J. F. CORNMAN

THE BULLETIN

of the

UNITED STATES GOLF ASSOCIATION GREEN SECTION

Vol. 8 

Washington, D. C., October, 1928 

No. 10

Contents

Page

Snow-Mold. Arnold S. Dahl....................................................................................  198

The Control of Snow-Mold. John Monteith, Jr., and Arnold S. Dahl...............  200

Lime in Some Typical Sands and Its Effect on Soil Acidity. O. J. Noer.......... 205

Pulverized Poultry Manure and Poultry Manure-Tankage. B. E. Brown........ 208

Bur Clover as an Adjunct to Bermuda Grass Fairways. Henry P. Smith.... 209

Winter Rules.............................................................................................................  211

Questions and Answers..............................................................................................  212

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Wynant D. Vanderpool, Chairman, 766 Broad 

Street, Newark, N. J.

Russell A. Oakley, Washington, D. C.
Harvey L. Westover, Washington, D. C.

H. Kendall Read, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Walter S. Harban, Washington, D. C.
H. Y. Barrow, New York, N. Y.
John Monteith, Jr., Washington, D. C.

United States Department of Agriculture

Russell A. Oakley, Chairman.
Harvey L. Westover, Acting Chairman.

United States Golf Association 

John Monteith, Jr. 
Kenneth Welton.

RESEARCH COMMITTEE

The Bulletin is published monthly by the United States Golf Association Green Section, 

Washington, D. C., at Room 7207, Building F, 7th and B Streets, N. W.

Address all MAIL to P. O. Box 313, Pennsylvania Avenue Station, Washington, D. C.
Send TELEGRAMS to Room 7207, Building F, 7th and B Streets, N. W., Washington, D. C.

Subscription Price: In United States of America, Mexico, and West Indies, $4.00 per year; in 

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Entered as second-class matter, April 21, 1926, at the postoffice at Washington, D. C., under 
the Act of March 3, 1879. Copyrighted, 1928, by the United States Golf Association Green Section.

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Vol. 8, No. 10

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

W. A. Alexander, Chicago, Ill. 
Eberhard Anheuser, St. Louis, Mo. 
A. C. U. Berry, Portland, Oreg. 
N. S. Campbell, Providence, R. I. 
Wm. C. Fownes, Jr., Pittsburgh, Pa. 
F. H. Hillman, Washington, D. C. 
Thos. P. Hinman, Atlanta, Ga. 
Frederic C. Hood, Watertown, Mass. 
K. F. Kellerman, Washington, D. C. 
Norman Macbeth, Los Angeles, Calif. 
E. J. Marshall, Toledo, Ohio.

W. L. Pfeffer, St. Louis, Mo.
George V. Rotan, Houston, Tex.
Sherrill Sherman, Utica, N. Y.
Frederick Snare, Havana, Cuba.
James D. Standish, Jr., Detroit, Mich.
Charles E. Van Nest, Minneapolis, Minn.
W. R. Walton, Washington, D. C.
Alan D. Wilson, Philadelphia, Pa.
M. H. Wilson, Jr., Cleveland, Ohio.
Frank L. Woodward, Denver, Colo.

Snow-Mold
By Arnold S. Dahl
University of Wisconsin

In the northern tier of states and in Canada, where golf courses 
are covered with snow for long periods in winter and early spring 
a disease of grass has become increasingly noticeable. This disease, 
known as snow-mold, causes great damage, particularly to putting 
greens. It is caused by a fungous organism which remains in the 
soil in a dormant state during most of the year and attacks the grass 
when conditions are favorable for its growth. Because of its great 
havoc in some sections an intensive study of the disease has been 
undertaken. The purpose of this study is to determine the cause of 
and the conditions which are favorable to the development of the dis­
ease and to devise control measures.

Although snow-mold has been known in this country only a few 
years it has been recognized in Europe for over a century. There it 
has been reported as occurring on fields of grain in the Scandinavian 
countries, and in Germany and Austria. In some years, when condi­
tions have been favorable, great losses have been reported in those 
countries. Frequently whole fields of grain have been completely 
wiped out. The organism attacks all the winter grains, but judging 
from most of the reports rye is apparently the most susceptible. 
Barley and wheat, though not as susceptible as rye, likewise suffer at 
times from the disease. Snow-mold has also been reported on lawns 
in Europe, but only in a few cases. Considering its widespread dis­
tribution on golf courses in the United States it is peculiar that snow­
mold has never been reported on fields of grain. Last spring, when 
the snow was melting, an attempt was made to find plants of grain 
injured by the organism. A survey was made of several fields of 
rye in various sections, but in no case were injured plants found nor 
could the organism be detected in the fields examined. It is hoped 
that a more complete survey can be made to determine whether or 
not the disease is present on winter grains in this country. Snow­
mold causes great damage to putting greens in the United States, 
particularly in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, and has been 
reported as serious in several regions of Canada.

The disease is noticeable as soon as the snow melts in the spring. 
When the snow has disappeared, dead areas are found in the turf. 
These places are sometimes covered with an aerial growth, or 
mycelium, of the snow-mold fungus. When exposed to the sun this 
growth takes on a pinkish color, so that whole patches may have a 
pinkish cast. At times this aerial growth is so abundant that the 
grass leaves are matted together and form a thick layer over the 
affected area. When this happens, the grass underneath is usually 

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199

killed outright. Other patches may not have an abundant aerial 
growth nor a pinkish color; instead they are a dirty gray, being thus 
easily distinguished from areas where the grass has been killed by 
other causes and which are light brown in color. Patches not having 
an abundant growth of mycelium are frequently not entirely killed 
but will slowly recover. Apparently the organism attacks the leaves 
first, and if conditions continue favorable it will then invade the 
stems and roots. The relation between the parasite and the host has 
not been worked out as yet, so that little is known as to what parts 
of the plants are involved.

The organism causing snow-mold was isolated at Madison, Wis., 
in February, 1927, by Dr. John Monteith, Jr. Experimenting in a 
greenhouse, he found that the organism which he had isolated from 
infected turf on a golf course would cause the disease in grass arti­
ficially inoculated in the manner customary in studying plant diseases. 
Last winter the organism was again isolated at Madison, from local 
diseased turf and from material received from Grand Rapids, Mich., 
and Minneapolis, Minn. Pure, or artificial, cultures of the organism 
were produced, and from a study of these the identity of the organ­
ism was found to be Fusarium nivale (the Latin word nivale mean­
ing “pertaining to snow”). The genus Fusarium contains a large 
number of species in addition to F. nivale, some causing diseases in 
plants and others remaining harmless in the soil. Most of the Fusaria 
develop best at high temperatures, but in this respect Fusarium nivale 
is an exception to the rule, growing well at any ordinary soil tem­
perature but attacking grass only at very low temperatures. In the 
greenhouse experiments successful inoculations with Fusarium nivale 
were made at temperatures ranging from 32 to 39 degrees Fahren­
heit. At these low temperatures spores are formed, either in salmon- 
colored masses of millions of spores, or singly on the mycelium. The 
organism was found, in the greenhouse, to cause disease in rye, barley, 
wheat, oats, fescue, creeping bent, and Kentucky bluegrass.

Snow-mold has been studied carefully by European scientists for 
many years but notwithstanding there is as yet very little known of 
its life history. It is known, however, that, particularly in Europe, 
it causes snow-mold during the late winter and early spring, while 
in late spring it may cause a disease known as foot-rot, in which the 
crown of the plant is attacked. Late in the season it causes a head­
blight of grains. In the United States it has been reported as causing 
foot-rot and head-blight. It is probable that on golf courses, and par­
ticularly on putting greens, it remains in a dormant state during most 
of the year, attacking the plants only under such temperature and 
moisture conditions as prevail when the snow is melting. Spores are 
produced in large numbers on infected plants, becoming visible at 
times as slimy, salmon-colored masses. These spores are usually 
carried from one place to another by means of water, and as a result 
of this an area on a green which is washed by much surface water 
may be very badly damaged or entirely killed from numerous infec­
tions. Often spores are formed early on mounds near a green, later 
to be washed down onto the green where they cause secondary in­
fections.

It has been observed in Europe that when snow falls before the 
ground is frozen the damage from snow-mold is very serious. From 
the limited observations made in the United States on putting greens 

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this would seem to hold true here also. When snow falls on ground 
that is not frozen and remains throughout the winter, the frost does 
not penetrate the ground to any marked extent, and under this con­
dition apparently the fungus can become active during a thaw at any 
time of the winter. In sections where snow does not lie on the greens 
all winter and thaws are frequent, the patches of snow-mold may be 
seen as early as December. Under such conditions it would seem that 
snow is not necessary for the development of the fungus. It is, how­
ever, evident that low temperature and much moisture are necessary. 
During thawing weather large snow banks create ideal conditions for 
the development of the disease, and under these circumstances serious 
losses occur.

Although a great deal of work has not been done to determine the 
difference in susceptibility of the various grasses, none of the grasses 
tested have proved to be immune. Fescue appears to be highly sus­
ceptible, while creeping bent is much less so. Kentucky bluegrass is 
more resistant than fescue but not as resistant as some strains of 
creeping bent.

The Control of Snow-Mold
By John Monteith, Jr., and Arnold S. Dahl

In the April, 1927, issue of The Bulletin a report was given of 
some preliminary experimental work for the control of snow-mold on 
putting greens. The results of those first trials were so promising 
that further experiments were arranged in the fall of 1927 to de­
termine whether the same treatment would prove effective in differ­
ent sections of the country. During the last season the disease was 
not as prevalent as usual on several courses where experimental plots 
were placed, and since the untreated areas on those courses were not 
severely damaged the freedom from disease in the treated areas 
could not be regarded as altogether conclusive. However, some such 
tests in Detroit, Chicago, Minneapolis, and Madison, Wis., gave re­
sults which indicated that the corrosive sublimate and calomel treat­
ments would check light attacks. These will not be discussed in de­
tail, for they merely substantiate the results already reported in the 
April issue of last year.

During the past winter many northern courses were severely dam­
aged by a late freeze, and the injury was so extensive that it was 
difficult to tell how much might have been due to snow-mold. On 
several courses, however, it was possible to distinguish the snow­
mold damage, and some interesting reports of tests with fungicides 
were received. These results, taken collectively, serve greatly to 
advance our knowledge of the problem of the control of snow-mold.

On the course of the Grand’Mere Golf Club, Grand’Mere, Quebec, 
snow-mold is regarded as an important annual problem, necessitating 
extensive patching in the spring. The chairman of the green com­
mittee, Mr. E. B. Wardle, conducted some tests with different rates of 
application of corrosive sublimate, as suggested in The Bulletin. 
Reviewing his results of the past season, he writes: “The treatment 
of our greens has resulted in very considerably diminishing the dam­
age caused by snow-mold. Only one green, No. 9, was badly affected, 
although we followed up the snow as closely as possible with brooms’, 

October, 1928

201

sweeping away the mold the same as we have done in previous years. 
There was plenty of snow-mold present, but we came through with 
but very little damage; in fact, I do not believe that we shall need to 
do any patching whatever as far as snow-mold is concerned.” He 
concluded, “I am absolutely convinced that the bichloride treatment 
helped our greens as far as preventing snow-mold is concernedbut 
he also states, “Our experience indicates that 3 ounces per 1,000 
square feet is not sufficient.”

Practice putting green of the Pine Lake Country Club, Detroit. Mich., showing the old scars of 
distribution of the disease on this green. It also shows how the damage may affect the putting 
surface well through the early playing season. At the time the photograph was taken no sign of 
snow-mold damage was apparent on the other 18 greens, which had been treated’the previous fall 
with calomel and corrosive sublimate

From Detroit we have received the following observations made on 
the course of the Pine Lake Country Club by Dr. O. W. White, chair­
man of the green committee:

“In the fall of 1923 we planted our greens to Vermont bent stolons, 
and the following year no winter fungus appeared. In the spring of 
1925 small bare spots dotted the greens, evidently from winter fun­
gus, and in the spring of 1926 big bare patches of from 4 inches to 
2 feet in diameter appeared. These did not heal until along toward 
the end of June. In the fall of 1926, as an experiment, we covered 
the greens with straw, and the following spring our greens looked as 
if they were completely ruined; but by carefully nursing them along 
they healed over by the middle of July. Toward the end of October, 
1927, we tried the following: Dividing a green into four sections, 
we used on the first section lVk ounces of calomel, on the second sec­
tion 3 ounces of calomel, on the third section l1/? ounces of corrosive 
sublimate, and on the fourth section 3 ounces of corrosive sublimate, 

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per 1,000 square feet, while on all other greens we used from 3 to 3^2 
ounces of corrosive sublimate per 1,000 square feet. In the case of 
the lighter treatments we have a small number of winter fungus 
spots this year, but where the heavier application was made the 
greens are entirely free from the disease.

“To mention a further experiment, at the time of covering our 
greens with straw, in 1926, we left uncovered a practice putting 
green, which, by the way, was about one year old, and the following 
spring this green showed very little damage. Last October we pur­
posely left this green uncovered and did not treat it in any way, with 
the result that it is very badly infected this spring with winter fun­
gus. We are now convinced that by the use of corrosive sublimate 
in October or early November our troubles from winter fungus are 
at an end.”

Another report, indicating like Mr. Wardle’s that heavier treat­
ments are needed in some sections, came from Mr. J. W. Harrison, 
of the Pine Beach Golf Course, who wrote: “Our Pine Beach course 
is located in central Minnesota, near Brainerd. We have 18 Wash­
ington bent grass greens, and are considerably troubled each year 
with snow-mold. Last fall we treated the greens with 2 ounces of 
bichloride to 1,000 square feet, but were not relieved. As an experi­
ment, we divided one green into squares, treating one square with P/s 
ounces per 1,000 square feet, one with 2 ounces, one with none, and 
one with arsenate of lead. Between the square given 2 ounces and 
the one with no treatment there was a rather distinct line, though 
the treated square, while less seriously affected, nevertheless called 
for some patching. This seemed to indicate that a heavier treat­
ment might perhaps check this trouble.”

Mr. T. McClenahan, greenkeeper of the Mayfair Golf and Country 
Club, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, reported as follows: “Each green 
was divided into four equal parts by running a weeding line north 
and south through the center and another east and west. The amount 
of corrosive sublimate for one quarter was put into a 50-gallon barrel 
and sprayed on with a pump fitted with agitators which keep the solu­
tion mixed. As soon as one quarter was done we thoroughly watered 
it in. It was a rather slow job, but results have shown that it was 
time well spent. Where we applied 1 ounce per 1,000 square feet, the 
fungus appeared, but not nearly as badly as in previous years. 
Where 2 ounces were applied, faint traces of snow-mold could be 
seen. Where 3 ounces were applied, there was absolutely no trace 
of the fungus and the turf looked good and healthy. One interesting 
fact came to light, namely, that provided the corrosive sublimate is 
properly dissolved, more than 3 ounces per 1,000 square feet can 
be put on with perfect safety; for example, the spot in the center of 
the green where the lines crossed received a double dose, but when 
the snow left it was the healthiest spot on all the greens. Previous 
springs our 9th green was covered with snow-mold. This green is 
in a rather shady spot, and the snow melts on the front of the green 
but remains piled up at the back. As the snow melts at the back and 
the water runs down it deposits the fungus on the front of the green. 
In a case like this I think that 2 ounces per 1,000 square feet will take 
care of the back of the green, where snow is lying, but the front must 
have a heavier application.”

The treatments reported above were all put on the previous fall 

October, 1928

203

before snow-mold developed. The question often arises as to what 
treatments should be given a green after the disease has appeared. 
On many courses where the disease does not occur every year it ap­
pears impractical to put on the fall precautionary treatment. It is 
thought best to wait until the fungus appears and to try to control 
it then if possible. There is little information available as to this type 
of delayed treatment. There are several objections to the use of 
chemicals for such purposes. The disease may develop to cause seri­
ous losses before it is detected, even when the greens are carefully 
watched during the winter. Anyone who has tried to treat northern 
greens with chemicals during the winter months will appreciate some 
of the difficulties of such work as well as the danger of making deep 
wheel or foot impressions in the turf during periods of thawing when 
snow-mold is active. However, applications of chemicals can be

Snow-mold injury on No. 2 green of the Masonic Country Club of Western Michigan. Grand 
Rapids, Mich. The light areas in the photograph show the damage caused by the fungus. Note the 
pencil in the foreground, which serves to indicate the size of the affected patches

made with safety if proper precautions are taken, and such treat­
ments offer a promising recourse in emergencies, especially for clubs 
in the southern part of the snow-mold region. Early in January Mr. 
A. E. Arnold, greenkeeper of the Masonic Country Club of Western 
Michigan, reported a severe attack of snow-mold on all his putting 
greens. Following our suggestion, he applied corrosive sublimate at 
different rates, mixing it with sufficient sand to give bulk for even 
distribution. This method made it possible to put on the chemical 
without water. The weather throughout the remainder of the winter 
was such that the disease did not develop much more seriously on his 
course even on the untreated parts. However, he did report that 
on his treated areas the disease was soon checked and the turf recov­
ered quickly in the spring. The severity of infection on one of his 
greens is shown in the accompanying illustration. On a near-by 
municipal course of Grand Rapids, Mr. L. H. Gork, city forester, 

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Vol. 8, No. 10

also conducted similar tests and found that the midwinter treatment 
with corrosive sublimate checked the disease.

The experimental work to date therefore indicates that the pre­
liminary results of control treatments reported in April, 1927, can 
in general be expected to be effective throughout the snow-mold belt. 
The lighter application of 1 ounce to 1,000 square feet will apparently 
check mild attacks of the disease, whereas even the heavy application

Control of snow-mold by midwinter treatments of corrosive sublimate. Diseased patches on 

No. 1 green, Sleigh Municipal Course, Grand Rapids, Mich.

The few lighter spots are the patches which were practically kifled by snow-mold before any 
treatment was applied. The other patches, gray, are the diseased areas where a treatment with 
corrosive sublimate the second week in January checked the snow-mold fungus and the turf had 
started to recover from the damage when the photograph was taken, April 3, 1928. Note the pencil 
in the foreground, which indicates the size of the patches.

of 3 ounces to 1,000 square feet must be exceeded to prevent injury 
where the fungus is unusually destructive. It is also apparent that 
an application of 1 or 2 ounces of corrosive sublimate to 1,000 square 
feet in midwinter or later, after the disease is active, is worthy of 
much further testing on courses where no preventive treatment has 
been applied the previous fall.

Fall burning of the rough.—We repeat that in the fall it is gen­
erally good practice to mow the rough, clean it up, and compost the 
salvaged material, or burn it. This practice will get rid of hosts of 
weed seeds and insects, and will make the rough more presentable 
the following season.

Humus in Soil Stores Water.—One of the important explanations 
of the desirability of having a quantity of humus or decomposing 
organic matter in the soil is found in the capacity of humus for soak­
ing up and storing water which is thus made available later for use 
by growing plants. Experiments have revealed that 100 pounds of 
sand can hold only 25 pounds of water, and 100 pounds of clay soil 

October, 1928

205

can hold only half its weight of water. In contrast, 100 pounds of 
decaying organic matter may hold as much as 190 pounds, or nearly 
twice its weight of water. Most soils are mixtures in varying pro­
portions of sand, clay, silt, and organic material. As a rule the 
greater the proportion of organic matter contained in the soil the 
greater its water-absorptive capacity, and the greater reserves of 
moisture it will retain for resistance to drought and hot weather.

Photograph by Albert A. Hansen, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind.

A demonstration of the value of rolling following seeding

The entire area shown in the illustration had been newly sown with grass seed, but a good 
catch was secured only where the soil had been compacted by footprints, and particularly by the 
wagon tracks which appear in the picture.

Rolling following seeding compacts the soil around the grass seeds, resulting in better germi­
nation and minimum mortality in the seedlings. Rolling may be a deciding factor in the success 
of newly seeded grass areas. The saving of expensive seed, to say nothing of the time involved, 
is a good argument for rolling all new seedings.

Lime in Some Typical Sands and Its Effect on Soil Acidity
By O. J. Noer, Madison, Wis.

In some districts clover is prevalent and does not seem to diminish 
as a result of consistent use of sulphate of ammonia. Large quantities 
of lime carbonate in the sand used in top-dressing mixtures is respon­
sible in many instances.

While clover prefers and grows best in non-acid soils, soil reaction 
is probably only one factor in its control. Casual inspection also seems 
to indicate that white clover is somewhat more tolerant of acidity in 
the soil than some of the other legumes. Nevertheless it can be 
eradicated. Judicious feeding to encourage the grasses and thus 
maintain a dense turf makes it difficult for clover to establish itself. 
In this connection only enough phosphoric acid and potash should be 
applied to satisfy the demands of the grasses, because in larger 

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Vol. 8, No. 10

amounts both tend to encourage clover, particularly if the soil is non­
acid or only slightly acid. Close inspection of turf on greens fre­
quently discloses the presence of minute clover plants, ready to spring 
forthand encroach upon areas of thin turf. Bare areas resulting from 
improper feeding, winterkill, or the ravages of fungus or insect pests, 
often become infested with clover and serve as centers from which 
it rapidly spreads.

Glacial sands in limestone sections frequently contain appreciable 
amounts of lime carbonate. It is sometimes present in beach and lake 
sands in the form of shell fragments. Wherever these are present 
the sand should be looked upon with suspicion. Last year the pos­
sibility of sand contaminated with lime carbonate counteracting the 
acid-producing power of sulphate of ammonia was pointed out. Since 
that time a number of sand samples have been examined and the lime 
carbonate content determined. The results are summarized in the 
accompanying table.

Lime Carbonate Content of Some Sands Used in Top-Dressing Mixtures
Lime Carbonate Content
Per cent Pounds per ton 

Source of Sand 

Wisconsin:

Michiwaukee Golf Club, Milwaukee....................................  37 
Lake Lawn Golf Club, Delavan............................................ 20 

Illinois:

Beverly Country Club, Chicago.......................................... 15 
Edgewood Valley Country Club, La  Grange.....................  23 
Ridgemoor Country Club, Norwood  Park.......................  16 
Westward Ho Country Club, Chicago............................. 21 

Indiana:

Indianapolis Country Club, Indianapolis......................... 31 
Meridian Hills Country Club, Indianapolis....................... 31 
Highland Golf Club, Indianapolis......................................  31 
Broadmoor Country Club, Indianapolis............................. 32 

Ohio:

Canterbury Golf Club, Warrensville, No.  1.................... 22 
Canterbury Golf Club, Warrensville, No.  2.................... 16 

Pennsylvania:

740
400

300
460
320
420

620
620
620
640

440
320

Philmont Country Club, Philadelphia (Scholey)............................... None
Philmont Country Club, Philadelphia (Drinker)......................... *’ None
Springhaven Country Club, Philadelphia (Blaisdell).....................  None
Crystal Sand Co., Bridgeton, N. J.....................................................  None
Pittsburgh Field Club, Pittsburgh...................................................... Trace

New York:

Hempstead County Club, Hempstead, L. I..................................... None

New Jersey:

Newark County Club, West Orange.................................................... None

Virginia:

Virginia Hot Springs Co., Hot Springs........................................  None

District of Columbia:

Potomac River sand..............................................................................  None
Some of the sand contains as much as 400 to 700 pounds of lime 
carbonate per ton. Evidently sands in the midwestern states must 
be looked upon with grave suspicion. Several samples of sand from 
Minneapolis, tested with muriatic acid, showed the presence of con­
siderable lime carbonate; but exact determinations of the amounts 
were not made. Apparently eastern districts are obtaining satis­

October, 1928

201

factory sand as far as lime carbonate content is concerned. This 
difference in lime carbonate content may partially explain why clover 
is more prevalent and harder to control in Milwaukee, Chicago, In­
dianapolis, Cleveland, and Minneapolis than in Pittsburgh, Phila­
delphia, and New York.

Several clubs in Milwaukee desired to secure lime-free sand. 
Samples of sand were requested from companies whose pits were 
located in a non-limestone section of the state. Two were found to 
be lime-free, one from Portage and the other from Amherst Junction. 
The Portage sand was too fine-grained, but the sand from Amherst 
Junction was satisfactory in all respects. It costs about $2 per ton 
f. o. b. Milwaukee, and $2.25 at Chicago. In Cleveland a silica sand 
free from lime carbonate was also found.

While 10 per cent of lime carbonate may not seem unreasonable, 
yet the amount of lime carbonate applied to the green may be large. 
A thousand pounds of sand at each top-dressing would contain 100 
pounds of lime carbonate, and at least 65 pounds of sulphate of am­
monia would be required simply to neutralize the lime. This does not 
leave any excess to create soil acidity. It is doubtful if greens ever 
receive this quantity of sulphate between successive top-dressings; and 
where sand of higher lime content is used, greens are becoming more 
alkaline in spite of the repeated use of sulphate of ammonia.

There is no. practical and economical method of removing lime 
carbonate from sand. It is necessary to search for suitable material 
in non-limestone sections.

The surface soil in limestone regions is often acid. The original 
lime carbonate has been leached out. Yet limestone soils are rarely 
as acid as those in non-limestone regions, and consequently it usually 
takes longer to obtain sufficient acidity to eradicate clover completely. 
In these regions it is important to eliminate lime from top-dressing 
mixtures and thus secure maximum benefit from the sulphate. Where 
clover is absent from greens regularly receiving lime-contaminated 
sand, the turf is usually so dense that clover is unable to gain a foot­
hold; but infestation will begin once the turf becomes thin.

The soil used in top-dressing mixtures sometimes contains up to 
several per cent of lime carbonate, particularly in limestone regions. 
In such regions lime-free soil is more frequently found at higher 
elevations on knolls than in the valleys and draws, due to the more 
thorough leaching.

Another source of lime is the well water of limestone regions used 
for sprinkling greens. While the amount is exceedingly small per 
gallon of water, in the aggregate it may be considerable, due to the 
large quantities of water used. Here again removal is impractical.

The presence of lime carbonate in suspected sand can be determined 
by pouring muriatic acid upon it. Effervescence occurs if lime car­
bonate is present. A more exact determination can be quickly made 
by a chemist. 
__________________

Why the white tee box?—Most tee boxes are painted white. There 
seems to be no necessity for this, and it has the disadvantage of 
making ugly things more obvious. White shows up more plainly the 
scratches, pencil writings, and carvings of caddies. Why not paint 
tee boxes a color in harmony with their surroundings? Olive green 
would be admirable for the purpose. It looks well even when faded.

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Vol. 8, No. 10

Pulverized Poultry Manure and Poultry Manure-Tankage

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, United States Department of Agriculture

By B. E. Brown

Commercial poultry manure collected from cars in which poultry 
has been shipped is richer in plant food than that obtained under 
average conditions on the farm. In the latter case the manure gets 
mixed with litter or some soil to such an extent that the nitrogen in 
the air-dried manure will average only about 2.5 per cent, while the 
manure collected from railroad cars, or where no chance for contami­
nation occurs, will run from 5 to 6 per cent in the prepared commer­
cial product. Not only will the litter and soil decrease the nitrogen 
content in ordinary poultry manure, but losses are apt to occur 
through volatilization of ammonia, due to failure to provide suitable 
storage conditions or to add materials to prevent the loss. In the case 
of commercial poultry manure considerable care is exercised to col­
lect the material as soon as practicable, and it is then treated and 
dried in such a way as to avoid loss of ammonia and other plant food 
constituents.

Another commercial product on the market is chiefly poultry 
manure with which has been incorporated some poultry offal. The 
manure and offal are ground and thoroughly mixed during the course 
of drying. This product contains even more nitrogen than commer­
cial poultry manure due to included blood and other more highly 
nitrogenous materials associated with the offal. An analysis of this 
material, which might be called poultry manure-tankage, showed it 
contained about 7.4 per cent of ammonia (about 6 per cent of nitro­
gen), and a relatively higher percentage of phosphoric acid and 
potash than the average run of poultry manure.

These richer commercial products contain a maximum of the 
original plant food constituents, are uniform in physical condition, 
thereby enabling one to distribute them evenly, and usually can be 
expected to give a good account of themselves on lawns, fairways, 
and putting greens, provided they are applied uniformly and at not 
too heavy a rate. It will be advisable to make the applications light 
and increase the number of applications rather than attempt one 
heavy application and take chances on “scorching” the grass. Such 
materials should be applied during showery weather, or if practicable 
the grass should be well watered with a hose to wash the material 
into the soil.

Poultry manure, either ordinary or commercial, or poultry 
manure-tankage, is also to be recommended for incorporation with 
the soil in the vegetable or flower garden.

[In The Bulletin for June, 1928, on page 112, we presented a table showing 
the percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash contained in a number of 
common fertilizers, including poultry manure. Several inquiries have been 
received as to whether the nitrogen contents claimed for certain poultry manure 
products on the market were false in view of the fact that they greatly exceeded 
the percentages indicated in The Bulletin. The table given in that issue was 
by no means complete. The article by Dr. Oswald Schreiner, which appeared 
in The Bulletin immediately following the table to which we refer, pointed out 
that there were many good fertilizers on the market, the labels of which were not 
likely to be misleading since buyers are protected from such frauds by the laws 
of several states. How’ever, to avoid any apparent injustice to those interested in 

October, 1928

209

poultry manure-tankage products we publish this article by Mr. Brown, of the 
Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, United States Department of Agriculture. There 
are at least two such by-products of the poultry slaughter-house business which 
are commonly used on golf courses, namely, Bestivall and Premier Brand.— 
Editors.]

Bur Clover as an Adjunct to Bermuda Grass Fairways
By Henry P. Smith

Eight years ago, when the land was purchased and cleared for the 
Spring Lake Country Club course at Waco, Tex., we had expected 
that a large part of the tract was sandy loam in character, but it de­
veloped that it varied considerably, running from sandy to gravelly, 
and a large part of it stiff or hard clay when dry, or a puddled, tight 
soil—“buckshot,” as they call it in this country. The fairways, after 
planting, were heavily coated with stock manure, which developed a 
fair growth of Bermuda grass, but they were still quite hard, and 
thin in places.

Bur clover patches on the course of the Spring Lake Country Club. In the background, along the 
wooded stretch, is seen the line of the 12th fairway, which is a solid strip of Bermuda grass occu­
pied by bur clover in the winter and early spring. The patchy area in the foreground will in all 
probability be completely covered by bur clover the following spring

I noticed patches of clover of various kinds that appeared to 
reseed annually, dying down in the spring. Wherever these patches 
appeared the Bermuda grass came up through them in the spring 
healthier and more vigorously than elsewhere, and there was a dis­
tinct softness or cushion effect to the feet when walking over these 
areas. I concluded that this might be a solution of our difficulties; 
and looking into the various varieties of clover that might be best for 
the purpose I decided upon bur clover, as it not only appeared to yield 
a maximum amount of nitrogen, but its extensive root system would 

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have a tendency to aerate or renovate these tight soils as well as add 
humus to the soil. A valuable addition, however, would be derived 
from the subsequent cuttings.

We have a limited water supply, barely sufficient to maintain our 
18 greens in good condition throughout the long, hot summer months, 
and were it not for the annual contribution of humus, nitrogen, and 
renovation of the bur clover, it is doubtful if the grass could go 
through the very dry and hot summer without severe deterioration. 
With an adequate water system, which we hope to install in the very 
near future, we will have fairways second to none in the South.

While my experience in the East in respect to golf course upkeep 
would make me very shy of introducing any kind of clover in the fair­
ways, particularly on sandy soils, nevertheless I believe that many of 
our southern courses could be considerably improved by treating them 
in the same manner as we have done, particularly those that are of 
hard clay or with very poor soil conditions.

Some varieties of clover grow better in the South than others. 
They are, or should be, extensively used as cover crops, and they make 
excellent pasturage, particularly when combined with Bermuda grass, 
providing all-year grazing. Bur clover comes in the fall and winter, 
when the Bermuda grass turns brown after the first frost, and dis­
appears in the spring when the Bermuda grass starts growing. 
Thirty to fifty per cent of the fertilizing value of bur clover is in the 
roots and stubble, the nitrogen being taken from the air and deposited 
in the nodules (wart-like lumps on the roots). A good crop of clover 
should add the equivalent of not less than 200 pounds of nitrogenous 
fertilizer to an acre annually.

The inoculated seed should be sown broadcast in the early fall, 
using from 12 to 18 pounds to the acre. If seed in the bur is used, 
20 to 30 pounds to the acre should be sown. If the seed is sown after 
the middle of August it is not a bad idea to boil the seed one minute, 
which tends to soften the seed coat and aid in rapid germination. 
The seed must, however, be inoculated after boiling. It can be sown 
in July, August, September, or October, and will come up when con­
ditions are favorable.

Bur clover will grow on any type of soil, and can be depended upon 
to add humus and nitrogen to the soil annually without sacrificing 
the regular summer crop at the farm, and is the cheapest legume that 
serves as a winter cover crop. It does not require reseeding, but 
perpetuates itself if given half a chance. It is also splendid to plow 
under as a green-manure crop.

There are a number of varieties of bur clover obtainable from 
seedsmen. The majority of the clover areas on our course are of 
California bur clover (Medicago hispida). Interspersed through 
these patches we also have the Southern bur clover (Medicago ara­
bica), which is very similar in all particulars, with the exception of 
a brownish center to the leaf, some spots small and some considerably 
larger.

[California and Southern bur clovers grow almost equally well between the 
91st and 100th meridians. This belt divides the western area, for which the 
California species is most suitable, from the eastern area, which is more favor­
able to the Southern bui clovei. Bur clover will not thrive on soils deficient in 
lime; hence, before attempting to grow clover in the Southeastern Coastal Plain 
and Florida, it would be necessary to supply this need.—Editors.]

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211

Winter Rules

The winter and early spring months always give those in charge 
of golf courses in the northern half of the United States the unpleas­
ant task of dealing with some unreasonable members who feel that 
membership in a club should carry with it absolute freedom in the use 
of all parts of the house and grounds. There are, of course, many 
ways of restraining such unbridled enthusiasts, but it is doubtful that 
any method has proven entirely effective while still preserving “peace 
and good will.”

Our attention has been called to a method used at the Columbia 
Country Club, Chevy Chase, Md., which may appeal to others faced 
with this problem. An appeal by the green committee to the golfing 
members of the club was distributed in the form of an attractively 
printed folder. The purpose was to educate the players to a better 
understanding of the whys and wherefores of one of those mysterious 
actions of the ever-puzzling green committee. The folder reads as 
follows:

“Owing to the adverse conditions, from a maintenance standpoint, 
to which the golf course is subjected under our climatic conditions in 
the late winter and early spring, it may be found necessary at times 
to close the course for a day or two in order to protect the turf and 
the soil and preserve a satisfactory surface for subsequent play.

“It is desired that you be acquainted with the reasons for dosing 
the course at such times as you may find the ‘Golf Course Closed’ sign 
posted in your locker room though the weather is fine overhead. It 
is the desire of those charged with the maintenance of your golf 
course, not to restrict your privileges thereon but to protect the 
course from injury that may be caused by play during the infrequent 
intervals in which the turf is very soft.

“The alternate freezing and thawing of the soil during the late 
winter and early spring months is one of nature’s greatest aids to 
golf course maintenance in this latitude. This weathering process 
restores the natural granular structure of the soil by breaking up the 
hard, packed mass that results from the heavy play and the trampling 
by laborers and packing by equipment during the summer and autumn 
months. This granular condition of the soil is very essential to the 
proper development of the turf grasses and to the durability of the 
turf, and if the course is allowed to rest from the time the frost 
leaves the ground until the soil settles naturally and the surface 
moisture has evaporated, the surface will be left smooth and the soil 
in ideal condition for growing grass when the season for growth 
begins. On the other hand, if the course is used while the frost is 
leaving and the soil is very soft and soggy, this newly restored 
granular structure will be broken down before the grass has gotten 
the benefit of it. Aside from the interference to this natural turf 
expedient, many of the grass roots that serve to feed the grass and 
bind it into the mass known as turf are broken by pressure of the 
foot as it sinks into the soft soil, and a considerable period of the 
early growing season is required for nature to repair this injury.

“Another matter which is of more concern from a player’s stand­
point is the rough, bumpy surface of the putting greens and fairways 
resulting from deep foot impressions made by the players and caddies 
when playing on the course immediately after a thaw. A few players 

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and their caddies at such times may leave the putting greens in very 
bad condition for themselves and others who may wish to play 
after the ground has dried out. A bumpy surface on a putting green 
is difficult to overcome, and usually when such a condition occurs in 
the late winter or early spring a good part of the best golfing season 
has passed before that very desirable true surface can be restored.

“These are some of the reasons why the unwelcome sign ‘Golf 
Course Closed’ may be found at your club occasionally; but be assured 
that this will not occur more often nor for any longer periods than is 
deemed absolutely essential for your maximum enjoyment of the 
course during the golfing season.

“When in doubt as to the condition of the course, a telephone call 

to the club may save a disappointing trip or a wasted day.

“Yours for the best golf course possible, and for you the best 

golfing season ever!”

Stepladder tees.—These ancient relics may still be found on occa­
sional golf courses. It is next to impossible to grow grass uniformly 
on them, and if the grass does grow in spots it is an expensive task to 
keep it mowed. It would be economy to obliterate the steps by filling 
them in with soil and reducing the incline, and would add much to the 
attractiveness of the tee and its surroundings. We have seen tees 
twelve feet high easily reached by an incline and the turf kept in an 
excellent condition.

Tricky holes or shots are never good ones.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

All questions sent to the Green Section will be answered in a letter 
to the writer as promptly as possible. The more interesting of these 
questions, with concise answers, will appear in this column. If your ex­
perience leads you to disagree with any answer given in this column, it is 
your privilege and duty to write to the Green Section.

While most of the answers are of general application, please bear in 
mind that each recommendation is intended specifically for the locality 
designated at the end of the question.

The relation of fertilizers to the growth of clover.—Does cotton­
seed meal introduce clover on soils where legumes occur naturally?__
(Colorado.)

Answer.—Cottonseed meal in itself would not introduce clover, 
but if clover seed gets into a green through top-dressing or by naturai 
distribution the 3 per cent of phoshoric acid and 2 per cent of potash 
contained in the meal would favor the development of the clover. At 
the same time some phosphoric acid and some potash are necessary for 
the best development of grass, especially on soils which may be de­
ficient in one or both of these fertilizing constituents. The compost 
with which putting greens are fertilized usually takes care of this 
need, but occasionally on some soils a deficiency of phosphoric acid or 
potash is shown by the quick and vigorous growth of grass after one 
or both of these fertilizing elements are supplied. An excess of either 
phosphoric acid or potash would stimulate the growth of clover and 

October, 1928

213

various weeds, but with an occasional application of cottonseed meal, 
which is relatively low in these elements and high in nitrogen, clover 
is not stimulated at the expense of the grass. Apparently the best 
means of supplying a little phosphoric acid and potash to the turf 
each year is the use of the organic form of fertilizer, since organic 
matter is beneficial to soils, helping to conserve soil moisture and 
open up and otherwise improve the physical condition of the soil. 
Cottonseed meal is rather high in price at present, but other organic 
fertilizers, such as activated sludge, soy bean meal, pulverized poultry 
manure, and castor bean pomace, which are relatively low in phos­
phoric acid and potash, may be used in its place. Once greens are 
well weeded the turf should receive what it requires, and in the spring 
and fall growing seasons a little phosphoric acid and potash are safe 
to use. The supply of nitrogen should, however, be kept up, as it will 
stimulate the grass; but apparently clover does not require much arti­
ficial nitrogen, since due to its peculiar root system it is able to make 
use of the nitrogen which is taken from the air by certain bacteria 
which inhabit its roots. Usually some weeds and clover are intro­
duced into a green through top-dressing, but if the nitrogen content 
is kept high in fertilizers there need be no fear of stimulating these 
beyond a good development of the grass.

Selecting bent strains.—We are considering putting in some bent 
greens. We notice from the literature that comes into our office that 
there are several kinds of bent advertised. Which do you consider 
the best grade to buy?—(Michigan.)

Answer.—You do not indicate whether you wish bent from seed 
or stolons. There is much discussion as to which is the better for put­
ting greens, and since both types have their ardent supporters it is 
difficult to determine which is really preferred by the “average 
golfer.” Of the bents commonly grown from seed, Rhode Island bent 
and South German mixed bent both give satisfactory results in your 
locality. Colonial bent and Prince Edward Island browntop are simi­
lar to Rhode Island bent. There are different grades of both of these 
bents. The seed of highest purity and germination is, of course, the 
best for sowing on putting greens, where it is desirable to have as 
little mixture as possible with weeds and the coarser grasses. There 
is also seed of different strains of creeping bent on the market, but 
so far these strains have not been sufficiently tested in your locality 
to warrant general recommendations. Of the strains of bent planted 
by the stolon method, the two which have given most satisfactory 
results are the Washington and the Metropolitan strains. Both of 
these are of nearly the same texture, showing, however, some minor 
differences in color and disease resistance. Apparently the choice of a 
bent for greens is much like the choice of an automobile; there are 
several satisfactory types on the market, and the final choice should 
be left to the individual or club. The Green Section has a newly 
established cooperative planting on a course in your locality, and it 
is suggested that your committee visit that course and judge for itself 
which type is best suited for your district. Although this planting is 
comparatively new, it will, nevertheless, give you an opportunity to 
see the characteristics of the various bents as grown in your climate. 
On this course you will see the grasses on small experimental plots 
and also on greens under actual playing conditions.

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Acid soil and sulphate of ammonia best for putting greens.—We 
have had the soil on our bent putting greens tested and find it is 
slightly acid. Should we try to sweeten it? We have also tried a 
special commercial fertilizer on one patch of grass, while we have 
used compost alone on another; the fertilizer gave very much better 
results. Should we discontinue using compost?—(Georgia.)

Answer.—A slightly acid condition of the soil is desirable, as 
fine turf grasses thrive in such a soil, while some weeds are dis­
couraged. You have evidently a slightly wrong impression regarding 
the use of compost. Usually compost contains slightly less than 1 
pound of nitrogen, half a pound of phosphoric acid, and 1 pound 
of potash, per 100 pounds. Putting green turf only occasionally 
requires more phosphoric acid or potash than the compost supplies. 
Also if phosphates and potashes are supplied in excess of the turf 
requirements, clover, chickweed and various other weeds may be en­
couraged. Putting green grasses, however, require nitrogen in addi­
tion to that contained in compost. The best form of nitrogen, other 
things being equal, is sulphate of ammonia, which also aids in acidify­
ing the soil. Sulphate of ammonia should be used several times during 
the year in addition to compost. Apply it at the rate of 3 pounds in 
hot weather, and 5 pounds in cooler weather, per 1,000 square feet. 
Mix the sulphate in a sufficient quantity of dry soil to insure an even 
distribution, and follow the application by thoroughly watering the 
sulphate into the turf. The brand of fertilizer you are using is a 
comparatively expensive source of nitrogen. It contains 7J/> per cent 
available nitrogen, while sulphate of ammonia contains 20 per cent, or 
nearly three times as much; at the same time the sulphate can usually 
be obtained at less cost per ton. You would be well advised to try 
sulphate instead of the fertilizer you now use, making applications 
whenever the grass seems to lag or need stimulation.

Essentials of a machine and tool house.—We are completing a 
nine-hole golf course and are anxious to obtain data relative to the 
essential features that should be embodied in a shed for the shelter of 
machines, tools, shed and fertilizer and for use as a work shop.— 
(Florida.)

Answer.—We would suggest that your shed should be about 18 
feet deep and of any width to meet your requirements. At one end 
of the shed should be an enclosed room with a work bench. This 
room can be used as a greenkeeper’s office, also for the storage of 
chemicals, spare parts and small tools. The room should be fitted 
with a lock as a guard against thefts. The shed should have a con­
crete floor, at least in part, so that fertilizers could be piled in the 
shed without danger of becoming damp. On such a floor compost 
could be piled and sifted also, or kept dry during wet weather; also 
soil or seed could be mixed on such a floor. The shed should be high 
enough so that wagons and implements could be backed or driven 
into it. The front of the shed, which runs lengthwise of the building, 
should be made up of large sliding doors, and several windows should 
be placed in the rear. The shed should contain bins lined with zinc 
for storage of smaller quantities of seed. Larger quantities of seed 
or fertilizer can be kept in bags. Racks for hand tools should be 
arranged in the shed.

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215

Killing poison ivy.—How may we get rid of poison ivy in our 

rough?— (Massachusetts.)

Answer.—Sulphuric acid will kill any plant with which it comes 
in contact and is much used in the killing of dandelions, plantain, 
and crab grass. A sharp stick is dipped into the acid and then thrust 
into the root crown of the weed. Care must be taken not to get the 
acid on the hands or clothing. Poison ivy may also be killed by thor­
oughly spraying it with kerosene oil. Also a solution of salt brine 
(3 pounds to 1 gallon of water) will kill the plant if applied with a 
sprinkling can or a sprayer. The kerosene and salt brine will kill the 
foliage of most other plants also, but if the applications have not satu­
rated the ground the roots of the grass will not be killed and the grass 
will recover. Most weeds, however, will be set back considerably, if 
not killed. Most of the commercial weed killers consist chiefly of 
arsenite of soda, and heavy doses of this will kill any vegetation. The 
arsenite should be applied as a spray in a solution of 5 pounds to 50 
gallons of water. Fifty gallons of this solution would be sufficient to 
remove the weeds from 3,600 square feet, and at this rate would prob­
ably not destroy the grass.

Controlling earthworms.—Can we control earthworms on our 

greens with arsenate of lead?—(Illinois.)

Answer.—On most soils arsenate of lead will prevent earthworms 
from being active at the surface. Apply the arsenate to the putting 
green at the rate of 5 pounds to 1,000 square feet. It is well to mix 
the arsenate with dry soil in order to increase the bulk of the applica­
tion and hence insure a more even distribution. The banks of the 
green and areas within 10 or more feet of the putting surface should 
also be treated, so that worms from the outside will be poisoned be­
fore reaching the putting area. After broadcasting the material 
evenly over the desired area it is well to drag a mat over the turf in 
order to work the arsenate of lead down to the soil by brushing it off 
the grass blades. An application of arsenate of lead will keep out 
earthworms for considerably over a year on some soils, but on others 
more frequent applications may be required.

STATEMENT OF THE OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, ETC., REQUIRED BY THE ACT OF 
CONGRESS OF AUGUST 24, 1912, OF THE BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES 
GOLF ASSOCIATION GREEN SECTION, PUBLISHED MONTHLY AT WASHINGTON, 
D. C., FOR OCTOBER 1, 1928.

District of Columbia, ss:

Before me, a notary public, in and for the District of Columbia, personally appeared Kenneth 
Welton, who having been duly sworn according to law, deposes and says that he is the joint editor, 
managing editor, and business manager of The Bulletin of the United States Golf Association Green 
Section, and that the following is, to the best of his knowledge and belief, a true statement of the 
ownership, management, etc., of the aforesaid publication for the date shown in the above caption, 
required by the Act of August 24, 1912, embodied in section 411, Postal Laws and Regulations, to wit:
1. That the names and addresses of the publisher, editors, managing editors, and business 
manager are: Publisher, United States Golf Association, 110 East Forty-second Street, New York, 
N. Y.; editors, managing editors, and business managers, John Monteith, Jr., and Kenneth Welton, 
Washington, D. C.

2. That the owner is the United States Golf Association, a corporation organized and existing 

under the law not for profit and having no capital stock.

3. That there are no outstanding bonds, mortgages, or other securities.

Sworn to and subscribed before me this 4th day of October, 1928.

(seal) 
(My commission expires May 4, 1933.)

(Signed) F. E. SINGLETON.

(Signed) KENNETH WELTON, Joint Editor.

AS WE FIND THEM

This is the season when little Sonny up North is being “sewed up for 

the winter”—likewise the putting greens.

Some greens are all tucked away under a heavy blanket of straw—much joy 

in mousedom.

On one course heaps of branches and underbrush are piled around the green 

to “catch the snow and hold it on the green to protect the grass.”

On the next course the men are busy well to the windward of greens putting 
up snow fences to “catch the snow and keep it from the green to protect the 
grass.”

Sounds like a rebuttal for the perennial fall debate: “Katy did__

Katy didn’t.”