Journal of Social Development in Africa (1990) 5,2, 87-99 
Social Work and the Question of Social 
Development in Africa 
KWAKU OSEI-HWEDIE+ 
ABSTRACT 
The author initially considers the severe development crisis of the African 
continent which urgently needs the attention of policy makers, planners and 
frontline workers. A discussion is then presented on how the methodologies of 
social development and social work converging as 'human focused development' 
can assist in ameliorating this situation. The author notes that social workers are 
trained to deal at a systems level with social problems and that social workers are 
capable of playing multiple roles at both community and agency levels. As such 
the author calls for greater recognition of the social work profession in tackling 
major problems of development 
Introduction 
This paper focuses on the issue of social development in Africa and the central role 
of social work in the process of development To this end, the paper briefly 
discusses the 'African Development Crisis', some of the methods adopted to stem 
this crisis and the contribution to be made by social work as a profession. 
This issue was the subject of a recent discussion by a number of Zambian 
academics on Television Zambia on the theme of educational policy, in particular 
higher education. In this discussion social work education and the profession of 
social work were characterised as more or less useless, hence having no role in 
national development One indicator used to illustrate this argument was that those 
who pursue the social work programme at the University cannot find jobs or are 
generally unemployable. One panelist noted (Mwauluka,1988): 
" the student himself wants a particular degree for whatever reason. That is 
why for example we have a lot of students who come into the university to 
do social work. At the end of their stay at the University they have no job." 
+ Senior Lecturer, Social Development Studies, University of Zambia, P O Box 32379. Lusaka. 
Zanbia.
88 KwabiOsei-Hwedie 
Statements like this are indicative of a general misunderstanding of what social 
work is, its role in social development, and what contemporary social workers in 
the Third World, at least in the Zambian context, are trained to do, and are capable 
of doing well. However, before I attempt a discussion on social work contributions 
and roles in social development, a discussion of some elements of the African 
social problem, and social development in general, is essential. 
The development crisis 
Africa is rich in natural resources. It has huge mineral, water and forest resources. 
Cash crops abound. As Yimam (1982:59) has observed: 
"In terms of minerals for examples, it contains 80 percent of the world's 
annual gold production, 75 percent of the diamonds, 15 percent of uranium, 
18 percent of copper, and 11 percent of petroleum. In terms of cash crops, 
it produces 62 percent of the world's cocoa, 26 percent of the world's 
coffee, 32 percent of palm oil, 28 percent of shelled groundnuts and 11 
percent of tea. But the paradox is that its foreign exchange earnings from 
its rich minerals and cash crops are not even sufficient for the import of 
food. Hence, Africa consumes only 7 percent of the world's food." 
Despite Africa's potential wealth, it is the least developed continent and cannot 
grow its own food. By 197116 of the countries identified as least developed were 
in Africa. In 1974 21 of the 43 countries most affected by economic crisis were 
in Africa. The World Bank has indicated that of the 13 poorest countries in the 
world, 10 are African (World Bank, quoted in Yimam,1982). 
This situation has serious consequences. For example, in 1984, an estimated 
five million children died of malnutrition. In addition there are a million others 
who survive but are physically or mentally retarded. There are also millions of 
refugees, mostly women, children and the elderly, on the continent in several 
countries including the Sudan, Somalia, Zaire, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania and 
Angola, countries that are also experiencing socioeconomic hardships 
(Racelis,1986:23). 
Poverty is a basic socioeconomic problem in Africa. It is characterised by low 
standards of living, unemployment, exploitation of the masses, inappropriate 
education and lack of any serious or appropriate channels for poor farmers, 
peasants and the masses in general to make their voice heard. 
These conditions indicate failure, or alack of development. Ithas been stressed 
that the underlying factors leading to this situation include the deterioration of 
African family structures and capacities, which in turn affect levels of living 
distortions in the economy, especially rural economies with high under and 
unemployment; large population increases; degradation of the land; inappropriate 
social policies including food policies; and heavy debt repayments. In short, there 
is "maldevelopment through policies that have given little attention to the needs of
Social Work and Social Development 89 
the majority of rural dwellers, particularly women and children" (Racelis,1986:23). 
In Africa 20-40 percent of all children die before their fifth birthday from one of 
the major diseases of childhood - measles, pneumonia, malaria, whooping cough, 
tetanus, etc. 
The neglect of women, especially food producers, has led to declining food 
production and family nutritional levels in both rural and urban areas. In addition, 
and contrary to food production requirements, land use has constantly and 
significantly shifted from food to export crop production which has monopolise*! 
the utilisation of the few 'directed' scientific inputs, extension services, credit and 
the little available male labour. To a large extent, therefore, food production is left 
to women who dependon'hoe'technology and utilise marginal lands (Racelis.1986) 
The annual rate of population growth in Africa is about three percent. Based 
on this trend, the continent's total population is expected to double within the next 
20 years, to over 1 billion people. The level of fertility in Africa is such that 45- 
50 percent of the total population is under the age of 15. This high dependency ratio 
is a burden on the labour force. Despite the population problem associated with the 
rate of growth, the grain production on the continent is expected to increase by only 
2 percent per annum, and that assuming that there are no adverse weather or other 
conditions. 
The African developmentcrisis stems from an agglomeration of many problems. 
Africa, among all the continents, shows the highest rate of population explosion 
and environmental degradation, and the lowest rate of income, economic growth, 
literacy and political stability. 
Human focused development 
Dr Racelis, UNICEFRegional Director for Eastern and Southern Africa, maintains 
that in order to address these adverse conditions, human focused or 'people-based' 
development is needed. In this regard rural dwellers, urban slum dwellers and 
youth must have both the opportunity and the capacity to participate fully and 
meaningfully in decisions taken on their behalf. In addition, their needs, interests 
and aspirations must receive greater attention in the public agenda. Strategies to 
emphasise include the promotion of genuine community participation, which will 
lead to better more sustained programmes, democratised, and access to, decision 
making; and the empowerment of women, youth and other disadvantaged groups 
in society. The underlying assumption in these strategies is that women and youth 
comprise more than half of all societies and hence their contribution to development 
must be recognised and appreciated. Their efforts too must be supported to avoid 
wastage of resources and the undermining of socioeconomic progress. 
This human focused development philosophy is based on the assumption that 
all sectors of society should have access to information, goods, services, opportunities
90 KwakuOsei-HwedU 
and the decision making process. This is an egalitarian principle which implies 
giving attention and emphasis to the most disadvantaged or vulnerable groups in 
society. Human focused development has also been referred to as a social strategy 
approach. The goals of this approach include improvement in the quality of life 
through the mobilisation of human and natural resources, equitable distribution 
and utilisation of resources, income and other benefits of economic progress, mass 
participation in socioeconomic activities and associated political actions; and 
special programmes that focus on disadvantaged groups (see also Osei- 
Hwedie.1975). 
The strategy.therefore.asPandey (1981:35) indicates focuses on "a simultaneous 
performance of many actors and institutions, a progression over time phases, and 
a notion of means-ends chains, where all of the performances are at once ends in 
themselves and means to a more general end". The specific measures may 
generally be identified as fiscal, occupational and social welfare, andrequire social 
analysis and action in several areas which, in the long run, will affect income, 
wealth, goods and services, social relations and institutions. 
The human focused approach to development, therefore, recognises the role 
human beings play as agents and beneficiaries of change. It is in this way that social 
development becomes an investment in human capital geared towards improving 
the overall conditions and quality of life. The focus is on productive capacity, 
participatory skills, cultural experience and enhancing the capacity and opportunity 
of everyone. 
The emphasis on human progress demands the universal provision of social 
services including education, housing, employment, health and recreation. This 
universality should be combined with special attention to the poor, weak and other 
vulnerable groups. It is in relation to this that issues pertaining to the scope and 
quality of services, access to those services, and social accountability must be 
addressed. 
Social development, therefore implies the continuous search for a more 
harmonious and beneficial interaction among various units of society, and the 
equitable distribution and utilisation of resources. Based on this, it refers to 
(ASWEA,1986:53): . 
"the evolution of system capacity for survival within the context of the larger 
environment of which the social system (nation community) is a part. 
Hence social development represents positive changes in individual, group, 
and institutional capacity to place the environment (material resources) at 
the service of man." 
The environment can only serve man through the effective utilisation of human 
resources and effective organisation of production - ie improvement of physical 
infrastructure, supply and marketing systems, skills, attitudes, tools, etc. Social
Social Work and Social Development 91 
development must therefore be defined and conceived of as an aspect of a larger 
development The indicators of social development, therefore, include improved 
economic productivity, improved efficiency, and stable and mutually supportive 
interactions among units of social systems. 
Defined in this way, social development encompasses community development, 
rural development and other specific focused or directed development processes. 
For example, community development is defined as (Jack,1982:41): 
"the process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united with 
those of governmental authorities in improving the material, social and 
cultural conditions of the communities and in such a way as to integrate 
these communities in the main stream of life of the nation, thereby enabling 
these communities to contribute to overall national programmes." 
Along the same lines and based on the same philosophy of social participation 
and over-all improvement in the general circumstances of rural societies, rural 
development is defined as a (Jack,198241): 
"the process of socioeconomic change involving the transformation of 
agrarian society in order to reach a common set of development goals based 
on the capacity and needs of people. These goals include nationally 
determined growth thatgives priority toreductionofpoverty, unemployment 
and inequality and the satisfaction of minimum human needs, and stresses 
self-reliance and the participation of all people, particularly those in the 
lowest standard of living. " 
Thus community development and rural development, within the context of 
social development, involve physical and environmental changes as well as 
changes in peoples' attitudes, and perceptions, and relations among them and with 
their environment 
Despite the fine conceptualisations of social development by academicians, 
government officials and others, there is a serious gap between the intention and 
action of social development This gap is partly the result of an inadequate 
understanding of the basic requirements. For example, reduction of rural-urban 
disparities, creation of new opportunities, utilisation of labour intensive technologies, 
democratisation through popularparticipation, utilisation of self-reliance strategies, 
introduction of innovation, etc all demand clear understanding of specific inputs 
and directions. Yet the definition often does not go beyond philosophical 
pronouncements or mere slogans. 
Despite many official pronouncements concerning efforts to correct imbalances 
in the food and cash crop production unit through price policies, incentives, 
infrastructural development, and market mechanisms, and the need or desire to 
promote rural industrialisation through small scale labour intensive schemes using 
local raw materials, very little has been accomplished in these directions.
92 KwabtOsti-Hwedie 
Perhaps the seriousness with which social development must be tackled is 
exhibi ted by what it requires. Mr David Jack (1982), Directorof Social Development, 
Sports and Culture in Nigeria, identifies four basic ingredients of social development 
as socioeconomic integration; structural change involving the improvement of 
resources and distribution; modification of existing structures and the elimination 
of dysfunctional ones; and institutional renewal including constant evaluation of 
institutional structure. 
Such ingredients form the basis for effective and efficient organisation and 
delivery of services, which in turn require an integrated developmental approach. 
Thus all sectors and disciplines must be fused together to make a coherent whole. 
It becomes abasic requirement, therefore, that, for example, agricultural extension, 
basic health, and education are all provided on a well coordinated, cooperative and 
collaborative basis. 
Social development personnel 
Given this focus for social development, it follows that the personnel, or agents of 
social development, must be able to understand the nature of development, have 
the capacity to tackle questions of cause and effect, and the implications and 
ram ifications of present or future actions. Again this implies that the personnel will 
be capable of transcending the traditional social work role of focusing on symptoms 
of individual, group or community malaise. Once this is done, greater attention 
could be placed on factors such as the social structure, the value system, political 
and economic forces, and external influences and their likely effect on individuals, 
groups and the community as a whole. 
Among the skills required, social development agents must be planners and 
able to manage change. To this end, they must have the skills to facilitate holistic 
planning, by ensuring that sociocultural, political, economic and institutional 
factors are taken into consideration in the process of decision making - including 
problem identification and definition, designing a course of action, implementing 
programmes and evaluating results. 
Their efforts must therefore be geared towards yielding genuine participation 
by community members in all processes. They must have the skill and resources 
to cultivate the willing and fruitful involvement of people in problem solving and 
general decision making. They must also have the ability and willingness to create, 
operate and maintain an organised and sustained capacity for continuous problems 
solving (ASWEA,1986) 
As development agents, they must be more or less concerned with the 
mobilisation of human, material and institutional resources - managers of both 
methods and process. The implication is clear. Theymustbe skilled methodologists
Social Work and Social Development 93 
who are capable of defining problems, instituting actions for solving those 
problems and facilitating coordinated interdependence and mutual cooperation 
among programme components, and among different programmes and service 
providers. This also means that they must have social communication skills so as 
to be able to positively liaise with staff of varied backgrounds (Jack,1982). 
It is clear that social development education must be geared towards training 
personnel with broad social knowledge to work with other professionals, and 
dedicated to an interdisciplinary approach to, andknowledge and ability to play the 
role of (Hollister and Jones,154): 
a) promoting social policy and planning in development 
b) ensuring social justice with particular reference to more equitable 
distribution of national resources 
c) encouraging participation by the people in policy formulation, planning 
and implementation; and improving the social and cultural infrastructure 
by institution building. 
These concerns for participation, social justice, policy, planning and institution 
building place social development education in the political and economic area as 
well, especially given the fact that societal problems such as poverty, inequality, 
squatter conditions, black marketeering and deviance, have multi-dimensional 
aspects which are affected by social conditions as well as economic capabilities 
and political will or commitment. Thus social development professionals must 
pursue and acquire knowledge about the political process, the functioning and 
performance of the national economy, and the nature and role of social relations. 
In addition they should understand the roles of go vernment, voluntary organisations, 
communities, groups and individuals, and their relationships to the development 
process. 
Basically social development education must focus on human needs through 
attention to policy and planning, social administration, evaluation and research, 
sociopolitical and economic action and community organisation. The social 
development curriculum must capture all these. In this respect, therefore, 
opportunities and techniques for identifying human needs, or raising issues 
concerning them, must be provided. Education, in this regard, should lead to the 
ability to undertake a comprehensive assessment of needs such as housing, general 
education and skills training, nutrition and health. Based on the assessed needs, 
social policy will then be formulated (Osei-Hwedie,1975). 
Jones and Hollister maintain that just and feasible social goals, as well as 
alternative policy proposals, must be sought in the light of the needs identified. 
They emphasise (164): 
"The curriculum should provide: (a) a value system in keeping with the 
common good; which involves a humanistic approach towards social
94 KwakuOsei-Hwcdie 
development; (b) an understanding of the substantive areas of social policy; 
(c) an ability to analyse, compare, andformulate alternativepolicy proposals; 
(d) an understanding of andpreference for the development of comprehensive 
and systematic social policies versus ad hoc, remedial, and 'patch up' 
policies." 
In addition, the sociopolitical and economic feasibility of policy andprogrammes, 
which implies an examination of political processes and structures, social values, 
and processes of economic development, must be addressed. This should focus on 
the ability to understand the social organisation of societies and societal institutions; 
familiarisation with theories and techniques of planning; organisational management 
and structures, with an emphasis on administrative structures and models; and 
skills in research design and techniques. 
The social work profession and social development 
Given the focus and requirement of social development, it follows that social 
development personnel must be trained in a multidisciplinary situation in order to 
have a greater understanding and appreciation of the varied and interrelated 
spheres of social life and the functional issues and problems associated with them 
(ASWEA.1986). 
They must, therefore be social scientists who understand social science 
concepts and have the capability of translating them into development indicators. 
In general they must be trained in social research methods, knowledge of the 
society and economy, extension and community organisation methods, social 
theory, policy and planning, and management and administration, among other 
areas. 
The critical questions which must be posed include: How does the social work 
profession fit in to all this? What can social work contribute that other social 
scientists cannot? Is social work really a useful field for social development that 
must be encouraged in Africa? 
In emphasising the importance of social work in rural and community 
development and the delivery of social services, it has been stressed that 
(Jack,1982:46): 
"all our efforts have to be redirected towards strengthening 'community', 
within us and among us at the familial group, neighbourhood, or community 
level. This is so whether it be the countryside, in the small towns, in the 
villages, or in the city neighbourhood. There is no other route to go". 
The contention is that social work is concerned with both the individual and the 
community, and hence it is at the core of all social development efforts and must 
be recognised as such. In the context of social development, social work means
Social Work and Social Development 95 
being "aware of the full range of interventive measures., .not as skills to be learned 
but as ways of offering help, influencing situations and bringing about social 
change" (Specht and Vickery,1977:15). 
It could be argued that, at least in Africa, circumstances have forced both social 
work education and practice to utilise what Specht calls "integrating method" 
which attempts to unify the different bodies of knowledge and methods of practice 
aimed at both individual and societal functioning. The significance of the social 
work profession in social development, therefore, lies in the fact that the practice 
of social work is concerned with social functioning - "the social interaction 
between the person andhis environment"(Spechtand Vickery, 1977:16). According 
to Boehm (quoted in Specht and Vickery,1977:18): 
"The nature of any problem in the area of social interaction is determined 
both by the individual's potential capacity for relationships in performance 
of his social roles and by the social resources he uses to satisfy his needs for 
self-fulfilment. Hence, the social worker focuses at one and the same time 
upon the capacity of individuals and groups for effective interaction and 
upon social resources from the point of view of their contributing to 
effective social functioning. In the light of this dual focus the soc ial worker 
initiates...steps (i) to increase the effectiveness of individuals' interaction 
with each other, singly, and in groups; and (ii) to mobilise appropriate social 
resources by coordinating, changing or creating them anew". 
Among the reasons why social work occupies a central position in social 
development is the fact that the profession is built on practical application and 
utilisation of social science knowledge. Over the last three decades or so, the 
profession has (Specht, in Specht and Vickery,1977:23): 
"been enriched by theories about human behaviour (role theory, ego 
psychology, and behaviour modification), small group theory, theories 
about community behaviour from sociology, political science and 
anthropology, organisational theory and social policy analysis" 
plus management and social evaluation theories. 
This is strengthened by the fact that since the 1960s, strong emphasis has been 
placed on the integration of theory and practice in the movement towards social 
change and development 
In the Zambian context, the traditional focus of social work (clinical, socialising, 
custodial and therapeutic and care taking functions) have been superseded by 
social change activities involving community and rural development, service 
provision and delivery, social action, etc. Hence from the beginning training has 
focused on enabling the social worker to play multiple roles at the community or 
agency level. Social workers are therefore educated to be able to work with 
government ministries, private agencies, the community and individuals.
96 KwakuOsei-Hwedie 
With respect to social development, social workers are made to understand the 
social structure as the basis for any development process - a first and necessary step 
towards mobilising individuals and groups.. This is based on the fundamental 
assumption that a person is (Othman in ASWEA, 1982:365): 
"the product of his society and that his development depends upon the general 
social conditions as well as the experience gained through his contact with 
the individual and groups of society. On the other hand...society itself is 
composed of its individual members and the effectiveness and strength of 
the social infrastructure jointly established by them determine its pace of 
progress and development as well as its ability to meet the needs of its 
members and effectively shoulder the responsibility of the overall national 
development" 
It must be emphasised that social work is associated with the ever expanding 
institution of social welfare which undertakes a host of functions for societies. The 
fact is that social workpractice in Africa has changed and continues to change, with 
the focus now on the whole environment and its interrelated functional parts - 
individual, family, community, public and private agencies. This puts it right in 
the heart of social development. 
Even when oneconsiders the traditional divisions of social work into direct and 
indirect services, the fact still remains that social work involves dealing with 
individuals, families, groups, agencies and with the development and allocation of 
social service resources, policy formulation, change, and social planning and 
administration. These are some of the major aspects of social development 
(Vickery in Specht and Vickery,1977:44). 
Along the same lines, Boehm maintains that two types of social work 
professionals are needed for the present and the future (1959:35): 
"One who is skilled in helping individuals, families and small groups deal 
with and change troublesome situations in which they find themselves, and 
another who is skilled in the strategies of social change." 
One would argue and reasonably so, that these are what social development 
requires. 
Looking at the relationship between social work and social development from 
another angle, Jones' (Hollister andJones:46) description of a continuum becomes 
very relevant: 
"Community development comes very close to group work...in fact one 
might see the activities discussed hitherto as a continuum consisting of case 
work/group work/community development/community organisation/social 
administration. While no clear cut distinction is possible or desirable, the 
primary emphasis on the case work/group work and of the continuum is on 
individual and group development, while on the other it is on collective
Social Work and Social Development 97 
action inrelation to the environment or community. We shall, therefore, use 
the term 'community work' to cover the broad range of activity on the far 
end of the continuum which includes work with community groups, 
administration and social planning." 
Thus social workers deal with people directly with respect to their social functioning 
and with institutional and structural change in society. 
Goldstein (in Specht and Vickery,1977:54) identifies four levels of knowledge 
utilised in social work practice. The first is the level of general concepts aimed at 
understanding phenomena in conceptual and hypothetical terms. These include 
theories of personality and social order, functional concepts which allow for the 
manipulation of phenomena, such concepts as group dynamics and communication 
theory; the level of strategies involving application of knowledge to given 
situations; and the level of action based on specific tactical procedures aimed at 
specific situations. 
Pincus and Minahan (in Specht and Vickery,1977) describe the functions and 
purpose of social work as that of enhancing the problem-solving and coping skills 
and capacities of people; linking people with resources, services and opportunities; 
and contributing to the development and improvement of social policy. This is a 
direct concern with the interaction between people and their social environment 
which affects their ability to function effectively. A social worker, therefore, is 
equipped with special knowledge about particular social problems (eg poverty), 
organised social systems (eg hospitals), theoretical orientations (eg social action), 
client groups (eg delinquents), and organising tasks and processes (administration, 
management), and evaluation and research. Pincus and Minahan further maintain 
that (74): 
"The focus of social work practice is on the interactions between people and 
systems in their social environment. People are dependent on social 
systems for help in obtaining the material, emotional or spiritual resources 
and the services and opportunities they need to realise their aspirations and 
to help them cope with their life tasks. By life tasks we mean the responses 
people make as they face the demands made upon them in various life 
situations such as growing up in a family, entering school or work, 
marrying, raising a family, and facing illness and death." 
From the above, it is apparent that social work focuses on three related aspects 
of social situations (Pincus and Minahan, in Specht and Vickery, 1977:80): 
"(l)thelife tasks peopleare confronted with and the resources andcondifions 
which would facilitate their coping with these tasks; (2)the interaction 
between people and their resource systems, as well as the interactions 
within and among resource systems; and (3) the relationship between the 
private troubles of people and public issues which bear on them."
98 KwalmOsei-Hwedie 
Conclusion 
The discussion has shown that social work must be viewed and understood in the 
broader context of social welfare. The essence of social welfare, emanating from 
its professional activities and focus, including services such as planning, policy 
analysis, programme development, administration, evaluation and research, is 
social development - improving the circumstances or conditions of living of groups 
and individuals. 
Though the social work profession borrows from existing theoretical 
formulations and applied social sciences, it must be emphasised that social work 
is not a supramethod of social development and that social workers are not meant 
to be able to do everything in the development process. However, it is argued that 
the nature of social work education and practice integrates ways of understanding 
and effectively participating in social development. It clearly demarcates the role 
of the social worker in the development process and the skills he uses and must have 
in carrying out this role. This is what gives social work a clear place in social 
development in general, and rural and community development in particular. 
Despite its clear focus on social development - including rural and community 
development, social administration and management, social policy planning and 
analysis, social and evaluative research, and helping specific groups and individuals 
with the problems which hamper their effective functioning - social work is not 
accorded the kind of respect and recognition it deserves, especially by African 
governments and non-govemmental organisations. 
This lack of official recognition and respect has meant that individuals and 
employers have also taken a luke warm attitude towards the profession. Even those 
who should know about the role and future potential of social work in social 
development have taken advantage of the overall negative attitude towards the 
profession to dismiss social work. 
It is in light of this that serious efforts should be made to put the profession in 
its proper perspective and highlight how it is and should be cultivated, developed 
and guarded, as the backbone of social development, and as a rallying point for 
applied social sciences or a multidisciplinary approach to social development. 
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