at 59°F and 105°F.

Soil temperatures are also critical to growth, 
but often it is difficult to separate the effect of 
soil temperature from air temperature as an 
ecological influence.

Light—In considering the influence of light 

on the ecology of turfgrasses, several factors 
must be considered—the light intensity, dura­
tion of light period, and quality of light. Light 
enables turfgrasses to carry on photosynthesis 
and respiration. These two physiological proc­
esses provide the means of obtaining energy 
for growth and survival. Furthermore, both of 
these processes are affected by temperature. At 
moderate temperatures, photosynthesis occurs 
faster than respiration with a resultant accumu­
lation of food reserves. As the temperature 
rises, photosynthesis reaches a point where it 
levels off and it begins to fall. Respiration also 
increases with increasing temperature, but to a 
much higher point than photosynthesis. Eventu­
ally the plant uses food reserves faster than 
they are produced and draws upon those syn­
thesized at the optimum temperature. If this 
condition prevails for a period of time the plant 
will suffer.

It has been difficult to determine the light 
requirements of turfgrasses, although the major 
turf species have been ranked as to their ability 
to grow in reduced light. However, one eco­
logical relationship emerges: the light require­
ment of a turfgrass beyond that needed to keep 
it alive is largely determined by turf usage. 
Grasses subjected to heavy play usually need 
more light to survive. Shaded tees generally 
have a lower turf density than sunny tees. Re­
duced light intensity results in longer inter­
nodes, smaller leaves, and a more yellow color 
because of less chlorophyll. Moreover, grasses 
grown under low light have restricted roots, 
become more succulent and more susceptible 
to disease.

Moisture—Except for temperature, moisture 
is the most important climatic factor influencing 
turfgrass growth. Water is essential because it 
composes roughly 90% of the growing tissue, 
transports nutrients throughout the plant, is an 
important part of photosynthesis, maintains 
turgidity in leaves, and helps regulate plant 
temperature.

Due to the development of irrigation systems 
for golf courses, water is not a restrictive factor 
for survival. Water management, however, is a 
prime ecological factor. The judicious use of 
water many times is responsible for preventing 
wilt. Courses with automatic systems now can 
syringe greens and fairways more effectively, 
thus reducing wilt, especially that of Poa annua.
Overwatering, on the other hand, either from 
excessive rainfall or by irrigation, results in a 
soft and succulent plant more susceptible to 
wilt and disease. In this respect, research has 
shown that Poa annua watered six times as 
opposed to two times a week exhibited twice 
as many stomates (pores in leaf) to a given 
area.

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USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

Soils—ecologically important to good turf culture.

Another part of moisture influence is humid­
ity, which refers to the amount of water vapor 
in the air. It is important ecologically because 
it influences water loss from soil and plants, 
and its association with dew and disease. Most 
turfgrass diseases need a moist environment to 
germinate and grow, and disease incidence is 
higher when humidity remains high.

Snow is also ecologically important in the 
northern states. It serves as a source of moist­
ure in the winter and insulates and protects 
the turf from low temperatures and desiccation.
Air—Wind and air are the last part of climate 
that influences the ecology of turfgrasses. Air 
surrounding the earth contains carbon dioxide 
that plants use for photosynthesis. Wind is 
beneficial because it replenishes the carbon 
dioxide supply to the turf. On calm, bright, 
sunny days it has been shown that carbon 
dioxide concentration can become suboptimum 
for maximum photosynthesis.

While air turbulence is beneficial by increas­
ing carbon dioxide supply, it can be harmful by 
increasing transpiration. Moving air reduces hu­
midity which in turn increases water loss from 
plants and the chance for wilting. During the 
winter high winds result in desiccated turf if 
unprotected by snow.

Air pollution has recently been shown to be 
harmful to turf in certain industrial areas. The 
injury is due to the phototoxic components of 
smog such as ozone, and to reduced light in­

tensity. Poa annua seems especially sensitive 
to smog components.

Microclimate—Just as climatic relationships 
affect the ecology of turfgrasses, so does the 
microclimate. It is considered to be the climate 
near the ground as opposed to the general 
climate of a region. It encompasses plant ma­
terial living above ground, the thatch, and to 
some extent the roots. Microclimate is im­
portant because differences in environmental 
factors may be greater nearer the surface than 
farther above. Temperature and humidity are 
usually higher within a few inches of the soil 
than three to five feet above.

Thatch is a very important part of the micro­
environment and influences the microclimate. 
A small amount is beneficial because it pro­
vides shade and lowers soil temperatures. It 
also provides some protection from drying winds 
and from frost and low temperatures. Thatch 
may reduce water loss and aid in the reduction 
of weeds.

Adverse effects of a thick thatch layer in­
clude: retention of water in the thatch layer, 
increases disease and insect incidence, reduces 
air infiltration into the soil, reduces the amount 
of nutrients that reach the soil, and reduces 
pesticide effectiveness.

Modifying the microclimate many times saves 
turf during periods of stress. Syringing during 
high temperatures cools the leaf surface and 
raises the relative humidity near the grass plant, 

JULY 1970

3

alleviating moisture stress. This has been shown 
to be more effective if accompanied by air 
movement. Covering greens with artificial 
screens or other type mulches during the winter, 
and topdressing heavy in the late fall has been 
effective in preventing serious injury from low 
winter temperatures and desiccation.

Soil and Ecology

Soil plays one of the major roles in support­
ing turfgrass growth and therefore is a key 
aspect of turfgrass ecology. It is composed of 
mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water. 
The functions of soil are to provide an environ­
ment for the development of roots and to supply 
the necessary mineral nutrients, water and oxy­
gen. The basis for sound turf culture begins 
with the soil-root environment. Roots require 
nutrients, water, oxygen, a suitable soil tempera­
ture, and a favorable pH range for growth. Any­
thing which affects these variables ultimately 
determines the health and survival of the plant.
Roots need oxygen to grow. This is supplied 
by the soil air, which is composed of oxygen 
and carbon dioxide. The amount of air present 
is dependent on the nature of the soil pores. 
The percentage of oxygen and carbon dioxide 
is governed by the respiration of plant roots and 
microorganisms, which use oxygen and produce 
carbon dioxide, and by the exchange of air be­
tween the soil and the atmosphere. Soil aeration 
refers to the process of replacing soil air by 
atmospheric air and is brought about mainly by 
diffusion. Air in well aerated soils is similar to 
atmospheric air, whereas poorly aerated soils 
contain higher carbon dioxide levels and lower 
oxygen levels. Plant growth under poorly aerated 
soil is probably limited by low oxygen rather 
than high carbon dioxide levels.

So far it has been difficult to determine opti­
mum soil air levels for turfgrass growth. How­
ever, uptake of water and nutrients is often 
decreased by poor aeration. Fortunately, grasses 
appear to be more tolerant of poor soil aera­
tion than many other plant species.

Poor aeration also affects microbial activity. 
Rapid decomposition of organic matter, organic 
fertilizer, and thatch is slowed. The bacteria that 
convert ammonia and organic forms of nitrogen 
to the nitrite form which the plant absorbs is 
also inhibited.

Adequate soil water is needed for healthy 
turf. Like soil air, soil water is dependent on the 
nature of the pore space. When water is lacking 
the turf will obviously wilt. Too much water 
limits air diffusion and plant roots suffer from 
lack of oxygen. Plant growth is usually char­
acterized by a yellowish-green color due to the 
leaching of nitrogen or reduced availability of 
iron. Excessive water in the soil also enhances 

disease activity, since most turfgrass disease 
fungi are favored by moisture. Compaction too 
is more severe when soils are overly wet.

Controlling water in the soil then becomes 
important to turfgrass ecology. Irrigation and 
drainage are generally the principle means used 
to control soil water. An irrigation system de­
signed and installed properly, and managed in­
telligently is a must. Good surface and internal 
drainage should be incorporated into all portions 
of the golf course wherever possible. Where this 
cannot be accomplished artificial drainage should 
be installed.

Since soil under golf course conditions re­
ceives heavy traffic, compaction affects soil-root 
ecology. Soil compaction is detrimental because 
it decreases pore space and destroys aggrega­
tion. This in turn restricts the amount of air and 
water available to plant roots and slows internal 
drainage. Relieving compaction by aeration and 
incorporating soil amendments that resist com­
paction will help alleviate conditions caused by 
heavy traffic.

Soil temperature is also ecologically impor­
tant. Minimum, maximum, and optimum soil 
temperatures for turfgrass growth follow closely 
that of atmospheric temperature. Many micro­
bial processes in the soil are influenced and 
controlled by soil temperature. Again, organic 
matter decomposition and nitrogen transforma­
tion are critical ones affected.

Management and Ecology

Maintaining turfgrasses used on golf courses 
to meet the demands of today’s players re­
quires the use of many management practices. 
Since these practices influence the environment 
of turfgrass greatly, they become an essential 
part of turfgrass ecology. Indeed, some manage­
ment techniques are so critical that an indi­
vidual turf specie could not be used for golf 
turf without them.

We have already seen that syringing, control 
of thatch, and relieving compaction are all man­
agement practices that improve the environment 
of the grass plant. The following are others that 
influence good quality turf.

Heights and frequencies of mowing affect the 
vigor of turfgrasses. However, it is the size and 
morphology of a grass specie that determines 
mowing practices. Turfgrasses that produce 
stolons and rhizomes will tolerate closer mow­
ing than will a bunch type grass. Furthermore, 
grasses that produce an upright growth habit 
cannot be clipped as low as grasses that pro­
duce many leaves near the soil surface.

Clipping upright grasses such as Kentucky 
bluegrasses, fescues, and ryegrasses, especially 
during hot weather, causes a depression of 
roots, rhizomes, and top growth. This weakens 

4

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

the turf, lowers resistance to drought, increases 
susceptibility to disease, and encourages thin­
ning of turf. Also, close mowing brings more 
light to the soil surface and encourages weed 
encroachment. Mowing management of upright 
grasses should be based on climatic conditions. 
During the summer they should be clipped 
higher to improve vigor, reduce weeds, and in­
crease wear resistance.

Small stoloniferous grasses such as bent­
grass and bermudagrass can tolerate close clip­
ping because many leaves remain after mowing. 
These will also benefit from raising the height 
of cut, but clipping too high will encourage a 
faster thatch buildup.

Frequency is also important. Allowing top 
growth to become tall and then mowing short 
is damaging. A rest from mowing greens one 
or two days a week will increase bentgrass vigor.
Turfgrasses need adequate nutrients to.'grow 
and recover from injury inflicted by the golfer. 
Nitrogen, which is the key growth regulating 
agent, should be used with care. Too much 
nitrogen causes turf to be soft and succulent 
and more susceptible to wilt and disease. Too 
little will not allow for rapid recovery from in­
jury.

Nutrients should be supplied in adequate 
amounts and balance. Growth may be disrupted 
by an imbalance of the key nutrients, nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and potassium. A lack of certain 
minor elements, such as iron, can also affect 
metabolism.

Irrigation practices are critical to turfgrass 
ecology. Heavy, infrequent irrigation encourages 
root development and penetration. Light, infre­
quent watering results in the roots remaining 
near the surface where the moisture is supplied. 
Heavy, frequent watering is injurious because of 
changes in the air-water ratios of the soil pores.
The use of pesticides to control weeds, in­
sects, and disease is certainly beneficial in 
improving the environment. Overuse or indis­
criminate use, however, can be harmful. Resi­
dual effects or metabolic disruptions are respon­
sible for turf injury.

The ecology of a golf course then is the inter­
action of natural and imposed environmental 
and management conditions affecting growth. 
The employment of the various combinations of 
management practices must be related to the 
environmental factors. Careful manipulation of 
these management practices can save turf in 
periods of stress.

SUPER SAM by Paprocki

Super Sam says, "change fee markers often."

JULY 1970

5

Solving Drainage Problems

at E! Macero

by D. W. HENDERSON* and DON T. BRADLEY, Department of Water Science 
and Engineering, University of California, Davis, and
JACK JAGUR, Superintendent, El Macero Country Club, El Macero, California

^Kfter several greens at El Macero Country 

Club deteriorated badly in 1966 and large areas 
of grass died, several possible causes were in­
vestigated. Also, some different procedures for 
drainage were tried and evaluated. Possibly our 
experiences may be of value to others with 
problem greens.

Salinity

The water from one of two irrigation wells 
proved quite saline, with electrical conductivity 
of 3.7 mmho/cm. Although salinity of greens 
soils was generally below levels expected to 
injure Seaside bent, the well was immediately 
taken out of service.

Soil Conditions

Excessively wet greens had been noted fre­
quently, and to find why drainage was so slow, 
the soil beneath the greens was sampled. The 
top 3 to 5 inches is fine sand underlain by loam 
to clay loam soil. Under 12 of the poorer greens, 
the soil is dense (total pore space typically 35 
to 45%) and anaerobic as indicated by blue­
black color and foul odor. Layers of such com­
pacted soil extend to depths of 3 to 5 feet, with 
native soil beneath the greens mounds open 
and permeable, suggesting compaction by equip­
ment during construction.

* Dr. D. W. Henderson serves also as Green 

Chairman at El Macero Country Club.

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USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

Irrigation

The distribution of water from manually- 
operated greens sprinklers proved exceedingly 
uneven. Both range and spreader nozzles were 
%-inch, and spreader nozzles caused rapid 
flooding close to the sprinklers while little water 
reached inner areas of greens. Smaller, single­
nozzle sprinklers, purchased in 1968, gave a 
more uniform pattern, minimized flooding, and 
generally permitted irrigating on alternate days. 
Less excess water was applied, and there was 
a longer period for drainage between irrigations.

Drainage Test

For evaluation of drainage on various greens 
and the effect of drain systems installed, a 
procedure was evolved to obtain quantitative 
data. Basically, it consisted of making several 
holes to six-inch depth in the green with a %- 
inch diameter, push-type soil sampling tube. 
Free water in the upper soil (especially the sand 
layer) seeps into the open hole and its depth 
is measured one to two hours after the holes 
are formed. Since sprinkling gave uneven satu­
ration of greens, most comparisons were made 
18 to 24 hours after heavy rain with 12 holes 
for each green or portion tested. For evaluating 
drainage conditions with sprinkling, more holes 
are needed to obtain a more complete pattern.

Drainage Installations

Several inexpensive means of greens drain­
age were attempted over a two-year period. 
Since the native subsoil under a few greens 
was nearly pure sand, there was a possibility 
that dry wells would be effective. A portion of 
No. 2 green was treated by making holes of 
1%-inch diameter reaching into the subsand 
and back-filling with pea gravel. The holes, on 

3-foot-square spacing, were made with a ham­
mer-driven soil sampling tube. Drainage was 
improved (see Table 1) and subsequently all of 
No. 17 green was similarly treated, using holes 
of 2-inch diameter at 4-foot triangular spacing. 
The upper two feet of each hole was made with 
an auger powered with a generator-driven slow- 
speed electric drill, and the remainder by water 
jetting. The jetter consisted of thin-walled con­
duit tubing of l^-inch diameter with a %-inch- 
diameter nozzle at the bottom, and utilized 
water under pressure from sprinkler coupler 
valves.

Other drain systems installed were as follows: 
No. 13 Green — Perforated plastic pipe
(1 V^-inch nominal-size) in 2-inch-wide by 8- 
inch-deep trenches on 6-foot spacing. The 
perforated pipe was surrounded with pea 
gravel top-dressed with sand.

No. 14 Green — Slots (8-inch deep by Vi- 
inch wide) made with a modified commercial 
trencher on 6-foot spacing, backfilled with 
gravel and top-dressed with sand. Individual 
slots were drained by 1 Vi-inch diameter dry 
wells extending into sandy subsoil at a depth 
of 4 to 5 feet at intervals of 12 to 15 feet. 
The sod was not stripped over the trenches, 
but the cuts essentially healed within two 
weeks, and the green was never taken out of 
play. Two attempts to cut slots with a chain 
saw failed because it became dull after cut­
ting a few feet.

Nos. 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 18 Greens — 
Three-inch perforated plastic pipe main line 
with 1-inch perforated laterals in herringbone 
pattern at 18-foot maximum spacing. All pipe 
was placed in 4-inch wide by 20-inch deep 
trenches, surrounded by rock averaging over 
Vz-inch diameter, covered with a filter of 
graded gravel and top-dressed with sand.

TABLE 1. Water depths in shallow test holes on three dates.

1-68 
Green* Water Depth

1-69 

12-69

Green* Water Depth

Green* Water Depth

—
2U
2W
3U
—
—
17W
18U

—
2.5"
0.0
1.5
—
—
0.1
3.8

1U
—
—
—
9U
14TW
17W
18U

2.9"
—
—
—
1.9
0.1
0.2
3.8

IP
2U
2W
3P
9P
14TW
17W
18P

0.0"
2.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.7
0.0
0.1

*Letters following Green number indicate treatment at the time of measure­
ment. U—undrained; W—dry wells; P—perforated pipe; TW—gravel-filled 
slots plus dry wells.

JULY 1970

7

If the architect had only built the greens 
properly at the outset, the drainage proj­
ect would not have been necessary. This 
is a sample of the "soil" underlying the 
original greens.

Extensive tile installation was accomplished 
on the worst greens. Note the neatness of 
the operation.

The main drain was 3-inch perforated plastic pipe on a gravel base. One-inch perforated lateral 
lines feed into it in a herringbone pattern.

Putting green slots being cut with a modified commercial trencher. This was more effective than the 
chain saw method.

Superintendent Jack Jagur perforating the 
1-inch plastic lateral lines.

Backfilling the drain lines with graded gravel 
to be followed with sand. The original sod 
(with a sand base) will then finish the job.

Pipe drain systems near lakes were con­
structed with outlets into the lakes, while others 
were drained into long, gravel-filled trenches, 
permitting seepage into the subsoil. The native 
subsoil below the zone compacted by traffic is 
quite permeable.

Drainage Costs

Material costs were essentially negligible for 
the dry well system and slots plus dry wells, 
and labor requirements were approximately 12 
man-hours per 1,000 square feet. For pipe 
spaced at 18 feet in large trenches, material 
costs were roughly $50 per 1,000 square feet, 
and labor requirements were about 24 man­
hours. Material costs for pipe in small trenches 
on 6-foot spacing were approximately $60 per 
1,000 square feet. No labor records were kept, 
but the time required was considerably higher 
because of the greater footage, and the small 
trenches needed considerable cleaning by hand.

Drainage Results

Tests showed that all types of drainage were 
quite effective (see Table 1). The gravel-filled 
slots plus dry wells on No. 14, however, failed 
in the second winter after installation. The 
failure probably was caused by plugging of the 
relatively few dry wells.

The tests show that all the systems can re­
move excess water from the greens by 18 to 24 
hours after waterlogging. From both theory and 
rough observation, the dry wells have the least 
surface for water intake and drain most slowly, 
widely-spaced pipes or trenches are intermedi­
ate, and closely-spaced drains are most rapid. 
We are installing pipe systems at 18-foot spac­
ing in all our poor greens and plan to supple­
ment them with narrow gravel-filled slots on 
6 foot spacing if more rapid drainage is neces­
sary.

Dr. Henderson at work with a hammer-driven 
soil sampling tube on No. 2 green.

cores were removed from the green surface, a 
%-inch tube was used to water-jet an opening 
at the bottom of about one hole per square foot 
down to permeable soil, 3 or 4 feet below. The 
jetted material on the green surface was allowed 
to dry and was removed, and the holes were 
filled with top-dressing mix.

Three treated spots slowly improved (as com­
pared with nearby untreated spots) and did not 
recur the following summer.

"Dry Spot" Treatment

Conclusions

On several greens, small areas of poor sum­
mer turf persisted after drainage and better 
irrigation were provided. Soil observations 
showed that in these spots the sand layer was 
very shallow or missing entirely, or that the 
sand was intermixed with silt and clay. Roots 
penetrated no more than two inches, with many 
dead by late summer.

To provide better rooting, more water entry 
into the soil, and better drainage, some spots 
were treated by removing %-inch diameter 
cores to a depth of nine inches on 3-inch 
centers with an open-sided push-type tube soil 
sampler. Each core pushes the preceding core 
from the tube, so the process is rapid. After

The soil under several greens is marginal for 
growing good turf, even with drainage. Probably 
only the shallow sand layer can be drained 
effectively because the soil below is too tight. 
Few roots penetrate below the sand layer, and 
those found in soil are often weak or dead. 
Nevertheless, the program described (involving 
salinity control, careful irrigation, drainage, and 
spot renovation) has generally improved the 
greens markedly in the past three seasons. We 
avoided a crisis with very moderate expenditure, 
and we have sufficient time to proceed with 
future greens reconstruction on an orderly 
basis. Under very careful management our 
greens could, if necessary, last indefinitely.

10

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

Fairway Renovation at Baitusroi

by JOSEPH R. FLAHERTY, Golf Course Superintendent, Baitusroi Golf Club, Springfield, New Jersey
O ne of the most challenging problems facing 
golf course superintendents today is the con­
temporary players’ demand for high quality 
fairway turf throughout the season. Turf that 
will retain uniform texture and vigor and pro­
vide a satisfactory lie even under the stress of 
high temperatures and humidities during July 
and August is our goal. In too many cases the 
older, long-established fairways are unable to 
meet this requirement.

This situation, together with newly germinat­
ing Poa annua and a moderate infestation of 
goosegrass, convinced me that the scorched- 
earth method would yield the best long-range 
results, and would certainly be no more un­
sightly or unplayable than conditions already 
existing.

This is our approach to the problem at 
Baitusroi. I ask the reader to bear in mind that 
each club’s situation is unique. Procedures that 
have worked satisfactorily for us may be neither 
necessary nor desirable under different circum­
stances. But if you have the problem of poor 
fairway turf, you may be interested in the pro­
gram we have followed.

Our fairways consist of the typical northern 
mixture of bentgrasses and Poa annua. The 
summer of 1968 was hot and humid in this 
part of the country. By mid-August we had lost 
practically all Poa annua and the fairways were 
in terrible condition. I first contemplated aerat­
ing and slicing them in several directions and 
then overseeding. However, years of thatch ac­
cumulation was such that the thatching machine 
tore out enormous sections of sod, some as 
broad as the hood of an automobile, leaving 
large areas of bare soil.

After several discussions with my Green Com­
mittee Chairman and visits by Al Radko, Eastern 
Director of the USGA Green Section, and Dr. 
Ralph Engel of Rutgers University, the Board 
of Governors agreed to complete renovation of 
three of our worst fairways as a trial. We de­
cided to work on two-thirds of the fairway only, 
leaving one-third untouched so that play could 
continue: our members could always count on 
18 holes in play.

The results of the trial were most satisfactory, 
and we decided to proceed with total renovation 
of 29 holes over a three-year period—1969 
through 1971. The seven fairways we are not 
including in the program were done 15 to 20 
years ago by my predecessor, Ed Casey, who 
began a similar program. Unfortunately, it had 
to be abandoned because of adverse member 
reaction, but those seven fairways were the best 
on either of our courses many years after the 
job was done.

In the third week of July, 1969, all fairways 
to be renovated were sprayed with sodium 

Allen Grogan, Green Committee Chairman (left) and Joe Flaherty, Superintendent, inspecting the 
renovated portion of fairway on left. Note Poa annua on unimproved one-third

arsenite at a rate of 20 pounds per acre, a dose 
strong enough to kill all vegetation. After burn­
ing was complete, we made two passes over 
the treated areas with an aeroblade to break up 
the dead grass and thatch for subsequent re­
moval. All dead material was then pulled off 
the fairways with a York rake and removed to 
our compost.

A large percentage of old root fibers re­
mained in the soil. However, these later proved 
to be a distinct advantage in the prevention 
of excessive hardness of our heavy clay soil 
during the first year of new growth when the 
young grass was not sufficiently mature to pro­
vide a cushion of turf. The old root material 
also held the soil against erosion during heavy 
rains. It enabled free use of the tractor and 
spreader to reseed thin areas with no concern 
about tracking. Players were able to enter the 
renovated areas to retrieve golf balls, even after 
a rain, without sinking in mud and disturbing 
the grade of the fairway. This year when the 
new fairways are opened for play, I anticipate 
that this root fiber will provide more com­
fortable walking for our golfers until the grass 
has matured into a resilient turf. It provided 
many advantages.

With removal of the old thatch completed, 
we now had bare soil, and seedbed preparation 
was initiated. My first concern was to incor­
porate lime as deeply as possible into the soil. 
We applied lime to the treated areas at the rate 
of two tons per acre, followed by six to eight 

passes over the fairway with aerating machines.
These were set to the maximum possible 
depth. The transport wheels were completely 
off the ground and the machines were actually 
rolling on the spoons alone. We thereby 
achieved incorporation of the lime to a depth 
of about four inches and undoubtedly relieved 
soil compaction to the greatest possible degree.
We then made two more trips across the 
area, at right angles to each other with the 
aeroblade, pulverizing the soil clods that re­
mained.

The new fairways were seeded to a mixture 
of 60% Astoria and 40% Seaside bentgrass at 
the rate of 90 pounds of seed per acre. An 8- 
foot seeder was used and spread the seed 
satisfactorily without the necessity of mixing it 
with any fertilizer carrier.

All areas were dragged with a 10-foot section 
of cyclone fence to cover the seed. This did the 
job very well and required no weights or attach­
ments. One trip over the seedbed with our 
fairway rollers and the application of 200 
pounds per acre of 10-6-4 fertilizer completed 
the operation.

Bentgrass germination and coverage was 
again very satisfactory by October 15, and no 
winter damage apparent as of April 1, 1970. 
There is very little Poa annua on the renovated 
fairways, and I'm quite certain that the bulk of 
the Poa seed present was removed with the old 
thatch last August.

The York rake removes the thatch but leaves the root fiber which makes for a comfortable and firm 
seedbed.

The importance of 
making seed contact 
with soil. The pres­
ence of thatch, even 
though burned, pre­
vents new seed from 
germinating.

On April 9 thru 11 of this year we applied 
tricalcium arsenate to the renovated areas at a 
rate of 500 pounds of bulk material to the acre, 
or approximately six pounds of active ingredient 
per 1,000 square feet. We plan to continue this 
program in the future to inhibit Poa annua 
reinfestation.

A Special Situation

Fairways Number 2 and 4 on the Upper 
Course required a somewhat modified approach. 
Due to their topography, treatment with sodium 
arsenite and complete removal of all cover 
would result in an unjustifiably high risk of 
topsoil erosion should heavy rains occur before 
the new grass was well established.

On these two holes we applied tricalcium 
arsenate over the entire fairway at six pounds 
per 1,000 square feet in early April, 1969. By 
August 1 the Poa annua was completely eradi­
cated, with isolated patches of bentgrass re­
maining to protect the slopes from erosion. We 
then followed the same procedure as on the 
holes completely burned with sodium arsenite; 
i.e., aeration, pulverization, removal of the dead 
material with the York rake, limestone applica­
tion, more aeration, and finally seeding and 
fertilization.

I've heard the statement that when calcium 
arsenate eradicated our Poa annua, we would 
be pleasantly surprised to find a higher per­
centage of bent in the fairways than we origin­
ally thought present. In my case I found quite 
the opposite to be true. Many areas I had as­
sumed to be colonial bent proved most defi­
nitely to be Poa annua. Germination of the new 
bentgrass was just as successful on these two 
fairways, previously treated with calcium arsen­

ate, as on the areas where the chemical had 
not been applied before seeding.

Let The Member Know

The most important consideration of all in a 
renovation program of this magnitude is public 
relations. The approach must be from a man­
agement-public relations viewpoint rather than 
a strictly agronomic approach. The membership 
should be well prepared for the considerable, 
though temporary, inconvenience they will face 
on the golf course. A letter in which the pro­
gram was thoroughly discussed was sent to 
every member. Reasons for the necessity of 
renovation were carefully explained, operating 
procedures were outlined and the general scope 
of the project was detailed. We hoped to obtain 
not simply forbearance, but enthusiastic en­
dorsement of the program by the membership.
At no time was it necessary to close a hole. 
As explained earlier, one-third of each hole was 
left untouched from tee to green, and the reno­
vated portions treated as ground under repair.
This procedure may, at first glance, seem a 
bit awkward from a viewpoint of efficiency, but 
we believe the important goal is the treatment 
of a specified number of acres each year rather 
than the completion of an entire fairway at one 
time. Membership complaints are minimized 
when they can see work progressing as sched­
uled, and yet have a full 18 holes available for 
play at all times.

At the beginning of the program the Board 
of Directors must thoroughly understand that 
the club is at the threshold of what is, in es­
sence, a long-term rebuilding project, the frui­
tion of which is unlikely to be seen in its en­

JULY 1970

13

tirety for five years. Each member of the Board 
must be prepared to face considerable dissatis­
faction at about the three-year mark, when 
some members will become understandably ex­
asperated. They are tired of arriving at the club 
each August to find another section of the 
course torn up.

The Board must be convinced that the pro­
gram will yield a great improvement when it is 
completed, and it must be resolved to see it 
through to completion even in the face of ad­
verse reaction. In the absence of such resolu­
tion, the program will probably never be com­
pleted, and would be better not started. The 
end result would be a golf course that is a 
patchwork of good and poor turf, creating a 
drone of dissatisfaction for the indefinite future.
I have described the general approach of our 
club to the upgrading of fairway turf to a 
standard commensurate with the modern de­
mands of golf. It is an admittedly drastic 
method, but in my opinion it's the one that 
will produce the best results in the shortest 
time. The areas renovated are completed in 
one operation; there is no necessity for sub­
sequent treatments in following years except 
for the maintenance of the calcium arsenate 

level. It’s an operation which lends itself to 
organization, mechanization, and efficiency.

Our costs, including labor, seed, lime and 
fertilizer amounted to $400 per acre. The major 
factor which will cause variations in this figure 
is fluctuations in the price of seed, which 
promises to be considerable in the coming 
years. The cost of calcium arsenate is not in­
cluded in the per-acre renovation figure, since 
it will be applied annually in the future and, 
hence, is included in our regular maintenance 
budget with other herbicides.

I feel that our approach to fairway improve­
ment is worth consideration by clubs facing ex­
tensive loss of fairway turf each summer due 
to undependable Poa annua and unmanageable 
accumulations of thatch. The success of the 
program depends on careful research of the 
problems at the particular club, determination 
of management to pursue it to fruition, and 
thoughtful organization of the mechanical pro­
cedures to be followed so that the job can be 
done with maximum efficiency. To date, I am 
very well pleased with the results. At Baltusrol 
we are on our way to finer summer fairway turf, 
adaptable to modern demands even under 
stress conditions.

The thatch is raked into the rough and soon removed.

Woody ornamentals placed according to design throughout a golf course provide reference points for 
the golfer and create vistas of scenic beauty which change when viewed from different directions.

Plants to Enhance Environment

by ELIOT C. ROBERTS, Chairman, Department of Ornamental Horticulture, University of Florida

V(^e are confronted with a constant change of 

environment from rural areas to the central 
city, and we must know what particular plants 
will do well in an almost unlimited number of 
situations. Further, we must learn to manipulate 
the environment so that the plants which are 
required to produce a desired effect, whether 
beauty, function, or economy, will thrive.

In addition to the influence that the environ­
ment has on the use of ornamental plants, the 
plants themselves have a profound influence on 
our environment. This concept of modification 
or enhancement of man’s environment by use 
of ornamental plants must be further developed 
and recognized by horticulturists and the public 
alike.

Ornamental plants are used in five varying 
environmental situations, i.e., controlled (golf 

clubhouses, residences, offices, museums, thea­
ters, conference centers, hospitals, restaurants, 
enclosed malls, etc.) urban (downtown concrete 
canyons, high rise developments, single and 
multiple family residences, golf courses, city 
parks, outdoor shopping malls, street plantings, 
etc.), suburban (individual and multiple home­
sites, industrial and government facilities, me­
morial parks, golf courses, recreational parks, 
botanical gardens, conservation areas, etc.), tran­
sitional (freeways, highways, rapid transit sys­
tems, airports, helioports, greenbelts, etc.), ru­
ral (individual residences, town squares, com­
munity forests, small parks, shelterbelts, wind­
breaks, highways, recreation areas, etc.).

In each of these situations the placement of 
the proper plant in the proper place, and the 
proper culture and maintenance of these plants

JULY 1970

15

Reflections of trees and 
shrubs in a small pond 
contribute to the en­
hancement of this envi­
ronment for man's en­
joyment.

can create a work of art that will make that 
place more livable, more pleasing to view, more 
restful, more conducive to business, or more 
desirable for shopping, dining, or conversation. 
In other situations, the landscape architect and 
ornamental horticulturist may create golf 
courses and other recreational facilities that so 
modify the local environment that they may 
revitalize tired, discouraged, or frustrated men 
and women. Highway design and its relationship 
to roadside development form but another ex­
ample of the important nature of proper use 
and maintenance of ornamental plants. Finally, 
as we become more concerned with the restora­
tion of our cities and in preventing the degrada­
tion of industrial, business, and residential 
areas, we must recognize the essential nature 
of the ornamental plant and the landscape plan 
in modifying environment.

Emphasis on Art

The use of ornamental plants has a closer 
relationship to the arts than to the sciences. 
Design research concerned with ornamentals is 
as important to ornamental horticulture as de­
sign research is to the automotive industry. In 
other (agricultural) terms, it may be likened in 
importance to using research directed toward 
development of new and improved products 

from existing substances. We have a wide va­
riety of existing products (ornamental plant 
materials); we are in great need of research to 
determine new uses for these plants in the 
modification of man’s functional and aesthetic 
environment. Design is a major criteria in these 
areas.

The problem in obtaining recognition for this 
research is related to the fact that ornamental 
and landscape horticulture bridges an area be­
tween arts and sciences. Agriculture is readily 
identified with the science aspects, but it tends 
to avoid confrontation with the arts aspects. The 
fact that design research is more like research 
in the liberal arts and quite different from sci­
entific research is no reason to ignore it or fail 
to recognize its importance.

Another complicating fact relates to the reali­
zation that very few ornamental horticulturists 
are qualified to conduct design research. Most 
research in this area at the college level results 
from theses for the Master of Landscape Archi­
tecture degree. Other research is conducted by 
state highway departments, various agencies 
concerned with forestry and recreation and by 
architectural concerns. It seems likely that in­
creased research in this area will come from 
public and private agencies outside of agri­
culture.

16

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

Business Aspects

Generally speaking, people who purchase 
ornamental plants have little appreciation for 
the relationship between price and quality of 
the plant. Further there is a widespread belief 
that landscaping information and landscape 
plants are free to hand on from neighbor to 
neighbor, and that these items have little rela­
tion to any specific business structure. Rather 
than luxury items, ornamentals should be clas­
sified as essential to environment.

Further, the value of the ornamental in­
creases; does not depreciate. Of course we 
recognize that this depends on good manage­
ment, and this is where ornamental horticul­
tural research and extension programs have an 
influence. The importance of agricultural eco­
nomics research and extension programs lies in 
determining ways and means of improving busi­
ness aspects of ornamentals production and in 
providing data on the value of these plants in 
the environment.

The value of ornamental plants is partly 
aesthetic and difficult to assess in terms of 
money, and partly economic, since it involves 
the value of fertilizers, irrigation systems, pest 
control practices, mowers, and maintenance 
equipment, and requires service by specialists. 
All of this (value of ornamental plants) is agri­
culture's contact with tourism, an increasingly 
important aspect of the economy in many parts 
of the country, and one which has direct impli­
cations with golf and golf course facilities.

The production and use of ornamental plants 
in the United States is a far larger and more 
important series of interrelated activities than 
agricultural economists have recognized. A Penn­
sylvania turfgrass survey conducted by the 
Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture indi­
cates that turfgrass (flowers, shrubs, and trees 
not included) was the largest single agricultural 
enterprise in the state, equal to 63% of the 
total cash receipts from the sale of all agri­
cultural products. We need to recognize the im­
portance of information of this type concerning 
ornamental plants.

A Further Resource

Much has been said concerning the value of 
projects involving ornamental plants as a means 
of promoting more rapid recovery from mental 
and physical illness. A patient who has the de­
sire to recover because he has something en­
joyable to do, such as a job to accomplish, 
often has a better rehabilitative record than a 
patient who has lost interest in life. Although 
not everyone is interested in ornamental plants 
and in natural beauty, most individuals ap­
preciate flowers and foliage plants and are con­
cerned about their preservation and culture.

Perhaps something about the fragile nature of 
a plant makes the patient want to protect and 
nurture it, and in so doing, gain strength and 
satisfaction for himself. Whatever the reason, 
sufficient evidence exists to indicate that the 
concept of therapy through use of ornamental 
plants is a vital force, and that this procedure 
should be further researched. Horticulturists, 
along with medical doctors, psychologists, psy­
chiatrists, sociologists, and landscape architects 
should be encouraged to develop projects and 
procedures involving ornamental plants for use 
in recovery programs with patients with different 
medical backgrounds and prognoses for re­
covery.

Summary

We are thus witnessing the development of a 
new concept involving the importance of orna­
mental plants in our environment. Plant ma­
terials, placed in accordance with up-to-date 
concepts in landscape design, modify the en­
vironment so that the mood of the individual 
is affected. Frame of mind and state of feeling 
are influenced by our surroundings, for better 
or for worse. We should make every effort to 
see that our surroundings contribute to the 
betterment of man.

In order to accomplish this, the art of orna­
mental plant use must be co-featured with the 
science of plant culture. Anyone who enjoys the 
beauty of landscape plantings should recognize 
the importance of imaginative uses of plant 
materials in enhancing our environment.

Characterization of business and economic 
aspects of ornamental plant production and use 
is essential in planning for future needs. The 
potential for service is great. Shortsightedness 
in preparing for the challenge ahead would be 
tragic.

Finally, the importance of ornamental plant 
use is not only to be identified with group 
response, but it also can become highly per­
sonal, as evidenced through horticultural ther­
apy.

In all our effort to feed, clothe, and house 
ourselves we must not jeopardize our future by 
failing to satisfy our hunger for natural beauty.

Green Section Staff Change
A. Robert Mazur, Eastern Agronomist with the 
Green Section Staff, has resigned and entered 
the University of Illinois where he plans to con­
tinue work toward a Ph.D. degree. Mazur joined 
the Green Section Staff in 1968 after com­
pleting his MS studies at the University of 
Rhode Island.

JULY 1970

17

Better Turf Through Research

Trees may form a textured background behind greens or along the sides of fairways that not only 
create an atmosphere of natural beauty but also decrease awareness of others nearby.

Research is an investment in a better future. 

And it costs money.

In the United States today, approximately 
3% of our Gross National Product is devoted 
to research in all forms. If just 1% of the 
nation’s total annual golf course maintenance 
bill went to research, we would have over $1 
million for turfgrass studies. Think of it; $1 
million annually for turfgrass research! In 
reality, less than one-tenth of this is being spent.
There is now a need—a serious need—for new 
research in this field. Recreation has become an 
essential part of modern living. Golf is a leader 
in participant sports and golf is played on grass. 
For this reason, the Green Section of the USGA 
has become a leader in turfgrass research since 

1920. The need now is to move on to the prob­
lems of today: to solve them and to assure 
better golfing turf for tomorrow.

To date our Research and Education Fund 
has operated on extremely limited funds, yet a 
great deal has been accomplished because of 
our coordinated program and a careful, studied 
project selection. A great deal more could be 
accomplished if more funds were available. Re­
search costs money and this is an appeal—a 
reasoned appeal—for your help and the help of 
all those interested in turfgrasses, in golf, and 
in the future.

Within the last five years our Research and 
Education Fund furnished support of projects 
in the following amounts:

Institution

Amount Contributed

University of California—Davis
University of California—Riverside
Georgia Coastal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton
Kansas State University
Michigan State University
Oklahoma State University
Pennsylvania State University
Purdue University
University of Rhode Island
Rutgers University
Texas A&M University
Virginia Polytechnic Institute

$ 2,000.00
5,000.00
7,500.00
5,000.00
18,000.00
5,000.00
4,000.00
1,000.00
6,750.00
12,000.00
10,000.00
2,000.00

18

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

In the past, the work has been supported by 
allocation of a portion of membership dues in 
the USGA, by part of the proceeds from Na­
tional Golf Day, by donations from the Masters 
Tournament and charitable Pro-Am events, by 
the New England Golf Association, and from 
individual donations. As contributions have in­
creased, grants for further research have been 
liberalized, but there still is a critical need for 
greater income to support more extensive in­
vestigation into these projects and the many 
other problems encountered in improving golf 
course turf.

In 1970, because of the work and interest 
of the USGA Executive Committee, $32,000 is 
earmarked for research. This is approximately 
40% more than the total allocated in previous 
years and this is a step in the right direction. 
Funds to this date in 1970 were raised from 
these few sources (figures are approximate):

National Golf Fund 

$15,400.00

* Augusta (Ga.) National Golf

Club 

2,500.00
New England Golf Association 1,350.00
Individuals 
4,150.00
USGA (allocated from mem­

bership dues) 

*1969 Contribution

20,000.00

Golf owes a lot to organizations and indi­
viduals who have faithfully contributed in the 
past, yet this pitifully small list shows one fact 
to be clearly evident: that a nationally coordi­
nated fund raising effort is needed, and needed 
now if golf is to progress with the times. To 
paraphrase a Churchillism: “Never in the his­
tory of golf has so much been owed by so 
many to so few.”

Problems to Solve

• Better grasses for fairways—breeding of 
dwarf types for play by the Rules of Golf 
or so-called summer rules play. Our avowed 
aim is the elimination of “winter rules” 
forever, and to breed types that are more 
winter hardy than grasses presently used.

• Research into water management, 

plant-soil relationships.

• Superior grasses for putting greens. Perfect 

surfaces; less grain.

• Safer turfgrass pesticides for a cleaner 

environment.

• Research into the microenvironment.

• Studies in sand uniformity for bunk­

ers.

• Traffic studies—vehicular and foot traffic 

problems.

• Stronger tee grasses—strains that 

make quicker recovery.

• Maintenance and management aids—labor- 
saving equipment—more efficient machines 
—new techniques, new ideas in machinery.

• Controls for root-rotting fungi.

o The value of a golf course to the environment.

• Trees—for strategy and aesthetics.

® Keeping sand cleaner and whiter in bunkers.

Problems Now Being Researched

• Basic studies of Poa annua designed to pro­
vide insight into habits of this plant and 
better understanding of problems asso­
ciated with its growth.

• Degradation of thatch and mat. Play 
will be greatly enhanced when 
thatch and mat are controlled.

• Breeding of grasses for improved fairway 
types of Kentucky bluegrass, bentgrass and 
bermudagrass.

• Spring Dead Spot.

• Techniques to insure better success with 
renovation of greens, tees and fairways.

• Nutritional requirements of turf­

grasses.

o Continued studies of weed, insect and disease 
control . . . better controls of present 
problems and a search to solve new ones 
as they arise.

Some Major Accomplishments

• Developed a method of putting green con­
struction and physical soil analysis that 
has world-wide application. Produced a mo­
tion picture in color demonstrating the 
application of this construction method. 
The movie is available for showing to 
groups.

• Initiated studies and discovered safe 
materials for control of devastating 
diseases of putting green grasses. 
Although discovered in the 1920s, 
they are still being used today.

JULY 1970

19

The cool refreshing environment of the clubhouse is predicted as the golfer approaches through 
this inviting area of shade.

• Selected and developed improved grasses— 
the C strains of bentgrass, Merion blue­
grass, Meyer zoysia, several bermuda- 
grasses.

• Set guidelines for today's maintenance 
and management of golf course 
turfgrasses.

• Researched 2, 4-D for large-scale golf course 
use. (Remember when golf courses were 
solid weeds?)

• Supported work that brought many 
improved bermudagrasses to golf 
courses in the South and through­
out the world where only southern 
grasses can be grown.

• Soil compaction and techniques to minimize 

it.

• Traffic studies resulted in the modification of 

golf spikes and shoes.

• Researched nutritional requirements of 

golf turfgrasses.

• Published and made available results of re­
search to everyone interested in golf course 
management. Published the book Turf Man­
agement, first of its kind and a complete 
and comprehensive book on the mainte­
nance and management of golf course turf­
grasses.

The Green Section of the United States Golf 
Association is a scientific agency, established 
in 1920, whose sole mission is to assist in prob­
lems of golf course upkeep. The agency through 
which the USGA raises funds for worthwhile pro­
jects is the U.S.G.A. Green Section Research 
and Education Fund, Inc.

• Researched effective controls for the 
major golf course weeds and in­
sects.

This is how it functions:

(1) Needs are recognized by Green Section 
staff members as they visit subscribing USGA 

20

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

members throughout the nation. Turf manage­
ment problems are discussed with golf course 
superintendents and club officials.

(2) Available research funds are then allo­
cated to state agricultural experiment stations 
and colleges for specific studies on golf course 
related problems. Studies are performed by 
trained scientists and researchers expert in the 
particular area to be studied.

(3) Research results are evaluated under 

playing conditions by the Green Section staff.

(4) The total program is planned and co­
ordinated by the Green Section staff on a na­
tional scale. It is the only agency so equipped. 
Thus funds are placed more efficiently, and 
duplication of effort is avoided. This is an im­
portant point. Duplication of effort is research 
money wasted. Research results then are docu­
mented, published and readily available to every­

one interested in golf course maintenance and 
management.

(5) Funds raised through the U.S.G.A. Green 
Section Research and Education Fund, Inc., 
benefit every club and every golfer.

Contributions to the U.S.G.A. Green Section 
Research and Education Fund, Inc., are tax 
deductible in accordance with the Internal Reve­
nue Code, section 501 C(3). Every dollar re­
ceived is spent for research, no contribution 
money is used for USGA administrative purposes. 
Contributions in any amount are welcome. Con­
tribute with confidence that your money will in­
sure better turfgrasses, better maintenance and 
management practices, better playing condi­
tions, and better golf courses for the future.

Make checks payable to the U.S.G.A. Green 
Section Research and Education Fund, Inc., and 
send them to the United States Golf Associa­
tion, 40 East 38th Street, New York, New York 
10016.

U.S.G.A. Green Section
Research and Education Fund, Inc.
“Golf House”
40 East 38th Street
New York, New York 10016

Gentlemen:

I am interested in contributing to the U.S.G.A. Green Section Research and Education 
Fund, Inc.

[J My contribution is enclosed.

□ I would like more information. Please have one of your committee members 

contact me.

Signed________________________________________________ __

Add ress _ _________________________________________ ________

Make checks payable to the U.S.G.A. Green Section Research and Education Fund, Inc. 

Contributions are tax deductible in accordance with Internal Revenue Code, section 
501 C(3).

JULY 1970

21

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD 
JULY 1970

TURF TWISTERS

DOUBLE IT UP?

Question: Presently I use a mixture of phenyl mercuric acetate and wetting agent to spray 
my fairways during the growing season to help protect them against disease, wilt, and 
crabgrass. Could I add 2,4-D to this mixture to control some broadleaf weeds at the 
same time? (Ohio)

Answer: No, 2,4-D would cause this mixture to act far more strongly as a herbicide, and 
the disease and wilt prevention qualities would be greatly reduced or lost entirely. Also, 
this mixture, applied in summer, could be potent enough to burn the grass. 2,4-D alone 
or in mixture with other herbicides is used in spring or fall, and very rarely at other times.

WET IT UP?

Question: Do soil penetrants or wetting agents offer any help in reducing soil salinity? 
(California)

Answer: Wetting agents provide little or no benefit in reducing soil salinity. In certain 
types of soils, they may offer a temporary means of water penetration. There is no sub­
stitute for good surface drainage, especially where salts are encountered. Use of tile drain 
lines and slit trenches would certainly be preferable and more effective than chemical 
wetting agents.

CALL US UP?

Question: Our club is in trouble and in need of help. We want to improve playing con­
ditions. Can you help us and how soon? (Tennessee)

Answer: The Green Section Visiting Service is available to all USGA Member Clubs in the 
continental United States. We would be happy to assist you by direct visit and on-the-spot 
consultation. Contact any Green Section office (see inside the front cover) for details and 
dates.