USGA® GREEN SECTION ~B| 

Record

January/February 2000

Volume 38, Number 1 

A.

—- --------- -

Fairway 
Overseeding

A PUBLICATION ON TURFGRASS MANAGEMENT

BY THE UNITED STATES GOLF ASSOCIATION®

J894

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000
Volume 38, Number 1

Cover Photo:
Agronomic practices such as 
vertical mowing are instrumental 
in providing good seed/soil 
contact for establishment of 
the overseeding grasses.

Scalped plugs can be avoided. 
Technique can make the difference. 
See page 6.

Getting everything you want is not going 
to fit into the day-to-day fluctuations of 
the golf course. See page 24.

1
Fairway Overseeding: Does It Make Dollars or Sense?
Objectively evaluating the impacts of fairway overseeding will 
determine if your course is ready to make the necessary sacrifices.
By Brian M. Maloy
6
Hole Placement
The art of cutting the hole.
By Keith A. Happ
8
Help Needed: Equipment Manager
Training candidates to fill open positions in the golf turf industry.
By Tinker Clift
10
Do You Know The Rules?
You should. Here’s why.
By R. A. (Bob) Brame
11
Effective Use of Seawater Irrigation on Turfgrass
The second in a three-part series on water quality.
By R. R. Duncan, R. N. Carrow, and Mike Huck
18
Pond Aeration
Do not overlook this tool to manage and 
improve water quality in your ponds.
By Jim Skorulski
20
Sharing the Success of Good Stewardship
A successful effort to create environmental education 
opportunities right in a school’s backyard.
By Chris Pekarek

22
The Green Keeper
By Edgar A. Guest
23
News Notes
24
Consistent Perfection
Golf course management in an “everything now” society.
By Bob Brame
26
Turf Twisters

Where concentrated cart traffic occurs due to bunkers, mounds, or trees, the bermudagrass will transition poorly.

Fairway Overseeding:
Does It Make Dollars or Sense?

Objectively evaluating the impacts of fairway overseeding will determine 
if your course is ready to make the necessary sacrifices.

by BRIAN M. MALOY

Fairway overseeding is a 

practice that has become sur­
rounded in controversy at many 
golf courses in the southern half of the 

United States, where bermudagrass is 
the dominant turfgrass species. The 
benefits of winter overseeding are of 
course widely publicized in popular 
golf magazines where advertisers make 
every effort to lure golfers to their 
courses with glossy pictures of emerald 
green fairways. Unfortunately, the side 
effects that become evident during the 
following summer season are rarely, if 
ever, advertised as they would send 
golfers running to neighboring courses 
that do not overseed their fairways.

The need to overseed is best deter­
mined by whether a course relies on 
making the bulk of its income dur­
ing the cooler months of the year or 
the warmer months of the year. For 
example, there are many golf courses 
located in the southern states that 
typically receive the majority of their 
annual rounds between November and 
June by attracting seasonal residents, 
northern vacationers, and business 
travelers.

Courses that elect not to overseed 
their fairways generally are those with 
a majority of year-round residents who 
play all season long. Unfortunately, it 
is at these very courses that problems 

develop when a small group of golfers 
want the fairways to be green in winter 
and in perfect playing condition during 
the summer. Analyzing six common 
arguments used to promote fairway 
overseeding can reveal serious flaws, 
which, in turn, may change your mind 
on this topic.

Flawed Arguments

The first argument is that overseed­
ing will increase the total number of 
rounds played throughout the year. 
This statement is rarely valid for 
crowded courses that generally find it 
impossible to squeeze another player 
onto the starter’s sheet. A good case in

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000

1

The fourth argument is that fairway 
overseeding improves the winter sur­
vival of bermudagrass. This is not true, 
according to Dr. Robert Carrow, Pro­
fessor of Turfgrass Stress Physiology at 
the University of Georgia. Bermuda­
grass under stress from competition 
has a lower percentage of stored carbo­
hydrates, which in turn increases the 
percentage of water in the viable tissue. 
Hence, freezing temperatures below 
10°F create ice crystals inside individual 
cells, causing their outer walls to burst 
open. In other words, the bermuda­
grass is more prone to the phenomenon 
of winterkill.

Dr. Carrow reports that some over­
seeded courses occasionally fare better 
when more irrigation is applied on the 
fairways. This reduces the potential of 
winter desiccation and/or may provide 
some insulation during short periods of 
extreme cold.

The fifth argument should receive" 
little credence without a survey that 
accurately details the pros and cons 
of overseeding. Those with an agenda 
often say, “We’ve spoken with a 
majority of the membership and they 
want the course overseeded this win­
ter.” The first question that should 
come to mind is, “Were the individuals 
surveyed told that in many cases the 
true cost of overseeding exceeds 
$100,000 and that the condition of the 
course next summer will more than 
likely suffer as a result?” Odds are 
these details were kept secret.

To determine if the membership of 
The Country Club of North Carolina 
wanted the course overseeded, a survey 
was taken in 1989. The results showed 
that 14% of the members were in favor 
of overseeding, 54% were against over­
seeding, and 31% had no opinion. 
What is interesting is that the members 
favoring overseeding played just 2,000 
rounds per year, whereas those against 
overseeding played 15,000 rounds per 
year, and those with no opinion played 
less than 3,000 rounds per year. As 
made evident by this survey, a decision 
to overseed fairways at a particular 
course may be more of a case of the 
squeaky wheel getting the grease than 
the actual desire of a majority of the 
membership. (Note: The Country Club 
of North Carolina currently overseeds 
18 of 36 holes to satisfy all segments of 
the membership.)

Lastly, argument six: fairway over­
seeding will produce more so-called 
high-quality rounds. Depending on 
the seasonal use of a golf course, it is 
actually possible that overseeding can

Indian Creek Golf Course, Dallas, Texas, tested the theory that overseeding will 
increase the total number of rounds played throughout the year. The overseeding did 
not create sufficient additional rounds of golf from October through March to warrant 
its expense. The length of day and climatic conditions had a greater impact on the 
number of rounds played.

point is Indian Creek Golf Course, 
which is a 36-hole facility in the Dallas 
metropolitan area. Given that there are 
two courses, they decided to test the 
argument by overseeding the fairways 
on one and not the other. As Table 1 
reveals, there was no significant dif­
ference between the total number of 
rounds played at each of the two 
courses from October through March. 
In fact, the greatest difference in the 
totals was due to inclement weather 
and shorter days that affected the total 
number of rounds equally on both 
courses.

The second argument in favor of 
fairway overseeding is that it does not 
really cost as much as some experts 
say, leading to the conclusion that 
the practice should not be based on 
economics. Advocates of overseeding 
usually try to propose that the cost 
does not go beyond that of the seed, 
which ranges from $350 to $550 per 
acre. In reality, however, the total cost 
is much greater.

For most courses in the Southwest, 
the cost of overseeding ranges from 
$750 to $1,500 per acre since the 
seeding rates used are much higher. 
Additional costs to consider include 
the expense of water, fertilizer, equip­
ment maintenance, fuel, and labor for 
additional mowing. Often overlooked 
costs are the need to purchase ber­
mudagrass sod for areas that transition 
poorly the following summer and the 

2

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

purchase or rental of additional equip­
ment to complete the process of over­
seeding.

The third argument for fairway over­
seeding is that the transition back to 
bermudagrass the following summer 
need not cause problems, as it can be 
successful if managed properly. Just ask 
any Green Section agronomist in a 
region where overseeding is practiced 
and he will tell you that the transition 
from perennial ryegrass to bermuda­
grass is rarely pretty. Transition prob­
lems are as much a part of overseeding 
as pain is a part of dental work. Further 
complicating the challenge of a smooth 
transition are the many new varieties 
of perennial ryegrass that have become 
more heat tolerant and, as a result, 
more persistent during early summer. 
This persistence increases the compe­
tition for space, nutrients, water, and 
sunlight between perennial ryegrass 
and bermudagrass, with the latter 
suffering long-term consequences.

Consider this analogy: Overseeding 
fairways at a rate of 400 pounds of seed 
per acre is equivalent to spreading 11 
weed seeds per square inch across your 
home lawn and then expecting the 
bermudagrass to emerge unscathed the 
following spring. Now, raise the seed­
ing rate to 1,000 pounds per acre as 
is done at desert southwest resort 
courses. Can you really believe that one 
turf species can be grown on top of 
another without causing problems?

negatively affect the total number of 
high-quality rounds played. The result 
depends on (a) which seasons the 
majority of rounds are played, (b) the 
duration of normal bermudagrass dor­
mancy, and (c) the duration and 
severity of disruption caused by the 
annual transition from perennial rye­
grass to bermudagrass.

To analyze this situation, compare 
the two following courses with differing 
annual usage in the Green Section’s 
Southwest Region. The first course is 
The Southern California Golf Associ­
ation Members’ Club at Rancho Cali­
fornia (SCGA) located in Murrieta, 
California. This course is a daily-fee 
operation that has a loyal year-round 
clientele. The peak of the golfing year 
occurs between April and October (see 
Table 2) when the extended daylight 
hours allow SCGA members to enjoy 
the course. The second course is Sun 
City Vistoso Golf Club located in 
Tucson, Arizona. This course is host to 
a desert resort community where up to 
60% of the golfers are temporary resi­
dents and the peak of the golfing year 
occurs between November and May 
(see Table 3).

Based on the following scenarios, 
winter overseeding affects each course 
quite differently:

Scenario 1: Assumes overseeding is 
not practiced and that poor playing 
conditions are defined as dormant fair­
ways from December through March.

Scenario 2: Assumes the course is 
closed during October to complete 
overseeding and that poor playing con­
ditions are defined as immature, thin 
turf during November and December 
and July 15th through September, when 
the effects of transition occur.

To see how overseeding would serve 
the two courses differently, please note 
Table 4.

The quality and playability of the 
perennial ryegrass during the winter 
and the degree of disruption caused 
by the transition back to bermudagrass 
the following summer are the criteria 
used to judge the success of fairway 
overseeding. The whole process can 
best be described as a balancing act 
between the maintenance practices re­
quired for each of two turfgrass species. 
If overseeding is a sound decision for 
your course, you must have realistic 
expectations and understand that with 
the good comes some bad. Also, you 
must be aware that certain sacrifices 
will be required that ultimately inter­
rupt course usage, increase operating

The SCGA Members Club in California is an example of a facility that receives 
balanced year-round play. Spring, summer, and fall play is slightly higher than the 
winter months, with a total of 61,600 rounds for the year.

The majority of the 70,000 annual rounds at Sun City Vistoso Golf Club in Arizona
take place from November through May. During the shorter days of winter, two 
shotgun starts per day are required, five days per week.

Example:

Table 4

California

Arizona

Overseeding Scenario

#1

#2

#1

#2

Rounds Played — 
Good Conditions

Rounds Played — 
Poor Conditions

Rounds Lost 
Annually

46,150

38,000

48,800

52,500

15,450

18,600

26,200

17,500

0

5,000

0

5,000 3

When analyzed quantitatively, the number of rounds played under good conditions 
justifies overseeding the Arizona course, but not the California course.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000

3

costs, and disrupt summer playing 
conditions.

Proper Timing — Setting overseed­
ing dates based upon the last scheduled 
tournament of the season can be a 
formula for failure. Research indicates 
that the optimum time to establish seed 
is when soil temperatures are between 
72°F and 78°F at a four-inch depth. 
This equates to air temperatures of 
between 60°F and 70°F at night and 
80°F and 90°F during the day. Over­
seeding too early increases the potential 
of seedling diseases and bermudagrass 
competition, while overseeding too 
late increases the number of weeks 
required to produce complete coverage 
due to slowed growth from cooler 
temperatures.

Monitoring soil temperatures to de­
termine the optimum planting date is 
far superior to blindly selecting a 
calendar date. Since this method is not 
entirely practical, selecting a calendar 
date based upon historical soil tem­
peratures is the most common course 
of action.

Proper Seedbed Preparation — 
One of the greatest causes of a poor 
winter overseeding is improper seed­
bed preparation. Reducing the density 
of the bermudagrass canopy through 
moderate vertical mowing is important 
to allow good seed-to-soil contact. 
Vertical mowing is disruptive to play, 
but essential for success!

As the growth of bermudagrass slows 
in early fall, it begins storing carbo­
hydrates that help it tolerate low tem­
peratures and provide a source of 
energy to fuel spring green-up. If 
vertical mowing is done while daytime 
temperatures are above 85°F, the still 
actively growing bermudagrass will 

expend stored carbohydrates to im­
mediately repair and recover from the 
damage. With this in mind, severe 
vertical mowing should be avoided 
during overseeding preparation be­
cause it will reduce bermudgrass 
hardiness in the spring, therefore pro­
ducing a poor transition. (If excess 
thatch needs to be removed via aerifi­
cation to make seed-to-soil contact, it 
should be scheduled at least 30 days 
prior to overseeding, while the ber­
mudagrass is actively growing, to avoid 
spotty or blotchy results from seed 
germinating in open holes.)

Unrestricted Watering—After seed­
ing, irrigation should be applied three 
to seven times per day for seven to 
ten days to facilitate germination. Here 
again, the practice of overseeding un­
avoidably disrupts playing conditions 
in the fall. Late evening watering must 
be avoided, since seedlings that remain 
wet all night often develop disease 
problems.

Irrigation System — All other fac­
tors being equal, the quality of over­
seeding depends largely on adequate 
quantities of uniformly distributed 
water applied frequently throughout 
the day. For a successful winter over­
seeding, it is imperative to have a state- 
of-the-art irrigation system capable of 
being programmed for repetitive water­
ing cycles. Replacing a poor irrigation 
system to support the practice of over­
seeding usually costs in the neighbor­
hood of $1,300,000.

Closing the Course — To produce 
optimum playing conditions from 
December through June, courses in the 
Desert Southwest typically will be 
closed for the month of October. This 
is essential because of the disruption 

Most golfers prefer the dark green color of perennial ryegrass. Unfortunately, due to 
the improved heat tolerance of the perennial ryegrasses, they compete with the 
bermudagrass base longer into the summer season.

4

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

caused by vertical mowing, seeding, 
and, most of all, frequent watering.

Traffic Control — The additional 
moisture needed for seed germination 
causes large wet areas that, when com­
bined with cart traffic, cause significant 
soil compaction and physical seedling 
damage. For these reasons courses that 
close for less than 30 days should have 
continuous paths, enabling them to 
restrict cart traffic until the seedlings 
mature. If the course is not closed and 
traffic cannot be restricted, the quality 
of the overseeding will be greatly 
diminished.

Chemical Budget — Various herbi­
cides and plant growth regulators, such 
as diquat, mefluidide, and maleic 
hydrazide, have been used with mixed 
results to reduce bermudagrass growth 
or desiccate its foliage to reduce vertical 
mowing requirements. Most recently, 
trinexapac-ethyl has been shown to 
effectively reduce bermudagrass growth 
with less severe side effects. Although 
the purpose of the trinexapac-ethyl 
application is to reduce bermudagrass 
growth during seed germination, it can 
also increase density. Therefore, vertical 
mowing is essential to encourage seed 
penetration into the canopy.

Seed Budget — Fungicide-treated 
seed is inexpensive, and it is the best in­
surance against seedling diseases. This 
is particularly important for courses 
that are located in areas with high 
humidity and precipitation. Having the 
seed treated will increase its cost by just 
5c per pound or $2.50 per bag.

Equipment Budget — Mowers must 
be maintained with razor-sharp reels to 
prevent pulling up developing seedlings 
or producing a ragged cut on mature 
turf. Cool-season grasses used for over­
seeding perform best when maintained 
with lightweight mowers to reduce 
wear and tear on turning areas on fair­
ways. Heavy-duty mowing units are 
needed for overseeding, scalping prepa­
ration, and to effectively penetrate an 
actively growing bermudagrass canopy 
to reduce thatch development. Rotary 
mowing equipment is necessary to 
produce the highest quality overseeded 
roughs during winter. To avoid serious 
scalping of bermudagrass roughs dur­
ing the summer, reel-type mowing 
equipment is required. In essence, two 
complete mowing equipment inven­
tories are needed to provide optimum 
winter and summer conditions when 
maintaining both cool-season and 
warm-season grasses.

Seedbed preparation during over­
seeding creates a dusty working envi­

ronment that can damage equipment. 
Hydraulic oil coolers, radiators, and 
air filters become plugged with debris, 
causing overheating and severe me­
chanical wear. This increased wear, 
combined with the additional winter 
mowing requirements, shortens the 
useful life expectancy of equipment by 
15% to 20%.

Species Selection — Blends of im­
proved perennial ryegrasses typically 
are used for overseeding due to their 
rapid germination and establishment 
rates and dark green color. Poa trivialis 
use is reserved primarily for greens and 
occasionally tees in moderate climates 
where more serious transition prob­
lems are likely to occur. The slower 
germination and establishment rates of 
Poa trivialis, however, are found to be 
undesirable when compared to peren­
nial ryegrass. Fine fescues also have 
been tried for overseeding, but they 
cannot match the density and color 
provided by perennial ryegrass. More 
recently, research is focusing on 
developing intermediate ryegrasses that 
lack the ability to persist into the heat 
of summer.

Seeding Rate — The normal rate for 
fairway overseeding ranges from 400 to 
600 pounds of perennial ryegrass per 
acre. It is not unusual, however, to hear 
reports of seeding rates as high as 800 

to 1,100 pounds per acre in the Desert 
Southwest to improve early season 
density. Besides nearly doubling the 
seed cost per acre, these increased rates 
have a negative impact on bermuda­
grass the following summer.
Conclusion

Obviously, there are a number of 
factors that need to be considered in 
determining if fairway overseeding is 
appropriate for your facility. In fact, 
several sacrifices must be made by 
golfers in order to enjoy excellent over­
seeded fairways during the winter and 
spring. Failure to make the necessary 
concessions will result in an inferior 
fairway overseeding. More often than 
not, the difference between what the 
golfers expect and what can realisti­
cally be achieved will add up to 
disappointment.

References
Beard, J. B. (1992). The Texas System for 
Winter Overseeding Warm-Season Turfs. 
Texas Turfgrass Research. 1992. TAES 
Consol. PR-5005:76-77.
Bishop, D. (1995). Avoiding Overseeding 
Transition Pitfalls. Golf Course Manage­
ment. 63(9):60-61.
Duble, R. (1993). Overseeding Bermuda­
grass Turf. Texas Turfgrass. 46(1):6.
Duble, R. (1993). Spring Transition in 
Bermudagrass. Texas Turf grass. 46(3) :6.

Foy, J. H. (1998). The Pros and Cons of 
Fairway Overseeding. USGA Green 
Section Record. 36(5):10-12.
Kopec, D. (1994). Spring Back to Bermuda. 
Landscape & Irrigation. 18(3):8-9.
Kopec, D. (1996). Ready, Set, Go — Over­
seed! Golf Course Irrigation. 5(4):26-27.
Landry, G., and T. Murphy. (1990). Over­
seeded Turfgrasses in Transition. Grounds 
Maintenance. 25(10): 80-136.
O’Brien, P. (1994). Overseeding Undeserv­
ing as Winterkill Protection. Golf Course 
Management. 62(10):80.
Schmitz, J. (1999). A Smooth Transition. 
Golf Course Management. 67(7): 108-120.
Stroud, T. (1989). Overseeding Overview. 
Golf Course Management. 57(9):90-96.
Vermeulen, P. (1989). An Overseeding 
Alternative — Roughs Only. USGA Green 
Section Record. 27(2): 17.
Workman, B. (1994). Overseeding: The 
Real Problem. Through the Green.
Sept./Oct.: 22.
Yelverton, F., and B. Horgan. (1998). How 
to Kill Perennial Ryegrass in Overseeded 
Fairways. Golf Course Management. 
66(8):49-52.

BRIAN MALOY has been an agronomist 
in the Green Section’s Mid-Continent 
Region since 1996. He conducts Turf 
Advisory Service visits in Arkansas, 
Louisiana, Mexico, New Mexico, Okla­
homa, and Texas. His office is located in 
Carrollton, Texas.

The overseeding grass in the rough was more competitive than at the lower height of cut in the fairways. As a result, the majority of 
the bermudagrass has been lost in the rough.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000

5

HOLE PLACEMENT

The art of cutting the hole.

by KEITH A. HAPP

There is a wide array of hole-cutting tools. The manner in which the task is performed 
is as important as properly preparing the tools before the first hole is cut.

MANY TOOLS are available to 

cut a new hole in a putting 
green surface. However, the 
manner in which this task is performed 

may be as important (if not more) as 
the equipment used. Although a great 
deal of effort goes into conditioning a 
putting green for play, arguably no 
element of putting green preparation 
may be as critical or as well scrutinized 
as the placement and installation of 
the hole. The fact that this task is per­
formed so frequently places even more 
significance on the technique used. 
Although “practice makes perfect,” 
there is, unfortunately, not much room 
for error on the putting green. Employ­
ing proper technique produces satis­
factory results. This article will high­
light the entire procedure by discussing 
each step.

Preparation

Before attempting to cut a new hole 
in a putting green, the tools must be 
prepared. For example, the hole-cutting 
tool must have sharp edges and the 
outer surfaces should be clean. This 
allows a sharp edge to be maintained 
when the hole plug is removed. Clean­

6

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

ing the outside edge of the hole-cutting 
tool also will help minimize heaving 
when the soil plug is removed. The 
diameter of the hole will be consistent 
from surface to surface, and the 
“volcano effect,” which is often blamed 
for missed putts, can be avoided.

It is beneficial to have a working 
knowledge of the game of golf when 
identifying potential hole locations. 
Although there is no such thing as an 
illegal hole location, at times placement 
can be unfair. The slope of the location 
and the speed of the green often deter­
mine if a site is usable. A quick check 
can be performed by starting a golf 
ball rolling from above the hole. If the 
ball accelerates (due to gravitational 
force) as it passes the hole, the location 
may be unsuitable for use.

A rule of thumb is to position the 
hole in the center of a 3-foot diameter 
area that is on the same plane. As stated 
in Decision 16/6 of the Rules of Golf, 
when cutting a hole on a slope, the hole 
should be cut vertically, regardless of 
slope. It is not required that all points 
of the rim of the hole liner be equidis­
tant from the surface of the green, but 
they should be at least one inch below 
the surface.

Cutting the Hole

When the hole location is deter­
mined, the cutting process can begin. 
A clean towel should be used through­
out the entire hole-changing process. 
Positioning the towel on the turf and 
placing the tools on the towel will 
greatly reduce the potential for turf 
damage from oil, dirt, or other debris.

The hole shall be 4.25 inches in 
diameter and at least 4 inches deep. If 
a liner is used, it shall be sunk at least 
one inch below the putting green sur­
face unless the nature of the soil makes 
it impractical to do so. Fitting the hole­
cutting tool with a level indicator will 
help to ensure that the hole is cut 
properly. A level indicator becomes 
increasingly more important when 
holes are cut in heavy soils. Several cuts 
may be needed to obtain the necessary 
hole depth. Depending on the tool 
used, the plug can be removed in 
sections or all at once.

Inserting the Liner

Once the hole is cut, the hole liner 
can be inserted. Exercise caution when 
this is performed. First, wipe the outer 
side of the hole liner clean of debris. 
As the liner is inserted, do not damage

creates a swelling effect. The plug can 
be leveled with little fear of it being 
scalped during the mowing process.

A towel or small cloth can be used to 
clean the flagpole before it is inserted 
into the hole liner. For special events, 
the interior edge of the soil profile 
above the hole liner can be painted so 
that it is more visible to the players 
as well as spectators. This is often 
performed for televised golf events. 
Specialized tools are available to com­
plete this task.

Conclusion

Cutting a hole in a green is often 
looked upon as a menial task. How­
ever, in the game of golf the hole is the 
final destination, and if there is a flaw
it will be noticed by all those who play 
the course. Those who consider cut­
ting a hole in a green to be an art as 
well as a true science designate this 
element of daily course preparation to 
key employees. The science of this 
procedure comes when soils, water 
content, and root health are examined. 
For example, changing the hole on a 
daily basis provides the opportunity 
to implement integrated pest manage­
ment strategies, if necessary. As with all 
facets of course preparation, attention 
to detail must be keen. Positioning and 
cutting the hole well is an essential 
ingredient to offer consistency from day 
to day.

KEITH A. HAPP is an agronomist in the 
Mid-Atlantic Region, visiting courses in 
the states of Delaware, Maryland, Penn­
sylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. 
Keith joined the USGA Green Section 
Mid-Atlantic staff in 1993 and is a gradu­
ate of The Ohio State University.

the sod plug. This can cause damage to 
the sod plug by removing viable roots. 
When the sod plug is fit properly into 
the hole, fold the outer edges of the 
plug under slightly so that when the 
plug is pressed into the soil profile the 
seams (the interface of the plug and 
the hole wall) will match. An ice pick, 
a long-bladed knife, or other piercing 
type of tool then can be used to knit 
the edges of the hole and the plug 
together.

The final step in the hole placement 
process is to moisten the plug and 
immediate area around the old hole 
with water. Moistening the plug mini­
mizes shrinkage during harsh environ­
mental conditions. Rewetting the plug 
also stimulates root growth, which is 
critical to the healing process. Another 
important aspect of using water to seal 
the plug is to help ensure that a level 
playing surface is created when the 
hole plug is reinserted. Wetting the plug 

Resist the temptation to exert abnormal force when setting the hole liner. 
The area near the new hole location can be easily damaged.

the edges of the new hole. Insert the 
liner halfway into the hole and then 
place the liner-setting tool into the top 
of the liner. Before the liner is pressed 
into the hole, turn the setting tool at 
least 180 degrees to make sure it fits 
properly. Then, slowly but firmly press 
the liner into the freshly cut hole until 
the setting device contacts the putting 
surface. There is no need to exert 
abnormal or excessive force when 
setting the hole liner. Hammering or 
jumping on the device many only serve 
to damage the immediate area around 
the new hole location. Once the liner 
is properly positioned, remove the set­
ting device by first twisting it 180 
degrees and then lifting vertically.

Replacing the Hole Plug

The next step is to fill the old hole 
with the freshly removed sod/soil plug. 
Consistent hole depth is key to the 
easy replacement of the plug. If hole 
depth varies, the replaced plugs can be 
scalped or else sink below the surface 
of the green.

Begin by examining the root depth 
of the sod/soil plug. Many times, 
especially at the end of the summer, 
turf roots become weak and do not 
hold the soil profile together. Soil must 
then be placed in the old hole and re­
packed prior to inserting the sod plug. 
Many times, turf managers opt to com­
pletely replace poor soils with a modi­
fied mix of sand and organic matter.

Once the soil is packed, the sod plug 
can be inserted into the hole. Prior to 
pressing the sod plug level with the 
surface, determine if soil must be added 
or removed. If the plug appears to be 
too high, remove some soil from the 
bottom of the hole. Resist the tempta­
tion to shave soil from the bottom of 

Wetting the plug will allow it to be leveled with a reduced chance of shrinkage 
or swelling. Moistening the plug greatly reduces the potential for scalping when 
mowing is performed.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000

7

TOMMY WITT PHOTO

HELP 
NEEDED: 
Equipment 
Manager 

Training candidates 
to fill open positions
in the golf turf industry.

by TINKER CLIFT

ALL SUCCESSFUL golf course 
ZX superintendents have one very 
1 Ximportant trait in common, and 
that is the ability to find and train good 
employees. Without good employees, 
the daily operation of the golf course 
would be paralyzed by individuals 
standing around waiting for direction 
or, worse yet, acting solely on their own 
accord.

One of the most difficult positions for 
golf course superintendents to fill is 
that of equipment manager. This indi­
vidual is a key member of the staff and 
plays a central role in the daily opera­
tions of the golf course. Not only does 
this person maintain the equipment 
inventory in sound mechanical condi­
tion, but he or she plays an important 
role in the overall dynamics of the 
maintenance facility. Imagine a main­
tenance facility at 6:00 a.m. with a 
group of employees drinking their 
second cup of coffee while waiting for 
a disorganized equipment manager to 
adjust the fleet of walk-behind mowers. 
If it happens to be the morning of the 
club championship or another impor­
tant golf event, the situation would best 
be described as a disaster.

In addition to keeping the equip­
ment running smoothly, good equip­
ment managers also provide strong 
leadership by maintaining high pro­
fessional standards. The ability to lead 
by example is very important because 
the equipment manager’s office is often 
situated in the middle of the mainte­

8

USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

The shortage of students in the Turf Technician Specialization 
program is surprising in light of the high entry-level wages paid to 
graduates. For every graduating student, there are an estimated 10 
to 15 positions as an equipment manager waiting to be filled.

nance facility where several times each 
day he or she is in direct contact with 
nearly every member of the mainte­
nance staff. If the equipment manager 
has a habit of showing up late for work 
or has a general demeanor that is un­
productive, the entire crew’s attitude 
can quickly sour, and the subsequent 
condition of the course could decline.
Finding good equipment managers is 
usually very difficult because there are 
rarely more than one or two competent 
candidates in a local community. So 
scarce are the candidates that, in some 
instances, superintendents have found 
it necessary to coax equipment man­
agers from other golf courses to apply 
for a vacant position even at the risk of 
damaging a long-term relationship with 
another superintendent.

Turfgrass Technician 
Specialization Program

In the fall of 1997, the Board of Direc­
tors of the Texas Turfgrass Association 
wrote a letter to the president of Texas 
State Technical College (Waco, Texas), 
requesting that the staff take action to 
fill the void in the job market for trained 
equipment managers. Upon receiving 
the request from golf turf industry 
leaders, Texas State Technical College 
added a Turfgrass Technician Speciali­
zation Program to the Golf Course and 
Turfgrass Management Technology cur­
riculum. Students receive an associate’s 
degree upon completion of this two- 
year program.

In May of 1998 several college rep­
resentatives, including representatives 
from Texas State Technical College, met 
with members of the golf turf industry 
at the Golf Course Superintendents 
Association of America headquarters 
in Lawrence, Kansas. At this meeting 
an advisory council was formed to 
address the nationwide shortage of 
equipment managers.

The first task undertaken by the 
advisory council was to develop a 
skills requirement profile, learning ob­
jectives, and instructor profiles. Since 
the program at Texas State Technical 
College was already in place, the infor­
mation developed by the advisory 
council was simply used to adjust the 
Turfgrass Technician Specialization 
Program.

The curriculum at Texas State Tech­
nical College was assembled after 
interviewing ten prominent equipment 
managers from across the state of 
Texas. During two days of intensive 
interviews, facilitators developed a list 
of valued skills for a person in this 
position.

Skills Requirement Profile

• Perform reel maintenance on mow­

ing equipment.

• Operate all golf course equipment.
• Perform preventive maintenance 

on equipment.

• Repair golf course equipment.
• Interpret and maintain technical 

manuals.

• Order specialized parts and keep 

inventory records.

• Maintain accurate maintenance 

records.

• Maintain an equipment mainte­

nance facility.

• Lead maintenance crew activities.
Additional skills not necessarily re­
lated to the completion of the equip­
ment manager’s specific job description 
also were identified as necessary and 
valued.

Valued Skills

• Management skills.
• Golf-specific skills that emphasize 
a basic understanding of the superin­
tendent’s role and course managerial 
structure, the game of golf, agronomy 
and horticulture, and the effects of 
agronomic practices on the game of 
golf.

• General education skills.
In developing a curriculum, Texas 
State Technical College also tried to 
keep the future of each student in 
mind by adding turfgrass science and 
golf course management to the list 
of required courses. The additional 
courses of study are intended to pro­
vide each graduate with an opportunity 
to accept a position as an assistant 
superintendent or superintendent, 
should an appropriate opportunity 
present itself.

At this time Texas State Technical 
College also offers an Associate of 
Applied Science Degree. As for the 
future, the College is in the process of 

establishing a one-year Certificate 
Program and getting it approved by the 
Texas Higher Education Coordinating 
Board.

Having a successful Turfgrass Tech­
nician Specialization Program requires 
a large pool of resources in terms of 
equipment teaching aids. To meet these 
demands, the college is grateful to 
several equipment manufacturers for 
their generous support. They, too, 
realize the need for well-trained equip­
ment managers who are capable of 
maintaining and repairing an ever­
growing list of sophisticated mowers 
and specialty inventory items.

To facilitate training on all outdoor 
power equipment, the Equipment and 
Engine Training Council and Texas 
State Technical College have joined 
forces. At present, the College has cer­
tified two instructors with the Equip­
ment and Engine Training Council 
and is awaiting accreditation for the 
program.

With high entry-level wages brought 
on by a shortage of good equipment 
managers, it is surprising that there is a 
shortage of students in these training 
programs. Currently, approximately 20 
students per year graduate from our 
program with an associate’s degree. For 
every graduating student there are an 
estimated 10 to 15 jobs waiting to be 
filled. Perhaps the perception of being 
a low-paid, unappreciated golf course 
mechanic instead of a valued equip­
ment manager is at least partially to 
blame.

A successful training program for equipment managers requires a large pool of 
equipment and teaching aids. To meet this requirement, Texas State Technical College 
has benefitted from the support of several equipment manufacturers and local 
dealerships.

As a group, the turf industry has 
done little in the way of addressing 
the perceived status of equipment 
managers. In response, Texas State 
Technical College and one major turf 
equipment manufacturer have put to­
gether a video that is distributed to high 
schools throughout Texas and military 
base transition offices. The objective of 
this video is to demonstrate the level of 
professionalism displayed by successful 
equipment managers.

Since the need for good equipment 
managers is a national problem, the 
solution must be addressed on a 
national scale. Every golf facility needs 
to recruit potential students in the 
local community and bring to their 
attention the opportunities available at 
colleges that offer legitimate educa­
tional programs. For a list of such col­
leges, contact the Golf Course Super­
intendents Association of America at 
800-472-7878.

To afford students an opportunity to 
study at Texas State Technical College, 
scholarships and financial aid are 
available to qualified applicants. More 
than eight out of every ten students 
receive financial assistance at some 
level.

For The Future

The equipment manager of the future 
will need better skills to keep up with 
advancing technology. The extensive 
use of global positioning and com­
puterization are on the horizon for turf 
machinery. Unfortunately, some turf 
machinery manufacturers have decided 
to withhold new technology from pro­
duction because it would create prob­
lems that could not be easily solved in 
light of the shortage of qualified equip­
ment managers.

Texas State Technical College is in 
a position to teach all of the new 
and emerging technology that turf 
machinery will be equipped with in the 
future. The College has electronics, 
laser, computer, and robotics tech­
nologies that boast reputations of 
excellence. In addition, there will also 
be top-notch programs for automotive 
and diesel technology.

TINKER CLIFT is the Department Chair 
of Golf Course and Turfgrass Manage­
ment Technology at Texas State Technical 
College in Waco, Texas. To receive more 
information on the Turf Technician 
Specialization Program, contact him at 
3801 Campus Drive, Waco, TX 76705- 
1607, 254-867-4867, tclif@tstc.edu.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000

9

pair should be marked consistently 
throughout the course. When in doubt, 
err on the side of no paint. Sprinkler 
heads, valve box covers, and open 
stone drainage trenches do not need to 
be marked as ground under repair. Re­
lief is allowed without the presence of 
white paint.

“That’s not a legal hole location,” 
says the aggravated player as his ball 
rolls off the putting surface. What do 
the Rules say about hole locations? In 
reality, there are several factors to con­
sider when determining a hole location, 
but if it is cut on the putting surface, it 
is legal.

Bunker raking and edging will 
impact rulings and, therefore, play­
ability. Is the ball in the bunker or 
not? The actual mowing of greens also 
is important. It should be easy to 
determine when a ball is on the putting 
surface. Thus, a distinct edge/line 
should exist where the putting surface 
and collar come together. The examples 
could go on, but it should be clear that 
course maintenance and the Rules are 
inseparable.

It also should be recognized that a 
working knowledge of the Rules when 
playing golf will increase the superin­
tendent’s credibility. When players 
know the course is being maintained 
with the Rules in mind, their impres­
sion of the superintendent’s profes­
sionalism will be elevated. Equally 
important, playing regularly allows 
communication and dialogue about 
course conditioning to occur on the 
golfers’ level. If you struggle to break 
110, take some lessons. The course is 
being maintained to play the game of 
golf. The superintendent’s agronomic 
and Rules knowledge should combine 
with regular play of the golf course to 
offer golfers an enjoyable experience.

Take a Rules seminar or workshop 
every couple of years, and apply the 
Rules to course marking and mainte­
nance. Use the proper terms — flag­
stick, not pin (despite the continued 
errors of television commentators); 
bunker, not trap', through the green, 
not waste bunker ox grass bunker. Play 
the course you maintain once a week, 
if possible. Make it known that you 
understand how to play the game and 
that you appreciate the Rules, which 
make golf golf.

BOB BRAME is the Director of the Green 
Section’s North Central Region. He visits 
courses in Kentucky, Indiana, and Ohio. 
Don’t talk about “pins” or “traps” during 
Bob’s visit to your golf course.

“Ground under repair” should be marked consistently throughout the course. 
When in doubt, miss on the no paint side.

DO YOU KNOW 
THE RULES?

You should. Here’s why.

by R. A. (BOB) BRAME

THE RULES OF GOLF, as defined 

by the United States Golf Associ­
ation and the Royal and Ancient 
Golf Club of St. Andrews, Scotland, 

provides uniformity in golf for all 
players everywhere. In fact, without the 
Rules, golf would not be golf. Although 
that may sound a bit melodramatic, it’s 
true. When we fail to play by the Rules, 
the scores we shoot are worthless. The 
anchor or common denominator is 
lost. Clearly, it is not possible to play by 
the Rules if you don’t know the Rules. 
While this applies to all golfers, an 
elevated importance exists for those 
who maintain the playing field. The golf 
course superintendent must know the 
Rules to prepare the course properly for 
play.

The most obvious tie between the 
Rules and maintenance is marking the 

10 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

golf course. It is impossible to properly 
mark out of bounds, water hazards, 
and ground under repair without care­
fully considering how the Rules will be 
administered. Ideally, the person inter­
preting the Rules or answering players’ 
questions should take the lead in 
course marking. Often, this is the golf 
professional. However, the golf course 
superintendent is part of the team and 
should understand how marking im­
pacts rulings. Once the initial marking 
has been defined, it is the maintenance 
staff that must keep the stakes in place 
and/or the lines freshly painted.

How about the ground under repair? 
If it is under repair, then repair it so the 
marking won’t be permanent. Repairs 
should be made as quickly as possible 
so that white lines can be eliminated. 
Equally important, ground under re­

Effective Use of Seawater 
Irrigation on Turfgrass

This article is the second in a three-part series on water quality, 
the first of which appeared in the November/December 1999 issue.

by R. R. DUNCAN, R. N. CARROW, and MIKE HUCK

THE PROBLEM: Availability of 

adequate water in terms of quality 
and quantity will be the number- 
one issue affecting turfgrass manage­

ment in the 21st century.

Global demand for fresh potable 
water is doubling every 20 years. Irri­
gated areas have increased about 1% 
per year worldwide during the 1990s. 
During the past 30 years, the popula­
tion of the United States has increased 
52% while total water use has in­
creased 300%. Renewable water re­
sources per person decreased 50% 
between 1960 and 1998 in the United 
States. Another 50% reduction is pro­
jected by 2025. By 2000, 20% of all 
U.S. communities will experience water 
shortages in the form of water rationing 
or short-term cutoffs. Competition for 
potable water will force turfgrass man­
agers to search for alternative water 
resources — from recycled wastewater 
to seawater.

Water is available in many different 
forms. Seawater (34,486 ppm salt) en­
compasses 96.5% of the total global 
water supply (Gleick, 1993). Fresh 
water reserves total 2.5%. Ground­
water, which makes up 1.7% of the 
total global water supply, includes 55% 
saline and 45% fresh water. A total of 
30.1% of fresh water comes from the 
groundwater.

Lake water reserves (0.013% of total 
water resources) include 0.006% of 
total saline and 0.007% of fresh water. 
Swamp water (0.0008% of total water 
reserves), river flows (0.0002%), gla­
ciers plus permanent snow cover 
(1.74%), and ground ice/permafrost 
(0.022%) account for the remaining 
global water reserves.

Crop plants normally utilize 40-45% 
of the water applied through irrigation, 
with the remaining 55-60% lost as 
runoff, deep percolation, or evapora- 
tion/evapotranspiration. Turfgrasses 
are probably slightly more efficient in 
water use than most crop plants due to 
greater canopy coverage of the soil and 
their perennial nature.

Water is available in many different forms. The ability to irrigate a golf course with 
seawater has long been a dream. This dream will soon become a reality as turf grass­
quality ecotypes of seashore paspalum tolerant to ocean-level salt concentrations 
become commercially available.

The Dilemma

Water quality and availability have 
a dramatic influence on site-specific 
turfgrass management strategies, re­
gardless of whether salt-laden effluent 
(recycled water), ocean water, or blends 
of the two sources are used as the water 
source. Saltwater intrusion is a major 
concern in coastal areas (Newport, 
1997; Todd, 1997). Water withdrawal 
from coastal groundwater can con­
tribute to degradation of water and soil 
quality. Renewal time for groundwater 
resources is estimated at 300 years 
(Gleick, 1993).

Salinization of irrigated land occurs 
when dissolved salts accumulate in the 
upper soil layers on naturally saline 
lands, on lands with poor drainage, in 
arid/semi-arid regions, or on lands 
utilizing salt-laden effluent (recycled 
water). The percentage of irrigated 
lands affected by salinization includes 
20-25% in the United States, 13% in 
Israel, 30-40% in Egypt, 15% in China, 
and 15-20% in Australia (Gleick, 1993). 
The use of highly saline irrigation water 
greatly enhances the potential to de­
grade soil by salinization unless definite 
construction and management prac­

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

11

tices are followed. Accumulation of 
excess total salts (salinization) and 
sodium (sodic soil formation) in the 
soil is more rapid as irrigation water 
quality declines. The dilemma con­
fronting turfgrass managers is how to 
effectively use water of poor quality 
without causing excessive salt prob­
lems that will result in substantial 
decline in turfgrass quality and 
performance.

Potential climatic changes will com­
plicate water and salt management. 
Possible climatic changes projected 
globally from increasing CO2 atmo­
spheric levels include:

• 2-5°C increase in temperature;
• 0- to 32-inch increase in sea level;
• Precipitation increase of 7-15%;
• Direct solar radiation change -10% 
to +10%; 5-10% evapotranspiration 
increase (Woodward, 1992).

These climatic changes will signifi­
cantly affect turfgrass management in 
the 21st century. Because of these 
changes, most recreational turf will 
possibly be mandated to be irrigated 
with nonpotable resources (California 
Assembly Bill 174, Oct. 1991). Desalini­
zation is one option as an alternative 
water resource, but cost comparisons 
and the volume of water produced are 
key considerations (California Coastal 
Commission, 1999).

Irrigating with Seawater

With the availability of ocean-level, 
salt-tolerant turf species, using seawater 
for irrigation becomes a viable option 
in turfgrass management. The focus of 
this article is to emphasize those critical 
issues that arise when this worst-case 
water option (i.e. seawater) is selected 
as the irrigation source. The basic prin­
ciples are applicable to sites using salt­
laden effluent.

Irrigating food crops, as well as 
turfgrass, with seawater requires that a 
number of basic guidelines be con­
sidered (Glenn et al., 1998):

1. Halophyte turfgrasses (salt-toler­
ant species such as seashore paspalum, 
saltgrass, or alkaligrass) and landscape 
plants should be planted.

2. Golf courses should be con­
structed on sandy, well-drained coastal 
sites for long-term sustainability.

3. Water should be available at suffi­
cient volumes to leach salts, minimiz­
ing the concentration of salts in the 
rootzone and preventing dry down of 
the surface caused by evaporation and 
percolation. High leaching events are 
critical, and proper irrigation schedul­
ing is essential to success. All irrigated 

12 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

areas on the golf course, including 
roughs, surrounds, and mounds must 
be managed as primary areas.

4. Salts must be removed by drainage 
systems and be properly disposed of to 
prevent contamination of any potable 
groundwater under the site and to 
prevent soil salinization.

5. The cost of pumping from wells 
near the ocean is increased due to 
increasing irrigation demands (for 
proper leaching). Minimal water lifting 
is required, which offsets some of those 
costs.

6. Coastal aquatic sites are impacted 
(especially saltwater intrusion) and 
should be carefully monitored.

7. Maintenance costs may be 50% 
higher than in non-salt affected areas 
because of continuous application of 
amendments to minimize salt buildup 
and corrosion damage to maintenance, 
irrigation, and other equipment, requir­
ing more frequent replacement.

8. Highly trained turfgrass managers 
are necessary because of the site­
specific complexity of the salt-related 
problems.

9. Unnecessary traffic on turf should 
be reduced or eliminated to (a) offset 
the lack of wear recovery caused by 
growth reduction resulting from salt 
stress and (b) avoid compacting satu­
rated soils that are frequently irrigated 
to field capacity in order to promote 
leaching.

Pre-Construction Considerations

Grass Selection

As we enter the new millennium and 
potable water becomes a more scarce 
resource, continued development of 
salt-tolerant species (turfgrass, trees, 
ornamentals, and other landscape, 
plants) will become increasingly impor­
tant for all recreational landscapes, in­
cluding golf courses. Research funded 
by the USGA has resulted in the 
development of high-quality, environ­
mentally friendly and ocean level salt- 
tolerant seashore paspalum turfgrasses 
for use on greens, tees, fairways, and 
roughs. This grass currently provides a 
unique opportunity in temperate and 
tropical climates to utilize alternative 
water resources for irrigation. Addi­
tional research and breeding efforts to 
improve salt tolerance of cool-season 
species (some private companies have 
made this a priority) will extend alter­
native water use to northern climates.
Irrigation with ocean water (34,486 
ppm salt), brackish water (at salt con­
centrations < 34,000 ppm), seawater 

blended with other nonpotable water 
resources, or salt-laden effluent is now 
feasible (Duncan and Carrow, 2000). 
The problem of saltwater intrusion 
into coastal aquifers that results in 
unintentional application of seawater 
onto golf courses, and coastal or low­
land saltwater inundation from storm 
surges/salt deposition now can be 
addressed with the most salt-tolerant 
turfgrass (Carrow and Duncan, 1998). 
These extreme cases of the ultimate 
poor water quality require serious and 
diligent pre-construction, establish­
ment, grow-in/post establishment con­
siderations for successful turfgrass 
management. The site-specific nature 
of salinity-challenged environments 
causes the most complex and, often, 
most confusing situations involved in 
turfgrass management. Mistakes or 
omissions become readily apparent 
and amplified once the grass is planted 
and the turf responds to its environ­
ment.

Growth rates of all turfgrasses, in­
cluding seashore paspalum, are re­
duced when exposed to increasing 
levels of salinity. Older bermudagrass 
(Tifway) and creeping bentgrass culti­
vars (Seaside, Seaside II, SR1020, and 
Mariner are better choices) will tolerate 
only about one-third ocean level salt, 
and therefore may be suitable for use 
with some effluent and/or brackish 
sources, depending on water quality. 
However, selected ecotypes of sea­
shore paspalum can tolerate straight 
ocean water (TDS = 34,486 ppm salt, 
ECW = 54 dSm1, SAR = 57.4 meq L4, 
Na = 10,556 ppm, Cl = 18,980 ppm, 
Mg = 1,304 ppm, Ca = 420 ppm, K = 
390 ppm, SO4 = 2,690 ppm, HCO3 = 
146 ppm). Landscape plants also must 
be able to tolerate high total salts and 
toxic Cl and Na levels. Careful planning 
and proper managment are the keys to 
success when using seawater for irri­
gation on turfgrass.

Water Quality Assessment

Monitor water quality by location 
and over time, especially if the source 
is brackish or the water is obtained 
from a well subjected to saltwater 
intrusion where the salt water retreats 
during wet periods or encroaches dur­
ing dry periods. Intrusion of salt water 
into a well head can occur abruptly 
and, consequently, regularly scheduled 
water quality testing will be necessary. 
If salt-laden effluent is used directly 
or blended with seawater, quality 
should be monitored over time. Rela­
tively inexpensive electrical conduc­

tivity meters can be easily used by turf 
managers for on-site monitoring of 
total salinity. Seawater drawn from 
wells may be influenced by local soil 
conditions, such as those exhibiting 
higher bicarbonates (HCO3), or from 
excessive levels of other components, 
such as heavy metals or boron or 
extremely low pH (<5.0) conditions 
where Al or Mn levels might be 
extremely high. Knowledge of water 
constituents and their fluctuation over 
time is essential for making manage­
ment decisions.

The Irrigation System

Irrigation system design efficiency 
includes sprinkler head spacing for 
uniform coverage, nozzle size tailored 
to soil texture (percolation rate, e.g., 
fine-textured soils may require low ap­
plication rates), and individual sprin­
kler head control to ensure flexible 
scheduling. Pulse irrigation is essential 
on soils with low infiltration and per­
colation or with poor or slow drainage 
characteristics since it can be difficult 
to effectively manage and match pre­
cipitation rates of large turf sprinklers 
to the infiltration rates in these salt- 
challenged soils. Pulse irrigation pro­
vides water to the turf at a rate up to 
runoff and then stops to allow for 
infiltration/percolation, followed by 
repeated cycles. The intermittent appli­
cation of water throughout a daily irri­
gation cycle via pulse irrigation pro­
vides for:

1. Maximum leaching of excess salts.
2. Minimal buildup of excess Na, 
which causes soil structural breakdown 
(sodic soil conditions).

3. Minimal bicarbonate precipitation 
and sealing at the surface of sandy 
soil profiles caused by light, frequent 
irrigation.

The number-one management re­
quirement of all salt-affected turf grass 
sites is leaching to remove excess salts 
or to prevent sodium and chloride 
accumulation. The leaching require­
ment (LR) is the quantity of water re­
quired to maintain a moist soil profile 
with consistent net downward move­
ment of salts below the turfgrass root­
zone that is over and above turf evapo­
transpiration (ET). Turfgrass ET can be 
high due to coastal winds or high 
temperatures, especially during estab­
lishment when soil evaporation is 
excessive. Total saltwater needs include 
LR + ET + correction for irrigation 
design inefficiency. Total water use 
could average 30-50% higher using

Commercially available, putting green quality seashore paspalum tolerates low 
mowing heights and ocean-level salt concentrations in the irrigation water.

ocean water compared to non-salt 
affected situations.

The additional volumes of water 
needed to leach salts delivered by sea­
water or other poor-quality recycled 
or brackish water can require special 
consideration when designing the 
hydraulic capacity of the irrigation 
system. Pipe sizes need to be increased 
to avoid excessive flow velocities that 
cause subsequent water hammer and 
fatiguing damage to PVC components. 
Inadequate pipe sizing will result in a 
longer window for total operating time, 
resulting in sprinklers operating before 
dusk and after dawn, interfering with 
both maintenance operations and golf 
play. A general rule of thumb when 
designing the irrigation system is that 
no greater than an 8-hour window of 
operation should be needed to irrigate 
the golf course at maximum ET while 
including the proper leaching fraction.
A “dual” mainline irrigation system 
to allow irrigation of salt-sensitive areas 
(cool-season grass putting greens, club­
house landscape areas) with a better­
quality water also is an option. Another 
alternative is a system of multiple 
storage lakes that allow blending of 
alternative water sources for leaching. 
Under either of these scenarios, reverse 
osmosis could be incorporated into the 
system to supply water for occasional 
leaching, blending, or management of 
salt-sensitive areas. Any of these op­
tions should be included in the design 
phase on a cost-effective basis.

A dual irrigation system would prove 

beneficial for:

1. Blending seawater with waste­
water to dilute the total salts and high 
Na+ levels (improve overall quality).

2. Irrigation of golf greens with 
reduced salt-laden sources (such as 
reverse-osmosis water).

3. Use of alternative water resources 
during periods of high volume leaching.

4. Application of fertilizer or other 
amendments through the irrigation 
system.

Desalinization is one option as an 
alternative water resource, but cost 
comparisons and volume of water pro­
duced are key considerations (Cali­
fornia Coastal Commission, 1999).

Corrosion of irrigation hardware 
and other equipment exposed to ocean 
water also is a major concern and 
should be addressed within the design 
specifications. Plastic pipe and sprin­
klers are naturally preferred where 
feasible. Where steel components are 
normally specified, epoxy coating, 
high-grade stainless steel (Austenitic) 
or ductile iron fittings on PVC mains 
should be investigated for improved 
longevity and economic feasibility. 
Custom manufacturing using seawater­
resistant nonferrous metal blends and 
marine or reclaimed water grade equip­
ment and paint also may be options for 
consideration. Components exposed to 
salty sprinkler spray (wetting and dry­
ing cycles) will deteriorate more rapidly 
than those that are always submerged. 
Items such as controller cabinets 
should be manufactured from stainless 
steel or plastic and be maintained in 
a relatively watertight condition to 
inhibit corrosion of internal electrical 
components and connections. It also is 
imperative that all buried wiring splices 
are made with the highest-quality 
waterproof-type connections. Another 
option would be to install a radio­
operated control system (such as 
OSMAC from Toro and FREEDOM 
from Rainbird) that eliminates the need 
for hard wiring of a low-voltage signal 
loop between the computer central 
control and the satellites. This type of 
system would eliminate a number of 
additional and potentially troublesome 
electrical connections that are prone to 
failure under highly saline conditions.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

13

Highly sandy soils are very desirable 
since leaching is much easier on sands 
compared to fine-textured soils that 
have lower infiltration/percolation/ 
drainage rates. Additionally sandy soils 
that drain more rapidly will return to 
playable conditions in less time follow­
ing leaching and will resist compaction 
from maintenance equipment and 
other traffic when wet. Continuous 
paved cart paths and cart restrictions 
on the turf also are recommended to 
minimize traffic damage from stresses 
due to:

1. The reduction of turf growth and 
recovery from wear caused by salt 
accumulation.

2. Excess compaction when traffic 
occurs on saturated soils following 
regular leaching events.

Salt Disposal

The golf course design must include 
plans for environmentally sound dis­
posal of leached salts (and/or brine if 
reverse osmosis is used) when seawater 
is to be used for irrigation. The primary 
considerations involve:

1. Avoidance of salt accumulation 
below the turfgrass rootzone in an 
increasingly concentrated form. Even­
tually this zone of salt accumulation 
will rise to the soil surface and cause 
catastrophic injury to all plants and 
their root systems.

2. Prevention of leachate or salt 
seepage into a potable water source or 
freshwater off-site area, or contami­
nation by saltwater intrusion due to 
excessive removal from the good water 
source.

Both considerations involve proper 
land surface contouring and adequate 
deep-tile drainage lines (3-5 feet) with 
outlets either directly into the ocean 
or into a carefully constructed and 
impervious well or holding pond. The 
34,486 ppm of total salts in seawater is 
equivalent to 2,153 lbs. of salt per 1,000 
square feet per foot of seawater applied. 
Deep coarse sands (>0.50 mm) with 
high percolation rates (>10 inches per 
hour) are strongly preferred when sea­
water is used for irrigation.

Long-Term Maintenance Costs

Seawater irrigation requires pro­
active management to minimize the 
constant threat of saline-sodic soil 
conditions and their resulting impact 
on turfgrass performance. Increased 
budgeting needs include:

1. Extra chemicals (gypsum, acids, 
lime, micronutrient fertilizers, highly 

14 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

soluble fertilizers) that will be needed 
continuously and periodically at high 
rates. Some of these added costs are 
offset by reduced needs for herbicides 
and other pesticides and a less expen­
sive water source.

2. Cultivation equipment (both sur­
face and subsurface types) to maintain 
water movement for efficient leaching 
of salts through soils. Fine-textured 
soils will require much more aggressive 
cultivation programs than sandy soils. 
The effectiveness of a cultivation 
operation is typically reduced by one- 
half on high-Na sites and cultivation 
frequency must be increased. Both 
deep (10-12 inches) and shallow (3-5 
inches) aeration practices are essential 
for proper salt leaching. Deep-tine 
cultivators include Verti-drain, Soil 
Reliever, Aerway Slicer, and Deep-drill. 
The Yeager-Twose Turf Conditioner is 
less effective for deep cultivation (i.e. > 
7 inches), but has excellent chemical 
injection capabilities (capable of apply­
ing 80-90 lbs. gypsum per 1,000 square 
feet at a 7- to 8-inch depth). The Hydro- 
ject units also can be used to enhance 
seawater irrigation percolation into the 
soil profile.

3. Extra irrigation equipment. The 
corrosive nature of the high salts in 
ocean water will require constant 
monitoring and more frequent replace­
ment of certain components like 
sprinkler heads and irrigation pumps. 
Injector systems can occasionally be 
used to treat seawater. Acidification 
(H2SO4, N-phuric acid, or urea sulfuric 
acid, sulfur dioxide generator) to aid in 
the formation of gypsum (CaSO4) in the 
soil by reaction with surface-applied 
lime (CaCO3) is one method of supply­
ing considerable Ca2+ to replace Na+ on 
soil cation exchange sites (CEC). The 
excess Na combines with the available 
SO4 from the acids to form Na2SO4, 
which then can be leached.

Another method of supplying high 
levels of Ca2+ ions to counter high Na+ 
levels in seawater is a gypsum injector 
linked with the irrigation system. CaCl2, 
Ca(NO3)2, or other highly soluble 
amendments can be added with this 
unit. Although seawater contains rela­
tively low HCO3 (146 ppm), water that 
is pumped from ground wells near the 
ocean can occasionally contain levels 
exceeding 550 ppm, which would 
benefit from acidification to remove the 
excess bicarbonates. This removal 
releases the Ca and Mg in the water to 
counteract the excessive Na in the 
seawater. Additional lakes, pumps, and 
piping for blending, dual irrigation 

systems, and desalinization/reverse 
osmosis equipment will raise ongoing 
long-term maintenance costs.

4. Accelerated equipment replace­
ment schedules for maintenance equip­
ment and course accessories are com­
monly required on sites with saline 
irrigation sources. Daily exposure to 
salt-laden irrigation spray, exudation 
water, and runoff deteriorates metal 
components on mowing equipment, 
utility vehicles, and course accessories 
such as signs, benches, and ball-wash­
ers (much like the corrosion on auto­
mobiles in northern climates caused 
from salting and deicing highways). 
Undercoating and rustproofing treat­
ment of undercarriages on all equip­
ment is recommended. A potable water 
source also should be used when wash­
ing equipment after every use to slow 
the corrosion process.

5. The turf manager must be well 
trained in order to maintain high- 
quality turf. Salt-related problems are 
site-specific and very complex because 
of multiple environment/turf inter­
actions.

Sand Capping and Drainage

If saline-sodic soil is dredged from 
an ocean bay and added as the top- 
soil for the turfgrass rootzone, several 
practices are suggested to alleviate 
the high total salts and excess Na 
that cause considerable soil structural 
deterioration:

1. Deep-tine (10-14 inches) aerate 
and apply 200-600 lbs. gypsum per 
1,000 square feet to the soil surface and 
rototill into the top six inches. Higher 
rates may be needed for heavier clay 
soils.

2. Apply an additional 200 lbs. 
gypsum per 1,000 square feet to the 
surface and cap with two inches of 
coarse sand. Till into the top 1 or 2 
inches of soil.

3. Cap with an additional six inches 
of coarse sand. The more coarse the 
sand (especially 0.5 to 1.0 mm range 
and none exceeding 2.0 mm), the better 
the rate of percolation and the faster the 
leaching with less volume of seawater 
irrigation. Coarse sand in the 1.0 to 2.0 
mm range should probably not exceed 
10-20% (by volume) of the total coarse 
sand to minimize damage to golf clubs 
and maintenance equipment.

If fine-textured soils that are high 
in silt and clay content have low infil­
tration and percolation rates, appli­
cation of a 6- to 12-inch coarse sand 
layer (cap) over the existing soil will 

enhance the leaching effectiveness in 
the rootzone and help maintain water 
infiltration by reducing surface soil 
compaction. Incorporating 4-5% or­
ganic matter into the coarse sand prior 
to capping will (a) provide improved 
water-holding capacity (b) help main­
tain a moist soil profile for a longer time 
frame compared to straight sand with 
no organic matter, and (c) minimize or 
slow down upward movement of salts 
concentrated below the rootzone when 
surface evaporation demands exceed 
seawater application rates.

Wind + high temperatures + exposed 
sandy surfaces during establishment 
and early grow-in can place very high 
evaporative demands on the overall 
turfgrass system. Heavy leaching at 
night to keep the salts moving down­
ward followed by periodic seawater 
applications during the heat of the day 
in an effort to maintain uniform soil 
moisture and prevent upward move­
ment of concentrated salts are the key 
irrigation maintenance practices for 
successful establishment and grow-in 
of turf with seawater irrigation.

One additional alternative — a fair­
way system with full drainage — could 
be considered. The concept involves 
creating the world’s largest USGA 
green by letting the subsoil seal with 
excess Na+ (creating a lake bottom) and 
installing a subsurface drainage system 
below the sand cap. The drainage 
system allows collection and disposal 
of the salt-laden drainage water, if 
engineered correctly, and also protects 
any potable groundwater or aquifers 
in the immediate area. Construction 
costs are initially higher, but savings in 
deep aeration, gypsum applications, 
and associated labor to perform these 
maintenance operations could con­
ceivably pay for the drainage system 
over a six-year period.

For example, approximately 2,378 
lbs. gypsum (23% Ca) per 1,000 square 
feet must be applied for every 12 inches 
of seawater irrigation to counter the 
high Na+ concentration. In deep sands 
with < 2-3 % silt and clay, the gypsum 
rate can be reduced by 50-70%. How­
ever, sand-capped sites still require the 
higher gypsum rates to maintain non- 
sodic conditions in the subsoil. For 
practical purposes, assume the golf 
course covers 100 acres and the gypsum 
costs $100 per ton, or about $2,178 per 
month (at 100 lbs. per 1,000 square feet 
per month, or about $5,180 per acre- 
foot of seawater). Assuming a 7,000- 
yard course and $6.00 per linear foot 
for solid perforated pipe including

As we enter the new millennium and fresh water becomes increasingly more scarce, 
alternative water supplies and salt-tolerant turf grasses for golf become a much better 
option than the “other” alternative.

main drains and occasional drain 
basins, 30-foot lateral spacing would 
cost about $997,000 and 20-foot lateral 
spacing would cost about $1,432,800 
initially for the fairway drainage. If the 
gypsum rates could be reduced to 50% 
for treating the sand cap (instead of 
keeping the subsoil draining) and utili­
zing subsurface drainage, the system 
could pay for itself relatively quickly. 
With heavy rains from monsoons, hur­
ricanes, or tropical storms, this drain­
age system would be extremely bene­
ficial for rapid removal of excess water.

Establishment

All turfgrass and landscape plants are 
more sensitive to high-salt problems 
during initial root formation and early 
establishment. Besides the high-salt 
impact on the root system, the turfgrass 

growth rate will be reduced, prolonging 
the grow-in period. Additionally, salt 
accumulation on the soil surface occurs 
very rapidly when seawater is used for 
irrigation unless appropriate manage­
ment practices are used. Proper man­
agement techniques can minimize the 
need for an expensive replanting. Fac­
tors to consider include:

1. Reduction of total salts for estab­
lishment. Seawater has a total salinity 
level of ECW = 54 dSm1. Total salts will 
only be reduced below 54 dSm1 (a) 
after a heavy rainfall or prolonged 
rainy period, (b) by use of better-quality 
water sources (effluent, brackish, 
reverse-osmosis water), or (c) by blend­
ing with lower salt-containing water 
sources.

2. Alleviation of Na-induced soil 
physical problems in the surface zone.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

15

Aggressive deep and shallow aeration, 
gypsum application, cultivation, top­
dressing, and leaching are key manage­
ment options. Gypsum applications 
should always be made immediately 
following aeration to avoid creating a 
Na+-affected layer deeper in the soil 
profile.

3. Maintenance of a uniformly moist 
soil profile. Preventing the soil surface 
ECe from rising above 54 dSm1 when 
seawater is the sole source of irrigation 
water will require:

(a) Keeping the salts moving — a 
continuous program of supplying suf­
ficient water volume is necessary to 
maintain net downward movement of 
salts away from the rootzone and soil 
surface, and to prevent them from 
rising back up by capillary/absorptive 
water movement.

(b) Maintaining moist soil profile 
conditions between irrigation events 
so that salts do not concentrate in the 
soil solution or rise by capillary action 
from below the surface zone. If the 
salts move down at ECe - 54 dSm1 
and concentrate, high evaporation in 
sandy soils can bring the salts back to 
the surface at ECe > 54 dSm1 and kill 
the young turf seedlings.

Light, frequent seawater irrigation at 
establishment or on mature turf with­
out adequate leaching will result in 
rapid surface resalinization and subse­
quently lead to turfgrass failure even 
with the most tolerant turfgrass culti­
vars. Scheduling high leaching events 
at night will minimize competition 
from wind and the high evaporative 

daytime demands when using seawater. 
On sands, the nighttime leaching event 
should be sufficient to move surface 
salts (i.e. the wetting front in the soil 
profile) to at least 12 inches and on 
fine-textured soils to at least 16-20 
inches depth. This will minimize capil­
lary rise of more concentrated salts 
back to the surface and into the turf­
grass rhizosphere. This heavy leaching 
event may be done over two nights on 
fine-textured soils if percolation rates 
are low. Seawater irrigation schedul­
ing during the day should be frequent 
enough to maintain a continuous and 
uniformly moist soil profile with mini­
mal surface drying. A monthly gypsum 
application of 100-200 lbs. per 1,000 
square feet can be surface-applied as a 
sodic-soil preventative strategy when 
using seawater for irrigation.

4. Adequate initial fertilization and 
careful monitoring of micronutrients 
with continuous leaching events. A 
spoon-feeding approach (frequent 
applications, Vio to % rates) is necessary 
on seawater-irrigated sites, with total 
annual fertilizer nutrients applied at 
1.5 to 2.0 times that used on areas irri­
gated with non-salt-laden water. While 
higher annual rates of fertilizer are 
required, the rates per application are 
similar to non-salt-affected sites, but the 
frequency is greater. Use of highly 
soluble fertilizers and fertigation 
through a well-designed irrigation 
system is very beneficial.

Adequate phosphorus (2-3 lbs. P2O5 
per 1,000 square feet) should be applied 
to the surface at planting to promote 

As the bermudagrass succumbs to high salt levels, seashore paspalum (lighter color) 
fills in the putting green.

16 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

establishment. Soil test analysis will 
reveal the need for additional nutrients 
in conjunction with nutrients supplied 
by the seawater. High leaching events 
can deplete micronutrient (Fe, Mn) 
levels, and careful monitoring is neces­
sary on a continuous basis. Potassium, 
Ca, and Mg also are subject to leaching 
losses and should be monitored closely.

Post-Establishment/Mature Turf

The use of seawater for turfgrass 
irrigation produces two very important 
results that significantly impact man­
agement strategies:

1. Seawater supplies additional 
nutrients that require adjustment in 
fertilization protocols, and chemicals 
that are applied to replace excess Na+ 
on soil CEC sites necessitate additional 
nutritional adjustments (Table 1).

• All ions in Table 1 contribute to 
overall high total salts, with Na+ and 
Cl' ions contributing the most salts 
because of total quantity. As long as 
adequate irrigation water is applied, 
chloride is easily leached. Excess 
chloride can detrimentally affect nitrate 
uptake.

• Excess Na+ will rapidly cause a 
severe sodic-soil condition (soil struc­
tural deterioration) unless high quan­
tities of Ca+2 ions are added to replace 
Na+ on the CEC sites and sufficient 
water is added to leach the ion away 
from the turfgrass root system. A sodic- 
soil situation is much more serious on 
fine-textured soils than on sands. At 
least 547 lbs. elemental Ca+2 per 1,000 
square feet or 2,378 lbs. gypsum (23% 
Ca) per 1,000 square feet must be 
applied for every 12 inches of seawater 
irrigation to counter the high Na+ con­
centration. In deep sands with < 2-3% 
silt and clay, the gypsum rate can be 
reduced by 50-70%. Sand-capped sites 
will still require the higher gypsum rates 
to maintain non-sodic conditions in 
the underlying soil, unless a complete 
subsurface drainage system has been 
included (discussed in sand-capping 
section).

• Additional highly soluble Ca 
sources could include CaCl2 or 
Ca(NO3)2, which could be applied 
through injector systems. Lime (CaCO3) 
can be applied to the soil to react with 
SO4 2 in the seawater to form gypsum. 
Approximately 170 lbs. lime per 1,000 
square feet per 12 inches seawater 
irrigation is needed to react with 168 
lbs. SO42 in the seawater.

• A 3:1 to 8:1 ratio of Ca:Mg is pre­
ferred in irrigation water. Ca deficiency 
may occur below 3:1 and Mg deficiency

Table 1
Quantity of nutrients applied with typical seawater irrigation 

Ion
Ca+2
Mg+2
K+
Na+
SO42
Cl
hco3
co3
N
P
Mo
Fe
Mn

lbs./l,000 sq. ft. per
12 inches seawater
26.2
81.4
24.3

659
168
1,185
9
<1

meq L1
21.0
106.8
9.9
458.8
56.0
534.6
2.4
—

PPm

420
1,304
310
10,556
2,690
18,980
146
—

11.5
0.06
0.01
0.002
0.0002

% of Cations
3.5
17.9
0.8
76.9
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

above 8:1. The 1:5 ratio of these two 
elements in seawater is usually not a 
problem since large quantities of Ca are 
applied as an amendment to replace 
Na+ when using seawater for irrigation. 
If extra Mg is needed, dolomitic lime 
can be used as a slow-release Mg 
source, or a soluble Mg source can be 
applied by fertilization.

• Even though 24.3 lbs. K is applied 
per 1,000 square feet per 12 inches sea­
water irrigation, high Na+ suppresses 
K+ uptake. A routine spoon-feeding 
program with KNO3 or K2SO4 is recom­
mended. On sand-capped areas or 
well-drained deep sands, adding 5% 
by weight of medium to coarse zeolite 
(0.25-1.00 mm diameter) will enhance 
selective retention of K+ ions.

2. High leaching requirements will 
enhance the leaching of all nutrients.
• N-P-K fertilizers should be applied 
in a spoon-feeding approach at 1.5 to 
2.0 times annual rates (compared to 
sites with good-quality water).

• Slow-release fertilizers applied fre­
quently in /io to 1 lb. per 1,000 square 
feet per application increments can be 
used as the base fertilization with ferti- 
gation of water-soluble sources used 
to supplement turfgrass nutrition. Spot 
fertilization of wear/traffic areas with 
granular, quick-release, soluble fertil­
izers may be necessary.

• The micronutrients Fe and Mn 
may require extra foliar applications at 
0.025 Fe and 0.013 lbs. Mn per 1,000 
square feet every two to three weeks. 
Additional granular applications may 
be needed several times per year. A 
good micronutrient fertilizer should be 

applied at the recommended rate, but 
1.5-2.0 times more frequently.
Summary

Seawater irrigation on turfgrass is 

feasible with:

• Highly salt-tolerant turf species.
• Coarse, sandy soil profiles.
• Irrigation strategies that keep salts 
moving with regular leaching events 
and keep the soil profile uniformly 
moist to minimize concentrated salts 
from rising into the rootzone.

• Good surface and subsurface drain­

age design.

• Environmentally safe disposal of 

excess salts.

• Careful nutrient management and 

continuous monitoring.

• The entire course must receive 

high-level management.
Pros for Using Seawater Irrigation

• Non-interruptible supply of irriga­
tion water during shortages/droughts/ 
rationing.

• Reduced water costs when com­
pared to “purchased” potable or re­
cycled water.

• Reduced pumping costs compared 

to similar quality brackish wells.

Cons for Using Seawater Irrigation

• Higher ongoing maintenance costs: 
cultivation (labor, replacement tines, 
equipment repairs), amendments, equip­
ment replacement (undercoatings), 
salt/brine/drainage disposal.

• Higher construction costs: sand 
capping, additional drainage, enhanced 
irrigation systems, reverse-osmosis 
equipment.

References
California Assembly Bill 174 (October) 
1991. Water resources — reclaimed water— 
nonpotable use. In Statutes of 1991-1992 
Regular Session. State of California Legis­
lative Counsel’s Digest. Chapter 553, p. 
2321-2322.
California Coastal Commission. 1999. Sea­
water desalinization in California. Website: 
www. ceres, ca.gov/coastalcomm/desalrpt 
/ dkeyfact.html.
Carrow, R. N., and R. R. Duncan. 1998. 
Salt-affected turfgrass sites: assessment 
and management. Ann Arbor Press. 
Chelsea, Mich.
Duncan, R. R., and R. N. Carrow. 2000. 
Seashore paspalum: the environmental 
turf grass. Ann Arbor Press. Chelsea, Mich. 
(Projected publication by January 2000).
Gleick, P. H., ed. 1993. Water in Crisis: a 
guide to the world’s freshwater resources. 
Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, U.K.
Glenn, E. P., J. J. Brown, and J. W. O’Leary. 
1998. Irrigating crops with seawater. Scien­
tific American 279(2):76-81.
Herbert, F. 1999. Principles of water move­
ment. Sports Turf 15(2):24-28.
Iyengar, E.R.R., and M. P. Ready. 1994. Crop 
response to salt stress: seawater applica­
tion and prospects, p. 183-201. In M.
Pessaraki (ed.) Handbook of Plant and 
Crop Stress. Marcel Deklar Inc. New York, 
N.Y.
Newport, B. P. 1997. Saltwater intrusion in 
the United States. EPA-600/8-77-011.
Todd, D. K. 1997. Salt water and its control.
Water Works Assoc. 66(3).
Woodward, F. I. (ed.). 1992. Global 
climatic change; the ecological conse­
quences. Academic Press. London, U.K.

RONNY R. DUNCAN, Ph.D, is professor 
of turf grass breeding and stress physiology, 
Crop & Soil Sciences Department, Univer­
sity of Georgia, Griffin. Research empha­
sis is on developing turfgrasses with mul­
tiple environmental, soil, and man-made 
stress tolerance, as well as development 
of environmentally sound management 
practices.
ROBERT N. CARROW, Ph.D, is professor 
of turfgrass stress physiology and soil 
stresses, Crop & Soil Sciences Department, 
University of Georgia, Griffin. Research 
emphasis is on turfgrasses as affected by 
environmental, traffic, and soil physical/ 
chemical stresses.
MIKE HUCK is an agronomist with the 
USGA Green Section, Southwest Region, 
where everyday water shortages make 
alternative water supplies a current issue. 
He resides in the coastal community of 
Dana Point, California, near what he now 
views as potentially one of the largest 
irrigation reservoirs in the world — the 
Pacific Ocean!

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

17

Ozone is pumped into a pond to circulate the water column and increase oxygen concentrations.

POND AERATION

Do not overlook this tool to manage and improve water quality in your ponds.
by JIM SKORULSKI

POND AERATION is a tool that 

is often recommended in pond 
management programs. However, 
an incomplete understanding of the 

role of aeration in a pond management 
program can lead to large expenditures 
and disappointing results. What is the 
role of pond aerators in management 
programs, what aerator devices are 
most effective, and when and how 
should they be used, are all-important 
questions that should be understood 
before proceeding with an aeration 
system.

A basic understanding of oxygen’s 
role in ponds and lakes is crucial. 
Dissolved oxygen in the water column 
is integral in many biological and 
chemical processes that keep the pond 
system in balance. Oxygen diffuses 
into the water column from the atmo­
sphere and is produced by aquatic 
plants and algae. It is utilized by 

18 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

bacteria during the decomposition of 
organic matter. Dissolved oxygen also 
drives chemical reactions that cause 
metals to precipitate out of the water 
and into the sediments, where they 
combine with phosphorus and other 
nutrients, making them unavailable. 
Low oxygen concentrations increase 
the activity of anaerobic bacteria that 
drive reactions that force the metals 
back into solution and allow nutrients 
to re-enter the water column. Lakes or 
ponds that are rich in nutrients are 
more susceptible to undesirable algae 
blooms. Anaerobic decomposition also 
creates methane and hydrogen sulfide 
gases that are responsible for noxious 
odors. Dissolved oxygen also is re­
quired by fish and aquatic organisms 
for survival.

Lakes and even shallow ponds natu­
rally stratify by temperature during the 
season. Surface waters are warmest and 

usually have the highest concentrations 
of oxygen. This upper layer in lakes 
is called the epilimnion. Temperatures 
drop, as do oxygen levels, in the deeper 
waters. The benthic layer is found at the 
very bottom of lakes and contains 
decaying organic material and sludge. 
Stratification is less pronounced in 
shallow water systems. Stratification 
may be disrupted, causing the lake or 
pond to “turn over” in the summer 
months. This action allows the oxygen­
deficient water and nutrients to move 
to the surface, creating rapid and 
excessive growth of algae and some­
times leading to fish kills. Pond aera­
tion is used to maintain oxygen con­
centrations throughout the entire water 
column.

Oxygen concentrations in the water 
column can be monitored with an oxy­
gen meter, which measures dissolved 
oxygen (D.O.) at any depth in the 

column. Oxygen saturation is depen­
dent on temperature and can vary day 
to day. At 0°C (32°F) water is fully oxy­
genated, containing 14 mg/1 dissolved 
oxygen. At 25°C (77°F) the oxygen 
content drops to 8.3 mg/1. Aeration can 
increase dissolved oxygen when levels 
become deficient. Maintaining D.O. 
levels at or near 5 mg/liter provides an 
aerobic environment. It is best to start 
the aeration before D.O. levels drop to 
very low concentrations and before an 
algae bloom occurs.

There are several types of aerating 
devices. Aerating devices create turbu­
lence that allows the water to intermix 
with the atmosphere. Fountains are 
probably the most popular aeration de­
vices seen in golf course ponds. The 
fountains circulate the surface waters 
that already have the highest concen­
trations of oxygen. But lowering a 
fountain’s intake will improve its ability 
to circulate more oxygen-deficient 
water from deeper in the water column. 
Fountains are also popular with golfers 
for aesthetic reasons.

Pond bubblers are actually more 
effective aeration devices, as they 
circulate large volumes of oxygen­

deficient water deeper in the water 
column. The systems are relatively 
inexpensive and consist of a 1-1.5 hp 
electric motor, an air hose, and a 
diffuser unit. The diffusers are placed 
at the bottom of the pond to pump air 
that displaces up to 50,000 gallons of 
water to the surface per minute, where 
it is recharged with oxygen.

Ozone or activated-oxygen systems 
are also used to aerate ponds and lakes. 
These systems displace large quantities 
of water as well and may infuse free 
oxygen radicals into the water. The free 
oxygen radicals drive the oxidation 
reactions that make nutrients unavail­
able. The ability of the units to infuse 
the oxygen radicals into the water 
column is questioned by some. The 
units are also more expensive and may 
not be necessary for smaller pond 
systems.

Aeration by itself is not a “magic 
bullet” that will solve all your pond 
management problems overnight. 
Nutrient loading is still the critical 
factor that must be dealt with before a 
pond can be brought back into balance. 
Ponds overrun with algae and aquatic 
weeds may initially require chemical 

treatment programs to bring the system 
into balance. A successful management 
program requires a complete under­
standing of pond ecology, a good 
monitoring program, and an integrated 
approach that utilizes all the cultural, 
biological, and chemical management 
tools available. Utilize the services of 
an aquatic management company to 
analyze your system and help deter­
mine what the best long-range ap­
proach might be. The North American 
Lake Management Society or Aquatic 
Plant Management Society can provide 
a list of management companies and 
other informational sources that are 
helpful.

Treat aeration as one of many tools 
available to manage water resources 
on the golf course. When used cor­
rectly, it may keep the pond in balance, 
help maintain water quality, and, 
indirectly, help prevent algae blooms 
from occurring.

JIM SKORULSKI is an agronomist in the 
USGA Green Section’s Northeast Region, 
where he advises golf course superinten­
dents on pond water quality and many 
other aspects of golf course management.

Pond aeration can be an effective tool but is not the magic pill in all cases. Use an experienced consultant or extension specialist to 
examine the pond and develop a comprehensive management program tailored specifically for the site.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

19

ON COURSE WITH NATURE

Sharing the Success 
of Good Stewardship

A successful effort to create environmental education 
opportunities right in a school's backyard.

In 1992, Village Links at Glen Ellyn, 
in Glen Ellyn, Illinois, was the 
seventh golf course in the nation to 
achieve certification through the 
Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary 
Program for Golf Courses (ACSP). As 
part of their ongoing participation 
in the ACSP, golf course staff have 
reached well beyond the boundaries 
of the course. In 1995, they developed 
a Backyard Wildlife Program to help 
community residents integrate wild­
life habitat into their own backyards, 
and later that year they began work­
ing with local elementary schools to 
share their expertise on wildlife and 
habitat enhancement.

TAKE a look at most elementary 

schools and you will see familiar 
expanses of grass and parking lots 
that surround school buildings. While 

these hold up especially well with the 
constant trampling of energetic young­
sters, a typical schoolyard is rarely a 
landscape for learning. In fact, schools 
frequently pay hundreds of dollars each 
year to transport students to nature 
centers and other sites where they can 
engage in hands-on scientific investi­
gation. But what if kids could find a 
dynamic natural environment right 
outside the classroom on the school 
grounds? What if they could partici­
pate in transforming part of their 
school grounds into a sanctuary for 
wildlife and an exciting place to learn?
In 1995, we began just such a project 
at Ben Franklin Elementary School in 
Glen Ellyn, Illinois. As part of our out­
reach efforts through the Audubon 
Cooperative Sanctuary Program for 
Golf Courses (ACSP), we adopted the 
nearby school to share our expertise 
and help students and teachers reap the 
many rewards of good environmental 
stewardship.

Creating a Dynamic
Learning Environment

Our project involved planting a but­
terfly garden and restoring a small 

20 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

prairie on the school grounds to create 
two dynamic learning stations. The 
400-square-foot butterfly garden was 
planted with butterfly bush (Buddleia 
sp.), six varieties of native forbs, and 
five varieties of native grasses. The 
prairie restoration site was planted 
with 400 native prairie forbs and 
grasses covering a 1,000-square-foot 
site. In addition, observation benches 
and nest boxes for cavity-nesting birds 
were installed at both sites.

The butterfly garden and prairie 
restoration projects replaced 1,400 
square feet of mowed turfgrass and 
broadleaf weeds. Both projects were 
chosen to provide hands-on learning 
stations for the kindergarten through 
fifth-grade students. The two projects 
helped improve the aesthetics of the 
school grounds and provided habitat 
that attracted a variety of birds, butter­
flies, and other insects.

Project Goals

• Provide hands-on outdoor learning 

stations at the school.

• Involve the students in the project 
so they would feel pride in their school.
• Communicate to the students that 
they can take action that has a positive 
impact on their environment.

• Demonstrate to the community 
the importance of educating students 
about environmental and conservation 
issues.

• Share the habitat enhancement 
expertise the golf course has developed 
as a member of the ACSP for Golf 
Courses with our adopted school.

From Planning to Planting

The projects were planned in co­
operation with two teachers, students 
of the Very Important Planet Club (the 
V.I.P. Club is the school’s environ­
mental organization), parents, and golf 
course staff. To raise money for the 
butterfly garden, the parent/teacher’s 
organization sold shirts, while the golf 
course raised funds for the prairie site 

by CHRIS PEKAREK

through an annual plant sale. The golf 
course supplied all materials through 
wholesale contacts.

First, the sites were measured and 
laid out. The sod was stripped using a 
rented sod cutter. To amend the soil, 
a 2-inch layer of mushroom compost 
was spread over the butterfly garden 
site and rototilled in. In contrast, the 
prairie site was not amended or roto­
tilled.

Students who belong to the V.I.P. 
Club planted the butterfly garden. All 
600 students of the school turned out 
to plant the prairie in just one after­
noon. To keep it manageable, two 
classes of approximately 45 students 
worked on the prairie site at one time. 
Golf course staff were on site to explain 
to the students the benefit of native 
prairies. Teachers assisted the students 
in planting the potted prairie plants. 
Both sites were mulched with 3 inches 
of shredded hardwood mulch to help 
control weeds and retain moisture. 
Finally, school maintenance staff in­
stalled observation benches and bird 
nesting boxes at both sites.

The cost of implementing both 
projects was approximately $600 ($200 
for the butterfly garden and $400 for 
the prairie restoration). However, the 
projects will actually save money for 
the school by reducing field trips to 
offsite locations. (Field trips cost $300 
per trip.)

Rewarding Results

The sites provide hands-on, easily 
accessible learning Stations that en­
hance the classroom experience by 
supporting lessons students learn in 
their curriculum. Very few of the 
students ever had the chance to view a 
butterfly garden or native prairie. The 
school used to take a few dozen stu­
dents on field trips to a local arboretum 
to view similar plants. Now all 600 
students can view these native plants 
several times each school year. Every­
thing from studying plant parts to 
identifying and enhancing habitat for

Ben Franklin Elementary School student body planting prairie site at school.

wildlife can now be learned firsthand, 
right at school.

Response from the local community 
is extremely positive and generated a lot 
of interest. Publicity included a news­
paper article on the prairie planting, an 
award presented to the school by the 
town officials, and local cable tele­
vision coverage of the award presen­
tation. As an added benefit, the golf 
course achieved a new level of stand­
ing in the eyes of town residents. Vil­

lage board and recreation commission 
members comment on the positive 
aspect of the golf course being involved 
with the local schools.

One of the most satisfying aspects of 
our golf course involvement with the 
school was simply serving as a catalyst 
for the project and accomplishing 
something that the school would not 
have done on its own. What seemed 
easy to us — planting a butterfly garden 
and native prairie — was not simple to 

the school. Their gratitude and the 
stewardship lessons we helped create 
for so many students made the project 
rewarding for everyone involved.

CHRIS PEKAREK is the assistant golf 
course superintendent at the Village Links 
of Glen Ellyn, a public golf course in Glen 
Ellyn, Illinois. If you would like more 
information about this project, contact 
him at 630-469-2077, ext. 2, or via e-mail 
at chrisP6712@aol.com.

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

21

The Green Keeper

by EDGAR A. GUEST

He’s on the job at break of day and when the stars come out, 
There’s always trouble on the course for him to fret about, 
He starts the gang to work at dawn and follows them around 
Then listens to committeemen whose wisdom is profound, 
They talk of “bents” and “fescues” in a way that makes him squirm 
For they acquire much knowledge in one brief official term.
His task is one that calls for tact, for lacking that it means 
Next year there’ll be another man brought on to keep the greens.

%

The members seldom know his name, or have a smile for him, 
They only wonder why it is the course is not in trim. 
They only rave and rage and rant while hunting for a ball 
And wonder why the greensman hasn’t cut the rough this fall, 
And when they find a cuppy lie or footprints in a trap 
“The course is in a rotten shape!” declares each gloomy chap. 
And yet my hat is off to him, now winter intervenes, 
I want to pay my tribute to the man who keeps the greens.

Hers on the job from dawn to dusk, a million pests to fight, 
’Tis his to see that every green is watered well at night.
The weeds attack his finest work, the drought destroys his grass, 
The rain beats down the tender shoots, but still the players pass 
And still they play the game they love, a happy golfing clan 
Who never stop to count the odds against a single man. 
And so I wave my hand to him, who toils in sturdy jeans, 
The best old friend all golfers have — the man who keeps the greens.

From the January 1923 issue of The USGA Green Section Bulletin

22 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

NEWS NOTES
Research 
Committee 
Meeting

The USGA Turfgrass and Environ­
mental Research Committee held its 
1999 winter meeting at Valderrama 
Golf Club in Sotogrande, Spain. Prior 
to the meeting, the committee partici­
pated in the U.S.-Europe Golf Environ­
ment Summit.

The meeting brought together more 
than 80 representatives from Europe 
and the United States to present and 
discuss research results and conserva­
tion initiatives impacting golf courses. 
The conference examined the lead 
taken by golf in the environmental field 
and how the game can contribute to 
stewardship and sustainability in the 
wider environment.

Subscription
Rates
Change 
for the 
Green Section 
Record

It has been five years since the sub­
scription cost for the Green Section 
Record was increased. Due to rising 
production costs and an increase in the 
size of our magazine, the 2000 sub­
scription rates must be increased. 
Following is the annual fee schedule
for 2000:

U.S. subscription............................ $18

Canada/Mexico ..............................$21

International (air mail delivery)... $33

Six issues per year provide the most 
up-to-date information regarding 
agronomics, equipment, research ad­
vances, environmental issues, con­
struction information, and mainte­
nance philosophy.

The Green Section Record is a 
favorite among golf course superin­
tendents, Green Committee members, 
and golfers interested in turfgrass and 
golf course management.

Be the best in the business by reading 
the best information available in the 
business.

Left to right, first row: Ray Anderson, Tommy Witt, Jim Watson, Jimmy Ortiz-Patino, 
Charles Peacock, Mike Kenna, Kimberly Erusha. Second row: Jim Snow, Teri Yamada, 
Pat Cobb, Bob Shearman, Jeff Nus. Third row: Jim Moore, Buzz Taylor, AU Harivandi, 
Jim Latham, Paul Rieke, Noel Jackson, Ron Dodson.

2000 GREEN SECTION 
NATIONAL & REGIONAL CONFERENCES

NATIONAL CONFERENCE
February 19
FLORIDA REGION
April 11
April 13

MID-ATLANTIC REGION
February 8

Morial Convention Center

Palm Beach Gardens Marriott
Tampa Westshore Marriott

Raddison Monroeville 
Conference & Expo Center
DuPont Country Club

March 16

MID-CONTINENT REGION
March 8
March 9
April 4
April 5
April 25

Brook Hollow Golf Club
Brae Burn Country Club
Old Warson Country Club
Happy Hollow Club
Little Rock Country Club

NORTH-CENTRAL REGION
March 21
April 4

Marriott East
Country Inn Hotel

NORTHEAST REGION
March 28
March 29
SOUTHEAST REGION
March 21
April 3
April 24 or 26

The International Club
Desmond Hotel

Milliken Chemical, Inc.
To Be Determined
TPC at Sugarloaf

NORTHWEST REGION
March 8
March 13
April 10

Holiday Inn
Waverley Country Club
Waialae Country Club

SOUTHWEST REGION
March 14
March 21
March 23
March 28
March 29

Orange Tree Resort
Industry Hills Golf Club
Castlewood Country Club
Lakewood Country Club
University Park Marriott

New Orleans, Louisiana

Palm Beach, Florida
Tampa, Florida

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Wilmington, Delaware

Dallas, Texas
Houston, Texas
St. Louis, Missouri
Omaha, Nebraska
Little Rock, Arkansas

Louisville, Kentucky
Waukesha, Wisconsin

Bolton, Massachusetts
Albany, New York

Spartanburg, South Carolina
Birmingham, Alabama
Duluth, Georgia

Termopolis, Wyoming
Portland, Oregon
Honolulu, Hawaii

Scottsdale, Arizona
City of Industry, California
Pleasanton, California
Denver, Colorado
Salt Lake City, Utah

JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2000 

23

ALL THINGS CONSIDERED
CONSISTENT PERFECTION

Golf course management in an “everything now” society.

by BOB BRAME

I WISH I HAD a nickel for every 

time I’ve heard someone say “We 
just want it to play the same every 
day.” Usually this comes from a course 

official with authentic sincerity beam­
ing through an energetic smile. Some­
times I respond tactfully, but sometimes 
more bluntly, like: .. and the people 
in hell want ice water.” The bottom line 
is, we don’t always get what we want, 
especially when dealing with Mother 
Nature. Isn’t the ebb and flow of course 
playability, as a result of weather con­
ditions, the essence of golf? Isn’t the 
premise of the game to play the course 
the way you find it and play your ball 
where it lies? Many would nod yes, and 
yet turn and reiterate their desire for 
the same playability day after day.

We live in a society where business 
is conducted in seconds and minutes, 
rather than days, weeks, and years. 
Faxes and e-mail create immediate in­
formation flow. This has undoubtedly 
helped fuel the desire for immediate 
and perfect conditioning of golf 
courses. The attitude seems to be that, 
surely, in such a high-tech world some­
thing can be done to correct any prob­
lem or improve any situation. No doubt 
about it, something can be done, but it 
takes time. We are playing the game of 
golf on Mother Nature’s home court 
and the only thing that happens fast is 
crop failure. While today’s superinten­
dent has more tools to work with, it is 
still a living, dynamic surface.

The primary purpose of the Stimp- 
meter® is to allow a superintendent to 
monitor the consistency of ball roll 
speed from green to green on a given 
day. Where the game originated in 
Scotland, a few have argued about 
the need for consistency on a given 
day, but it has become the focus of 
American golf. In fact, we not only 
want them all the same each day, but 
we want it to roll the same day after 
day. This leaves the superintendent 
trying to counter high temperatures, 
high humidity, rainfall (too much or too 
little), or frost, to provide the same 
speed all the time. Then, when some 
turf weakening or loss occurs, the 
quick retort is, “We didn’t want you to

24 USGA GREEN SECTION RECORD

Mother Nature rules, so relax and enjoy the game. The golf course is never 
going to play the same every day, and playing the ball as it lies is the basic 
premise of the game.

kill them; we just wanted them fast.” 
Hello.

How about bunkers? Here again, it 
is common to hear, “Our bunkers 
aren’t consistent” or “There is too much 
(or too little) sand.” They’re hazards! 
Where did we get the idea that hazards 
should all play the same? At many 
courses, bunkers are the most expen­
sive footage being maintained. In fact, 
it is not uncommon to see bunkers 
being hand raked daily and the greens 
mowed with triplex units. What’s 
wrong with that prioritization of funds? 
Why not shift to the use of walk-behind 
mowers on greens and then rake 
bunkers once or twice a week, touching 
up footprints from the previous day’s 
disturbance on the off days.

Poa annua control is also tied to 
the “consistent perfection” syndrome. 
Everyone (golfers, committee mem­
bers, owners, officials, and superinten­
dents) continues to look for the silver 
bullet. We want it out of here and we 
want it done yesterday. But don’t raise 
the mowing height or dry the sur­
faces — keep ’em fast and make sure 
they hold! Recognizing that moisture 
in any form will slow green speed, it’s 
kind of tough to offer fast pace and 
surfaces that will hold a sculled nine 
iron. Dry is the target for both healthy

turf and good playability. If this means 
your shot doesn’t hold the green, play 
a different shot. Yet, ultimately it is 
Mother Nature who will determine 
what the pursuit of dry actually 
produces.

The harsh weather of 1995 and the 
drought of 1999 are examples that 
clearly illustrate Mother Nature’s ulti­
mate control of golf course playability. 
You’d think we’d learn to work with 
her and not try to fight the inevitable. 
Ultimately, an agronomically solid 
foundation and the realization that 
golf turf conditioning will vary depend­
ing upon weather conditions are the 
key components in avoiding the “con­
sistent perfection” syndrome/trap. Cut 
the superintendent some slack, unless 
of course you have a direct line on 
tomorrow’s weather. When we figure 
out how to e-mail or fax Mother Nature, 
then perhaps we can zero in on “con­
sistent perfection.” In the meantime, 
relax and enjoy the game. In reality, 
neither consistent perfection nor per­
fect consistency are realistic.

BOB BRAME is the Director of the 
North Central Region and works out of 
Covington, Kentucky. He visits courses 
in Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio.

USGA PRESIDENT
F. Morgan Taylor, Jr.

GREEN SECTION 
COMMITTEE CHAIRMAN 
C. McD. England III 
P.O. Box 58 
Huntington, WV 25706

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
David B. Fay

EDITOR
James T. Snow

ASSOCIATE EDITOR 
Kimberly S. Erusha, Ph.D.

DIRECTOR OF COMMUNICATIONS
Marty Parkes

©2000 by United States Golf Association®

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GREEN SECTION RECORD (ISSN 0041-5502) 
is published six times a year in January, March, 
May, July, September, and November by the 
UNITED STATES GOLF ASSOCIATION®, Golf 
House, Far Hills, NJ 07931. Postmaster: Address 
service requested — USGA Green Section 
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Visit the USGA’s Internet site on the 
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http://www.lib.msu.edu/tgif 
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GREEN SECTION NATIONAL OFFICES:
United States Golf Association, Golf House
P.O. Box 708, Far Hills, NJ 07931 • (908) 234-2300 • Fax (908) 781-1736
James T. Snow, National Director, jsnow@usga.org
Kimberly S. Erusha, Ph.D., Director of Education, kerusha@usga.org
RQ3e3rch1
P.O. Box 2227, Stillwater, OK 74076 • (405) 743-3900 • Fax (405) 743-3910
Michael P. Kenna, Ph.D., Director, mkenna@usga.org

Construction Education Programs:
720 Wooded Crest, Waco, TX 76712 • (254) 776-0765 • Fax (254) 776-0227 
James F. Moore, Director, jmoore@usga.org

REGIONAL OFFICES:
Northeast Region:
P.O. Box 4717, Easton, PA 18043 • (610) 515-1660 • Fax (610) 515-1663
David A. Oatis, Director, doatis@usga.org
1500 N. Main Street, Palmer, MA 01069 • (413) 283-2237 • Fax (413) 283-7741
James E. Skorulski, Agronomist, jskorulski@usga.org

Mid-Atlantic Region:
P.O. Box 2105, West Chester, PA 19380-0086 • (610) 696-4747 • Fax (610) 696-4810 
Stanley J. Zontek, Director, szontek@usga.org
Keith A. Happ, Agronomist, khapp@usga.org»Darin S. Bevard, Agronomist, dbevard@usga.org

Southeast Region:
P.O. Box 95, Griffin, GA 30224-0095 • (770) 229-8125 • Fax (770) 229-5974
Patrick M. O’Brien, Director, patobrien@usga.org
4770 Sandpiper Lane, Birmingham, AL 35244 • (205) 444-5079 • Fax (205) 444-9561 
Christopher E. Hartwiger, Agronomist, chartwiger@usga.org

Florida Region:
P.O. Box 1087, Hobe Sound, FL 33475-1087 • (561) 546-2620 • Fax (561) 546-4653
John H. Foy, Director, jfoy@usga.org

Mid-Continent Region:
P.O. Box 1130, Mahomet, IL 61853 • (217) 586-2490 • Fax (217) 586-2169
Paul H. Vermeulen, Director, pvermeulen@usga.org
4232 Arbor Lane, Carrollton, TX 75010 • (972) 492-3663 • Fax (972) 492-1350
Brian M. Maloy, Agronomist, bmaloy@usga.org

North-Central Region:
P.O. Box 15249, Covington, KY 41015-0249 • (606) 356-3272 • Fax (606) 356-1847
Robert A. Brame, Director, bobbrame@usga.org
P.O. Box 5069, Elm Grove, Wl 53122 • (262) 797-8743 • Fax (262) 797-8838
Robert C. Vavrek, Jr., Agronomist, rvavrek@usga.org

Northwest Region:
5610 Old Stump Drive N.W., Gig Harbor, WA 98332 • (253) 858-2266 • Fax (253) 857-6698
Larry W. Gilhuly, Director, lgilhuly@usga.org
P.O. Box 5844, Twin Falls, ID 83303 • (208) 732-0280 • Fax (208) 732-0282
Matthew C. Nelson, Agronomist, mnelson@usga.org

Southwest Region:
505 North Tustin Avenue, Suite 121, Santa Ana, CA 92705 • (714) 542-5766 • Fax (714) 542-5777 
Patrick J. Gross, Director, pgross@usga.org • Michael T. Huck, Agronomist, mhuck@usga.org

OFF-SEASON PLANNING

Question: In the fall, our golf course superintendent melted the frost off the greens with the sprinklers so that 
the golfers could play earlier in the morning. Now that it's January, our superintendent refuses to turn on the 
sprinklers and I'm not sure why. (Oklahoma)

Answer: When the morning temperature is still above freezing in the fall, frost on the greens can be quickly 
removed with a couple of revolutions of the sprinkler heads. During the winter, when the morning 
temperatures are close to or below freezing, small applications of water from the irrigation system will 
often result in ice accumulation. When ice forms, it takes longer for the greens to thaw, and thus, the course 
may not be fit for play until late morning or early afternoon. For the many golf courses that have to drain 
their irrigation systems for the winter, sprinkler use for dissipating frost isn't a practical solution.

ESTABLISHES

Question: I want to rebuild some tees and reestablish the surface with hybrid bermudagrass sod, but the only 
time our management allows me to do the project is during the winter when the bermudagrass is dormant. What 
do you think about using overseeded sod? Will it root well enough so that we can use it before the end of winter? 
(Arizona)

Answer: If your only alternative is to do the project in the winter, then overseeded sod is a good choice. 
While the bermudagrass will not begin active root growth until soil temperatures are around 75°F, the 
overseeded perennial ryegrass should hold the sod in place well enough for firm footing and good playing 
quality. You should allow at least four weeks for the sod to establish before opening the tee.

A PATH FOR THE FUTURE

Question: Our golf course is in the midst of a major battle over the direction the course will take in the future. 
One side wants a "Championship" golf course with many physical changes, while the other side doesn't want 
to spend any money on necessary course upgrades. Does the USGA have maintenance standards established 
or do you have suggestions on ways to bridge the gap? (Alabama)

Answer: It is not possible to manage a golf course via a "cookbook" approach. Many factors, including 
growing conditions, budget, golf course superintendent expertise, construction method, climate, etc. all 
play a role in how a course should be managed. First and foremost, the superintendent should work in 
conjunction with the course officials to develop a long-range plan. This plan should include both a financial 
plan and an architectural plan. Saving dollars and completing changes in-house that are based upon the 
personal opinion of single-digit golfers has ruined many a golf course. At the same time, there also are 
many courses that are in need of upgrading, yet the older members are loath to make changes, even if 
these changes make sense and will have a positive impact. The best answer is the selection of a quality 
golf course architect who can listen and create a plan, and the course should follow through for the benefit 
of the majority of the players.