Journal of Social Development in Africa (1993), 8,2,23-32 
Gender and Work - Past, Present and 
Future: The Situation of Rural Mozambican 
Women at Mazowe River Bridge Camp in 
Zimbabwe 
CLAUDIA MADZOKERE * 
ABSTRACT 
Work is an essential part of human life which determines one's status in society. 
It is usually gender-determined, especially in rural communities where men and 
women have separate distinct roles which they have to perform. 
This paper is based on a small-scale study of Mozambican refugee women 
conducted at Mazowe River Bridge camp (Zimbabwe). In the research, the roles 
and status of women prior to displacement and currently (in the camp) were 
examined. An effort was also made to project the roles and status of women in 
future Mozambique after repatriation. Some of the findings support Makanya's 
(1990) findings in her case-study on issues of assistance to Mozambican refugee 
women at Tongogara camp. This study indicated that Mozambican women take the 
major burden of responsibility for domestic and other chores in the camps, as they 
used to in Mozambique. An inequitable division of labour between men and 
women persists. 
Currently a number or men are also leaving the camp to look for employment, 
but due to high and rising unemployment in Zimbabwe and police round-ups of 
Mozambican refugees who leave the camps, the majority find themselves back in 
the camps again. Their role as family providers is greatly reduced. However men 
have been and are still being regarded as decision-makers, which leaves women 
in a very vulnerable, dependent position. The future of the Mozambican women is 
likely to change due to the skills currently being imparted to them in the camps. 
The women are likely to emerge and be recognised as people who can work outside 
the home. However, this would become more possible if women are supported not 
only with material and financial resources, but also with opportunities and positive 
attitudes towards them. 
Introduction 
Mozambique is on the east coast of Southern Africa and shares its border with 
Tanzania (north), Malawi and Zambia (north-west), Zimbabwe (west), South 
Africa and Swaziland (south) and to the east there is the Indian Ocean. 
* Staff Development Fellow, School of Social Work, Harare, Zimbabwe.
24 Claudia Madzokere 
After its independence, in 1975,acivil war between the FRELIMO government 
and the opposition group, Mozambique National Resistance Movement, 
(RENAMO) erupted. By 1982 civil strife had intensified, especially in the rural 
areas and this prompted the massive exodus of people into neighbouring countries, 
Zimbabwe included. This was further aggravated by famine which was caused by 
drought. It should be noted, therefore, that the Mozambican refugees in Zimbabwe 
(and other neighbouring countries) are not only victims of political instability, 
but also of famine. 
The influx of Mozambicans into Zimbabwe started in 1982, and this was 
followed by the Refugees Actwhich was passed in 1983. Soon after, theZimbabwe 
Government, with the assistance of UNHCR, set up structures, in the form of 
refugee camps, to accommodate those asylum seekers who have continued to come 
across. Today there are about 138,000 Mozambican refugees in Zimbabwe. They 
are accom-modated in five refugee camps, namely Tongogara, Mazowe River 
Bridge, Nyamatikiti, Nyangombe and Chambuta. These are situated near the 
north-eastern, eastern and south-eastern border of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. 
This study was conducted at Mazowe River Bridge camp which is the second 
largest in population. There were a number of constraints in conducting the study, 
which included lack of financial resources to hire research assistants in the 
gathering of data. This resulted in a minor research being undertaken of which a 
sample of 200 women (2,5%) instead of an intended 800 women (10%) of the total 
female population in the camp was studied. The other problem was the outbreak 
of cholera which led to a quarantine of the camps in order to contain the situation. 
This delayed the study considerably. 
General Camp Situation 
Mazowe River Bridge, which is the focus of this study, is north-east of Zimbabwe 
near the border of Zimbabwe and the Tete province of Mozambique. Most of the 
refugees in this camp are drawn therefore from Tete in the districts of Changara, 
Moatize, Magore and Cabora Basa. The population at Mazowe camp today (March 
1993) stands at 35,271 and is distributed as follows:
Gender and Work - Rural Mozambican Women 25 
Table showing the distribution of the refugee population at Mazowe 
River Bridge Camp according to age and sex (March 1993) 
TOTAL FEMALE MALE 
2 312 
3 535 
AGES 
0-12 months 
1- 4 years 
5-17 years 
4606 
6153 
10 209 6126 
8160 14 303 
2294 
2618 
4 083 
6143 
35 271 
18 years + 
Totals 20133 15138 
The figures above show that females outnumber men in any age group. This is a 
commonphenomenon worldwide inarefugee situation. Forexample.theWomen's 
Commission for Refugee Women and Children (1990) reports thatrefugee women 
and children constitute as much as 85% of the estimated 15 million refugees 
worldwide. 
The set-up in the camp resembles rural life, with pole and dagga, or brick huts 
thatched with grass. However, the huts are very crowded which greatly reduces 
family privacy. These huts are grouped into villages to imitate community 
structures found in rural Mozambique. Basic needs like food, clothing and shelter 
are provided. This in a way creates a dependency syndrome on the part of the 
refugees. 
Unlike in Mozambique where they tilled land for survival, the refugees have 
very little land to till. They make use of small areas between huts and behind the 
villages to grow a few things for individual family consumption, and in some cases 
for sale. Some of these pieces of land are hardly four square metres in size. 
Piped water is provided at numerous water points and this reduces the burden 
of walking long distances for water. However, much time is still spent in queuing 
for water at these water points. 
Collection of firewood is an activity which consumes a lot of time for women. 
Due to the large demand for firewood, the forest around the camp has been liberally 
depleted. Consequently refugees are forced to walk long distances in search for 
firewood. In view of this fuel problem, government authorities, non-governmental 
organisations and UNHCR formed a consortium at the beginning of 1992 to tackle 
the problem (see Refugees,1992). This has resulted in the introduction of fuel 
efficient stoves called tsotso stoves which reduce the consumption of firewood by 
60%.
26 Claudia Madzokerc 
The Roles and Status of Rural Mozambican Women Before 
Displacement 
The people of Mozambique are largely patrilineal and there is male dominance in 
their society. Even in the matrilineal tribes of Macua and Ajavas, men are still 
expected to make major decisions in the households. Women are generally 
deprived in numerous ways. They lack education and decision-making powers and 
are not expected to take up formal employment. Work is gender-divided and 
women are expected to work in and around the home, performing activities like 
cooking, cleaning the home, caring for children, husbands and members of the 
extended family, and they are also expected to work in the fields. Similarly, in a 
study at Tongogara camp (Zimbabwe), Makanya (1990) found out that women are 
expected to take up care-giving roles associated with cooking for the household 
and caring for children and husbands. 
In this present study all the women interviewed said that they worked in the 
fields to produce the maize and millet which constitute their staple food. Yet of all 
these women, only 50% were helped by their husbands in the fields. This is an 
indication that Mozambican women play a vital role in food production although 
this contribution is often denied or not recognised. This is why women have been 
referred to as the "invisible earners" (Wiest et al, 1992). 
It should be noted that even the women themselves have been socialised to 
underplay their roles in the households. Initially 80% of the women said they did 
nothing while in Mozambique. There is failure to recognise their production, 
reproduction and care-giving roles as important, because they have been brought 
up to see this as an obligation (ie taken for granted). 
This study revealed that the Mozambican refugee women who were interviewed 
have had very little or no education at all. 40% had never been to school while 30% 
have had only two years of primary education. Of the latter, 5% are hardly literate. 
Given this level of education it can be expected that Mozambican women are 
disadvantaged in social and economic issues. This reduces their opportunity to 
make decisions and hence 100% of the women understudy stressed that decisionmakingisformenonly. 
One respondent actually said: "A home in which decisions 
are made by a woman is not a home". Women without husbands had to fall back 
on their fathers or male relations in search for a male figure. This clearly reflects 
that women in Mozambique have been socialised to regard themselves as inferior 
tomen. Taft(1987) states that lack of adequate decision-making power and control 
over resources by women are a cause of their marginalisation.
Gender and Work - Rural Mozambican Women 27 
In the 40% of cases where husbands worked away from home while in 
Mozambique, women reported that they still consulted them for major decisions 
in the home. It is also worth noting that only 1% of these women visited their 
husbands at their places of work. This highlights, therefore, the submissive role 
that women played by permanently staying in the rural homes without outside 
exposure. Nevertheless women themselves did not see it in this way but regarded 
formal employment or work outside the home as men's prerogative. 
It is apparent, therefore, that the status of women while in Mozambique was 
inferior to that of men. Due to the cultural beliefs which placed women as 
subordinate to men, the women were denied access to education, formal employment 
and exposure to the outside world. They stayed in the rural areas to do all the hard 
work in and around the home. It appears that these women have been socialised 
to accept their inferior position to men as natural and to regard men as superior 
beings on whom they depend. 
Mozambican Women in the Camp 
The camp set-up is different from life in rural Mozambique in terms of the density 
of the population. In rural Mozambique, huts were not as closely spaced as in the 
camp. Another new development is the free provision of food, clothing, piped 
water and the opportunity to train in various skills. Among some of the skills 
offered atMazowe River Bridgecamp are: cuttingandsewing.knitting, crocheting, 
weaving, poultry, vaseline and soap-making, carpentry, metal-work, building, 
painting, fence-making, plumbing and black-smithing. 
The Mozambican refugees have therefore been relieved of the burden of 
searching for basics and also accorded an opportunity to acquire skills in various 
trades. 
The study focused on finding out how this new arrangement has changed the 
roles and status of women. It was observed that women in the camp still perform 
domestic duties such as cooking, caring for children and husbands, general 
cleaning, fetching water and collecting firewood. In fact, women have contributed 
greatly in the depletion of forests around camps, but not out of choice. They have 
to prepare food for their families and since they have no alternative sources of fuel, 
they have to resort to the use of wood. They have also acquired a new role and 
responsibility of queuing for food rations. About 40% of the women reported that 
it was solely their duty to queue for food even when their husbands have nothing 
to do. Opportunities for men to fend for the family have been reduced because the 
camp is like a closed environment and many basic needs are provided. However, 
men leave the camp in an attempt to search for jobs outside the camp (10% reported 
that their husbands had secured employment outside the camp).
28 Claudia Madzokere 
A notable observation is the fact that 20% of women remarried in the camp 
within a year or so after losing their husbands. (These women had lost their 
husbands mainly through war-related deaths and separation during exile). Security 
was cited as a reason for remarriage. The women mentioned that culturally women 
are not respected if they have no husbands. Remarriage was therefore a search for 
a head of the family who would make major decisions for the family. Kalyati 
(1990) in her study of Mozambican refugees in Malawi found that women without 
husbands have problems in building houses or performing other tasks considered 
to be for men. Although this was not highlighted in the study, it could be another 
reason for marriage or remarriage. Wiest et al (1992) also found that in societies 
with strong patriarchal ideologies, such as in Mozambique, a woman abandoned 
is a woman scorned. Women in these circumstances find themselves with the 
burden of children and heading famil ies. It is therefore understandable why women 
quickly remarry. 
While in Mozambique quite a sizable amount of time was spent on tilling the 
land to produce food. The camp situation has greatly reduced this activity for two 
main reasons. The first one is that there is lack of available land to till. However, 
the women admitted that they have small pieces of land in-between huts or outside 
villages to grow crops in order to supplement the food that is provided, to break the 
monotony of the food provided in the camp and for sale. The second reason is that 
the assurance of provision of food in the camp reduces the necessity for providing 
oneself with food. It should also be noted that men are mainly involved in the 
village administration, security and building activities. These are seen as domains 
for men. 
Men are still perceived as decision-makers. In interviews with women, it was 
apparent that the status of men as heads of families and decision-makers is a takenfor-
granted virtue. The high status accorded to men is evident in their predominant 
participation in camp leadership. Similarly inTongogararefugeecamp, Makanya 
(1990) noted that women were scarcely represented in the administration bodies 
and yet they were in the majority. This is further evidence, therefore, that not much 
has changed in terms of the position and status of women. Pittaway (1990) argues 
that excluding women in the delivery and planning of delivery of assistance 
measures often leaves them open to abuse. 
The area of skills training provides evidence of the low perception that women 
still have of themselves. Women were found to dominate in such skills as sewing, 
knitting, crocheting, soap and vaseline-making. These skills help them within the 
home, although only 10% said these skills help them to generate income. Skills 
like building and carpentry are hardly taken by women because they are regarded 
as male skills.
Gender and Work - Rural Mozambican Women 29 
The special teacher training programme offered to Mozambicans who have 
attained grade six or better is dominated by men. This is because women do not 
meet the necessary academic requirements. In the interviews, it was evident that 
women do not even entertain the idea of being trained as teachers. Only one 
divorcee said she would be interested in the training programme if she is offered 
a place. This particular woman has completed grade five (primary education). It 
could be inferred that her level of education (comparatively higher than others) and 
her marital status have helped her to realise that even women can take up trades/ 
training leading to formal employment. 
There has been an effort to provide education to the refugees in the form of adult 
literacy classes. However the demands of domestic tasks are an obstacle for most 
women in attending adult literacy classes or skills training programmes (Refugees, 
1992; Pittaway, 1990). There is also a high drop-out rate of women, some of them 
as soon as they master basic numeracy and literacy. However, Makanya (1990) 
argues that literacy classes are not good enough as they provide just bare literacy 
and numeracy. This is not sufficient to qualify women for programmes such as 
teacher training and also for meaningful participation in the administrative organs 
in the camp. Some of the village leadership positions would need someone with 
some literacy and numeracy. Women are therefore not motivated to take part in 
camp administration and teacher training because of lack of education. 
Although Pittaway states that work, for the "traumatised" women, is seen as a 
way of reclaiming self-respect and self-esteem, these values can only be attained 
if these women are viewed in a more positive manner. 
Mozambican Women in Future - Back in Mozambique 
In view of the current peace talks taking place in Mozambique and the ceasefire 
agreement signed in Rome last year (1992), there is hope that sooner or later the 
Mozambican refugees will go back to their country. 
In the interviews it came out clearly that women want to go back to rural areas. 
This is obviously because they are familiar with a rural set-up. It is also because 
they do not feel comfortable meeting the challenges of the urban areas, which 
demand education for one to get employed. Women still perceive themselves as 
home and child minders, who are expected tobe at home while men work in towns, 
mines and the like. 
A small fraction of women (5%), postulated that the skills gained would help 
them to generate income. The rest of the women indicated that they would either
30 Claudia Madzokere 
use these skills within their households, or they were uncertain how these skills 
would help them. Yet as Kalyati (1990) writes, it is hoped that the knowledge 
gained will also be useful when they return to Mozambique in future. 
Itshould be realised, however, thatthese women left Mozambique due to forces 
beyond their control. These forces had turned life into a nightmare and for most of 
these women they are fears of the unknown. It is even difficult for them to perceive 
a 'normal' life again. In addition to this, women have had very little education to 
help them feel confident in penetrating into the 'male domains'. Women too have 
not been educated about their rights and so they still perceive men as superior to 
them. If nothing is done about this now, women will continue to regard themselves 
as inferior to men. 
Camp life has to a certain extent taken off the burden of working in the fields 
to produce food. It has also reduced some of the burdens of work around the home 
because of limited space in the camp. On return to Mozambique, the heavy load 
will fall on women again. For those who were children when they came as 
refugees, it would be even more difficult to cope. However, because of the 
exposure (in the camp) to skills and adult literacy classes, some women might find 
themselves utilising these skills to generate income. Presently this might not be 
possible to perceive, but their future experiences might teach them to develop 
alternative additional ways of making a living. 
Summary and Conclusions 
The marginalisation of refugee women has been a phenomenon which has caused 
concern. It was noted in the study that the roles and status of Mozambican refugee 
women have experienced little significant change from their previous roles and 
status before displacement. Culture has conveniently been preserved to keep 
women in their subservientplace. The camp situation has perpetuated the submissive 
roles and low slatus of women by failing to provide them with proper school 
education and also not making them aware of their rights. 
The roles of women are similar to those performed in Mozambique, that is, caregivingandtoalesser 
extent, food production. Although the role of food production 
has been greatly reduced, women find themselves having to queue for the food 
rations. Women still find themselves concerned and expected to worry over what 
the next meal would be. 
On the other hand, the role of men as bread, winners has become insignificant 
as basic food is provided for in the camp. Although most men try to get employment 
outside the camp or do odd jobs, this is on a small-scale - because jobs are hard to 
come by and also the camp situation does not provide many opportunities.
Gender and Work - Rural Mozambican Women 31 
However in spite of this, men are still regarded as decision-makers in both their 
households and camp leadership. Ithas been noted that despite the fact that women 
are in greater numbers, men consume much of refugee aid. Targeting women has 
become a priority theme for the decade by the Commission on the Status of Women 
in conjunction with UNHCR. However unless some of the oppressive cultural 
practices are done away with and women are also educated, then improving their 
statusisstillalongway away. Given their present status in the camp, Mozambican 
refugee women can go back to their country still regarding themselves and 
regarded by men as lower in status. 
Recommendations 
In the light of the findings of the study, the following strategies are recommended 
in order to improve the roles and status of Mozambican women: 
1. Women need to be educated beyond just basic literacy and numeracy. 
This would help them to have a better understanding and perception of 
their role and status in life. 
2. There is need to provide women not only with skills designed to generate 
income, but also ways to manage income-generating projects. As Rintala (1992) 
indicates, there should be empowerment of women, not only with domestic 
skills, but other marketable skills. 
3. Government, independent bodies and repatriation teams should assist 
women who have acquired skills with resources to start their projects. 
Skills without resources to initiate projects are not very helpful. 
4. An effort should be made to make the number of women and men in camp 
leadership proportional to the general numbers of the women and men 
respectively. This would greatly help to incorporate women's issues into 
the various programmes. Kttaway (1990) argues that women's issues 
usually come as an afterthought and not an integral part of service-delivery 
and planning. If women are in the leadership positions their issues are likely to 
get priority. 
5. There is need for ongoing research on the effectiveness of programmes 
offered to refugee women. This would help to improve services and 
programmes.
32 Claudia Madzokere 
6. Men should be educated to realise that women can take decision-making 
roles and other roles currently regarded as men's and perform them equally 
well. Such conscientisation is necessary in a situation where change in 
attitudes has to be effected. Rintala (1992) argues that men should be educated 
to realise that women can take more active roles in planning and decisionmaking. 
7. Government and independent bodies working with refugees should not 
only pay lip-service to the notion of women's issues (Pittaway, 1990). If such 
bodies are seen to effect what they say, it helps both refugee men and 
women to take these issues seriously. 
References 
Kalyati, E J (1990) "Refugee women and children: some issues", a paper 
presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Refugee and Displaced Women 
and Children, 2-6 July, Vienna. 
Makanya, S T (1990) "Rural Mozambican women in refugee camps in 
Zimbabwe: A case-study on issues of assistance", a paper presented at 
the Expert Group Meeting on Refugee and Displaced Women and Children, 
2-6 July, Vienna. 
Pittaway, E (1990) "Refugee women: the neglected majority", a paper 
presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Refugees and Displaced 
Women and Children, 2-6 July, Vienna. 
Refugees (1992) "Carrying a heavy load", Refugees Magazine, UNHCR, No 89, 
May, pp 8-11. 
Rintala A (1992)"AReport to the Implementation Committee by the Ombudsperson 
for Refugee Women", UNHCR, Geneva. 
Taft J V (1987) "Issues and Options for Refugee Women in Developing 
Countries", Refugee Policy Group, Washington DC. 
Wiest R E et al (1992) The Needs of Women and Children in Disasters and 
Emergencies, Disaster Research Unit, University of Manitoba. 
Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children (1990) "Statement by 
the Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children to the Expert 
Group of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women". A paper 
presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Refugees and Displaced Women and 
Children, 2-6 July, Vienna.