Work Attitudes and Life Goals of Zambia* Youth 65 
Characteristics of the sample 
Interviews were conducted in all the nine provinces of Zambia. Of the total 
respondents, 667 (60,6%) were males and 434 (39,4%) females. The institutions 
sampled were dominated by males, and as most females tend to be confined to 
households they are disproportionately under-represented in the sample. 
The majority of the sample were in the age group 22-27 years, ie 503 
(45,7%) respondents, including 336 males and 167 females, see Table 1). Most 
male respondents were in the 22-27 year old group, while the majority of the 
females were in the group 16-21 years. 
Table 1 
Respondents by Age and Sex, By Order of Magnitude 
Age Group (years) No (%) of Respondents Male Female 
22-27 503 (45,7) 336 167 
16-21 
28-33 
10-15 
(34,5) 193 187 
(15,5) 116 55 
(43) 22 25 
(100) 667 434 
380 
171 
47 
1101 
An overwhelming majority of the sample, 1075 respondents (97,6%) had 
been to school. Of these 166 (15,1 %) had been only to primary school, 630 (57,2%) 
to secondary school, 240 (21,8%) to college, and 39 (3,5%) to university. A 
majority of the respondents had at least secondary education. Most respondents 
were single, 762 (69,2%), with 303 respondents (27,5%) married, and more or less 
equally distributed between males and females. Most respondents, 530 (48,1%), 
were either formally employed or self employed. However, a significant number, 
472 (42,9%), were unemployed. 
Findings 
Life Goals of Youth 
Life goals in this paper are the individuals' conception of what they would like to 
be or achieve in the future, and their conception of the proper means for achieving 
this. Life goals normally reflect societal objectives, societal prescriptions of the 
means for achieving the objectives, and thedegreeof individual acceptance of both 
the means and goals. The extent to which individuals accept the prescribed goals 
and prescribed means reflects the degree to which they are integrated into society. 
Respondents were asked if they shared life goals such as: to get rich quick; 
to enjoy without sweat; to acquire social position; to have abig family and support
66 KwakuOsei-Hwatie 
it; to live as they like; to work on behalf of society; and to respond to national call. 
In reference to factors that may be important in becoming successful (ie in 
achieving goals), respondents were asked whether the following were relevant or 
had abearing: witchcraftandmedicine; family position (nepotism); social position 
(ascription); tribalism; personal abilities; good education; luck or fate; and city life. 
A majority of the youth sampled indicated that they wanted to live as they 
like (70,8%); work on behalf of society (68,3%) and respond to national call 
(60,3%). Very few respondents expressed the wish to enjoy without sweat 
(19,8%); getrich quick (38,1%); have abig family and support it (44%); or acquire 
a social position (46,3%). Inregardto 'getting rich quick' the older age group, and 
the more educated, were less interested in this, though not significantly - similarly 
for sex and residence groups. There were no differences in terms of age, sex or 
residence group for the objective of 'enjoying without sweat'. Those with no 
education at all were more interested than groups with education in enjoying 
without sweat. 
There were no differences in terms of sex, residence or education in relation 
to the objective of 'acquiring a social position', although fewer older individuals 
were interested in acquiring a social position, probably because they had come to 
terms with reality. 
The very young, those with primary education, and those in rural areas were 
more interested in the objective of having a big family and supporting it. The very 
young have no experience of maintaining a family, while those with little 
education, like those in rural areas, were more likely to stick to traditional values, 
with an emphasis on many children. There were no age, sex, education or residence 
differences relating to the objective of 'living as I like'. This also applied to the 
objective of 'working on behalf of society', with the exception of those with no 
education. Urban respondents were less likely to respond to national call than rural 
or peri-urban ones. Similarly, the less educated were substantially less interested 
in national call. There were no differences on the basis of age and sex in this regard. 
Important factors in success 
An overwhelming majority of the youth indicated that they believed in society's 
prescribed means for achieving objectives. While 88,5% of respondents indicated 
a reliance on personal abilities and 87,5% faith in good education, 50% indicated 
their belief in social position as a way of achieving success. There was little belief 
inluckorfate(29,9%),familyposition(25,l%),citylife(15,9%),orwitchcraftand 
medicines (9,8%) as means to success. 
There appeared to be no discernible differences on the basis of age, sex or 
residence with regard to witchcraft and medicine as a means to success. However, 
most of those with no education believed in witchcraft and medicine as the means
to success, with the more educated being more doubtful of the value of these. 
Younger age groups tended to believe in family position as a means to success, 
probably reflecting their own circumstance of dependency. The less educated also 
tended to believe more in family position. There were no differences on the basis 
of sex and residence groups. The less educated reported greater belief in social 
position as a means to success. There were no substantial differences based on sex, 
age or residence. Most of those in the 10-15 year age group, and the majority of 
those who had never been to school, saw tribalism as a factor of success. It seemed 
that the less educated the respondent the greater the belief in tribalism as a factor 
of success. No sex or residence differences were discernible. 
Table 2 
LiTe Goals of Youth (%) 
Important Factors for Becoming Successful 
Youth Witchcraft Family Social Tribalism Personal Good Liickor City Life 
Variables & medic 
A. Age 
10-15 
16-21 
22-27 
13
9 
10 
10 28-33 
B. Sex 
Male 10 
10 Female 
58 
C. Education 
None 
Primary 17 
Secondary 8 
Post- sec. 5 
D. Residence 
Urban 
Peri-urban 
Rural 
9 
12
8 
Oldergroups, and themore educated, believed more in both personal ability 
and education as a means to success. With regard to personal ability there were no 
differences based on sex and residence, but rural respondents tended to see luck or 
fate as important in success. The older the individual the less the belief in city life 
as a means to success. The very educated and the least educated did not think of the 
city as a means to success. No sex or residence differences were discernibl6. 
Work Attitudes and Life Goals qfZambian Youth 67 
position pos 
28 43 
30 
10 
9 
15 
51 
50 
49 
47 12 9 
23 
28 
15 
15 
52 
46 
88 58 
45 63 
47 
69 
27 
12 
11 
23 
16 43 
24 
27 
52 
46 
15 
17 
51 13 25 
abilities educ fate 
78 74 28 
20
9 
30 
31 
29 
89 
90 
7 
89 
87 
86 30 89 
15 
17 3
2
2
9 88 
87 
90 
87 
4 50 77 
48 23 
18 
76 
90 
58 
85 
90 29 
16 91 90 9 
17 
30 14 
17 
91 
84 
88 34 
88 
9
8
0 7
68 Kwaku Osti-HwcdU 
On the whole the data suggested that youth cherish the traditional values of 
hard work, personal ability and a good education as means to achieving life goals. 
While youth are interested in such traditional life goals as working on behalf of 
society and responding to national call, the values of independence and 'free spirit' 
are also held. Most respondents indicated that they would prefer to live as they like. 
Feelings about work 
1. Why people work 
The survey posed the question: Why do people work? A slim majority indicated 
that their reason for working was to take care of family and relatives (33%), to earn 
money (31%), self-fulfilment (16%), and duty to society (14%). Individuals were 
understood to work in order to fulfil both family and individual obligations. 
Enjoying work for its own sake (ie self fulfilment) was a strange concept in this 
context. Earning money was probably the simplest way of fulfilling obligations. 
All age and sex groups agreed that the major reasons why people work was to earn 
money and to take care of family obligations. For the most educated all these 
reasons were important, but those with less education mostly believed in earning 
money and, to a lesser extent, taking care of the family. To them self fulfilment was 
not an issue. A substantial number of urban respondents believed they work to earn 
money whereas ruralites strongly believed in taking care of family and relatives. 
Attachment to family and related obligations may still be very important values in 
rural areas. 
2. Money and attitudes to work 
Since a manifest reason for working is to earn money, the survey investigated the 
attitudes of respondents to work if they had enough money. Of the respondents, 
70% indicated that they would still work even if they had enough money to live 
comfortably, 26% said they would not work at all, while only 4% believed in 
spending the money first before resuming work. There were no differences based 
on age, sex or residence. The significant difference was that those with no 
education at all reported that if they had money to live comfortably, they would not 
bother working, or, for a substantial portion, they would spend the money first and 
work later. 
Youth unemployment is a serious problem in Zambia. A sizable number 
(34%) of the respondents were not working. However, for those who were working 
there was a general satisfaction with place of work. Specifically, the greater the age 
the higher the satisfaction with placeof work. There were no substantial differences 
on the basis of sex, education and residence group. A majority of respondents 
(55%) also indicated that they received satisfaction from both work and non-work.
Work Attitudes and Life Goals of Zambian Youth 69 
Those who indicated that they got satisfaction exclusively from work and those 
who said they got satisfaction exclusively from non-work were almostevenly split, 
with no major differences on the basis of age, sex, education or residence group. 
Occupational preferences 
The data indicated that white collar jobs were preferred over others. First choice 
occupational preferences for the youth were ranked as follows (see Table 3): 
Professional/technical (303%), administrative/managerial (22,3%), agricultural/ 
animal husbandry/forestry (21,3%), service (8,8%), sales (6,9%), production and 
transport(53%), and clerical jobs (4,5%). Secondchoice occupational preferences 
of respondents also showed white collar jobs having more prestige than non white 
collar jobs. Administrative/ managerial jobs, professional/technical jobs, and 
agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs, in that order, were the top three 
preferences of the youth. Service jobs were the least preferred second choice. 
However, third choices showed a different picture. The most preferred third 
choice jobs were non-white collar. Production/transport jobs, agricultural/animal 
husbandry/forestry jobs, and clerical jobs were the most preferred third choice 
occupations. Again the least preferred third choice jobs were in the service sector. 
Table 3 
Occupational Preferences of Youth (%) 
First Choice !Second Choice 
(Rank) 
Occupational 
Preference 
303 10,4 
8,8 
Professional/technical 
Adnunistrative/mangerial 
15,9 
16,2 
Third Choice 
(Rank) 
(5) 
(6) 
12,6 
22,3 
Agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry 213 
8,8 
144 
4,5 
(2) 
(1) 
(3 
m
) 
7,2 
10,7 
Service 
Sales 
Production/transport 
Clerical 
13,0 
10,8 
6,9 
5,3 
4,5 
7,8 
10,7 
6,4 
(2) 
(7) 
(4) 
(1) 
(3) 
(5) 
(4) 
(6) 
7. Age and occupational preferences 
All age groups were consistent in preferring professional/technical jobs as their 
first occupational choice. However, for the youngest group (10-15 years), 
agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs were just as popular as professional/ 
technical jobs. The least preferred jobs in these groups were in service, ie clerical 
and production/transport. For the 16-21 year group their second and third firstchoice 
preferences were in administrative/managerial and agricultural/animal 
husbandry/forestry occupations respectively. However, the 28-33 year group 
preferred agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry occupations as their second
68 KwabtOsei-Hwedie 
On the whole the data suggested that youth cherish the traditional values of 
hard work, personal ability and a good education as means to achieving life goals. 
While youth are interested in such traditional life goals as working on behalf of 
society and responding to national call, the values of independence and 'free spirit' 
are also held. Most respondents indicated that they would prefer to live as they like. 
Feelings about work 
1. Why people work 
The survey posed the question: Why do people work? A slim majority indicated 
that their reason for working was to takecare of family and relatives (33%), to earn 
money (31%), self-fulfilment (16%), and duty to society (14%). Individuals were 
understood to work in order to fulfil both family and individual obligations. 
Enjoying work for its own sake (ie self fulfilment) was a strange concept in this 
context. Earning money was probably the simplest way of fulfilling obligations. 
All age and sex groups agreed that the major reasons why people work was to earn 
money and to take care of family obligations. For the most educated all these 
reasons were important, but those with less education mostly believed in earning 
money and, to a lesser extent, taking care of the family. To them self fulfilment was 
not an issue. A substantial number of urban respondents believed they work to earn 
money whereas mralites strongly believed in taking care of family and relatives. 
Attachment to family and related obligations may still be very important values in 
rural areas. 
2. Money and attitudes to work 
Since a manifest reason for working is to earn money, the survey investigated the 
attitudes of respondents to work if they had enough money. Of the respondents, 
70% indicated that they would still work even if they had enough money to live 
comfortably, 26% said they would not work at all, while only 4% believed in 
spending the money first before resuming work. There were no differences based 
on age, sex or residence. The significant difference was that those with no 
education at all reported that if they had money to live comfortably, they would not 
bother working, or, for a substantial portion, they would spend the money first and 
work later. 
Youth unemployment is a serious problem in Zambia. A sizable number 
(34 %) of the respondents were not working. However, for those who were working 
there was a general satisfaction with place of work. Specifically, the greater the age 
the higher the satisfaction with place of work. There were no substantial differences 
on the basis of sex, education and residence group. A majority of respondents 
(55%) also indicated that they received satisfaction from both work and non-work.
Work Attitudes and Life Goals cf Zambia* Youth 69 
Those who indicated that they got satisfaction exclusively from work and those 
who said they got satisfaction exclusively from non-work were almost evenly split, 
with no major differences on the basis of age, sex, education or residence group. 
Occupational preferences 
The data indicated that white collar jobs were preferred over others. First choice 
occupational preferences for the youth were ranked as follows (see Table 3): 
Professional/technical (30,3%), administrative/managerial (22,3%), agricultural/ 
animal husbandry/forestiy (21,3%), service (8,8%), sales (6,9%), production and 
transport(53%).andclericaljobs(4,5%). Second choice occupational preferences 
of respondents also showed white collar jobs having more prestige than non white 
collar jobs. Administrative/ managerial jobs, professional/technical jobs, and 
agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs, in that order, were the top three 
preferences of the youth. Service jobs were the least preferred second choice. 
However, thirdchoices showedadifferentpicture. Themostpreferred third 
choice jobs were non-white collar. Production/transport jobs, agricultural/animal 
husbandry/forestry jobs, and clerical jobs were the most preferred third choice 
occupations. Again the least preferred third choice jobs were in the service sector. 
Table 3 
Occupational Preferences of Youth i 
First Choice iSecond Choke 
(Rank) 
10,4 15,9 
16,2 
303 
223 
Third Choke 
(Rank) 
(5) 
(6) 
(2) 
(1) 8,8 
12,6 
7,2 
144 
4,5 
(2) 
(7) Service 
Sales 
Occupational 
Preference 
Professional/technical 
Adnunistrative/mangerial 
Agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry 213 
8,8 
6,9 
(3) 
(7) 
(5) 7.8 
10,7 Production/transport 
Clerical 
5,3 
4,5 
10,7 
13,0 
10,8 6,4 
(4) 
(1) 
(3) 
(4) 
(6) 
1. Age and occupational preferences 
All age groups were consistent in preferring professional/technical jobs as their 
first occupational choice. However, for the youngest group (10-15 years), 
agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs were just as popular as professional/ 
technical jobs. The least preferred jobs in these groups were in service, ie clerical 
and production/transport. For the 16-21 year group their second and third firstchoice 
preferences were in administrative/managerial and agricultural/animal 
husbandry/forestry occupations respectively. However, the 28-33 year group 
preferred agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry occupations as their second
70 KwakuOsei-Hwedie 
choice jobs. Administrative/managerial occupations were listed as the third firstchoice 
job preference. Clerical, production and transport were the least preferred 
jobs in the first-choice category. 
All the age groups were consistent in choosing administrative/managerial 
occupations as first second-choice job preferences, with the exception of the 22- 
27 year olds who chose professional/technical and agricultural/animal husbandry/ 
forestry jobs as their first second-choice job preference. In all the age groups 
professional/technical jobs and agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs were 
listed as either second or third second-choice job preferences. Among the 10-15 
year olds, production and transport occupations were also listed as second secondchoice 
job preferences. Among the 22-23 year olds, production and transport 
occupations were listed as third second-choice job preferences. 
Clerical, sales and production and transport jobs were more highly valued 
as third choice occupational preferences. 
2. Sex and occupational preference 
Whereas males indicated professional/technical occupations (37%) as their first 
first-choice job preference, females indicated administrative/managerial occupations 
(ie 29%) as their first first-choice job preference. Males went on to indicate 
agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs (23%) and administrative/managerial 
jobs as their second and third first- choice job preferences respectively. Females 
reported both professional/technical and agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry 
jobs as their second first-choice preference, and reported service occupations as 
their third first-choice, and wereleast interested in production/transport occupations 
as first-choice jobs. For females this might reflect the fact that they occupy jobs in 
the service sector rather than in the production and transport (ie manual/industrial) 
sectors. The picture appears to support traditional gender expectations of what 
women may or may not do. 
For both males and females the three top second-choice job preferences 
remained administrative/managerial, professional/technical and agricultural/animal 
husbandry/forestry occupations. For both males and females the least preferred 
occupations in this category were service jobs. In the third-choice category males 
preferred production/transport jobs as first choice; agricultural/animal husbandry/ 
forestry jobs as second choices; and sales jobs as third choices. On the other hand, 
females first preferred professional/technical jobs; then, clerical jobs and agricultural/ 
animal husbandry/forestry jobs. 
3. Education and occupational preferences 
Most notable in regard to education and occupation, those with primary education 
chose agriculture as their first first-choice occupation and those with no education
Work Altitudes and Life Goals of Zambia* Youth 71 
choseserviceoccupations as their first first-choice job. Respondents with secondary 
and post-secondary education chose administrative/managerial and professional/ 
technical jobs as first first-choice preferences. 
In the second choice category it appeared that professional/technical jobs, 
administrative/managerial jobs, and agriculture/animal husbandry/ forestry jobs 
remained the most popular. However, there was a tendency for groups with lower 
education (ie primary school and below) to list production/transport, sales, and 
clerical jobs as preferable. In the third choice category production/transport and 
sales occupations proved to be popular preferences. 
4. Area of residence and occupation preferences 
In the first-choice category the comparison of residence and occupation preferences 
showed a repetition of the pattern seen in the general occupational preferences of 
the youth. All the residence groups chose professional/technical occupations as 
first-choice occupations; administrative/managerial jobs as second-choice 
occupations; and agriculture/animal husbandry/forestry occupations as third most 
preferred occupations. Manual jobs were least preferred. 
In the second-choice category, for rural and urban dwellers, administrative/ 
managerial, professional/technical and agriculture/animal husbandry/forestry jobs 
remained the most popular preferences. However, for peri-urban respondents 
production and transport took the place of agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry 
jobs, behind administrative/ managerial and professional/technical jobs. For all 
areas of residence the least preferred were service jobs. 
In the third-choice category, for urban and peri-urban dwellers thepreference 
was agricultural/animal husbandry/forestry jobs; sales; clerical; and production/ 
transport jobs. Rural respondents preferred, in place of sales, professional/technical 
jobs. 
Discussion 
As noted earlier, the findings of this survey on Zambian youth could be discussed 
in relation to the themes of conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and 
rebellion put forward by Merton. 
In terms of conformity, the youth seem to have accepted both the cultural 
goals and the institutionalised means for achieving the goals. The majority of the 
youth preferred work with responsibility and authority. In terms of specific 
occupations, they preferred professional/technical and managerial administrative 
jobs. In Zambian society, these are the kinds of jobs which spell material success 
and command respect. To get these jobs society demands higher formal 
qualifications. In conformity with this demand, the youth rely on personal ability
72 KwakuOsei-Hwedie 
through good education to achieve life goals. To this end, there was very little 
indication of reliance on witchcraft, luck, fate or nepotism as means to achieving 
goals. Conformity is also shown in terms of occupational preferences. In Zambian 
soctety the jobs which are equated with success are professional/technical and 
administrative/ managerial ones. Youths in this survey have understood the 
societal goal of securing these jobs. The government has been urging diversification 
from whitecollar occupations to manual, especially agricultural ones. The increased 
interest of youth in agricultural jobs can also be interpreted as conformity. The 
stigma that was associated with agriculture and rural occupations is eroding as the 
government intensifies its efforts to promote them, and formulate policies that 
make agriculture more lucrative. 
A degree of innovation among the less educated (ie primary school and 
below) was identified, ie while they accepted socially approved goals they also 
accepted both socially approved and disapproved means to achieve them. While 
they thought personal ability, good education, and family help were important 
means to success, they also approved of socially disapproved means such as 
tribalism, witchcraft and medicine. This finding was interpreted in terms of the 
groups lack of exposure to western culture (through lack of schooling), and because 
the occupations required credentials these disadvantaged youth were less likely to 
use personal ability in competing for success. 
From the data Zambian youth did not show ritualism, retreatism, or 
rebellion, in the traditional Mertonian sense, as ways of adjusting to their 
circumstances of living. All youth had opted for the socially disapproved goal of 
living as they like but it was not possible to tell from the data the extent to which 
they rejected or substituted new means toachieving that goal. In view of this, there 
is need for further research to understand the dynamics of retreatism, ritualism and 
rebellion among Zambian youth. 
References. 
Babbie E (1986) The Practice of Social Research, (4th ed) Belmont, 
Wadsworth, California. 
Bauer FC (1963) "Problems of Dependence and Independence" in Bier 
W C SJ (ed) The Adolescent: His Search for Understanding, Fordham 
University Press, New York. 
Braungart R G and Braungart M M (1986) "Youth Problems and Politics in the 
1980s: Some Multinational Comparisons" in International Sociology, 
VollNo4, 359-380. 
DurkheimE (1952) Suicide, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Work Attitudes and Life Goals of Zambia* Youth 73 
Friday P C and Hage G (1976) "Youth Crime in Past Industrial Societies" in 
Criminology, 14, November, 347-368. 
LashC (1979) The Culture of Narcissism, Warner Books, New York. 
Mantell D M (1974) "Doves vs Hawks: Guess who had the Authoritarian 
Parents?" in Psychology Today, September, 56-62. 
Merton R (1968 ed) Social Theory and Social Structure, The Free Press, 
New York.