Journal of Social Development
in Africa (1994),9,2,71-86
Empowerment and Social Work
Education and Practice in Africa
STEPHEN C ANDERSON, MARTHA K wn..sON, LENGWE-
KATEMBULA MW ANSA, KWAKU OSEI-HWEDIE *

ABSTRACI'
Historically the development of social work in most African countries has been
strongly influenced by and modelled after Western countries. This has often meant
the development of social service programmes and systems that have had a
traditional focus of social work (clinical, socialising, custodial, therapeutic and
care-taking functions). Increasingly today, this traditional model of social work is
being superseded by a model built upon human-focused or social development
concepts (Osei-Hwedie, 1990). This model is based upon egalitarian principles
which assume that all members of a society should have access to information,
goods, services, opportunities and the decision-making process; and the assump-
tion that there will be a special focus on the needs of disadvantaged groups. Thus,
the structuring of social work activities in this model requires a corresponding re-
conceptualisation of education and practice.

What is needed is a conceptualisation of practice that will focus on both the
immediate needs of people and the larger social and economic changes necessary
to prevent future individual disruption and to improve the quality of life for all
(Galper, 1980). This means linking together and integrating the knowledge and
skills of the micro, mezzo, and macro levels of practice.

The conceptual base of education and practice that serves to best accomplish
the above is that of empowerment. Empowerment
is conceptualised as the
discovery of individual health and strengths and the attainment of participatory
competence (Kieffer, 1984). Utilising concepts taken from motivation and action
theory (White, 1959; Locke, et al, 1981), the authors develop an empowerment
model for social work practice. This model encompasses five dimensions of
practice: personal empowerment (competency required for taking self-direction);
social empowerment (comprising society's capacity for self-direction and control
of community processes and resources); educational empowerment (the develop-
ment of an educational system that prepares people for both their social and work
* Dr S C Anderson: Associate Professor & Practicum Coordinator; Dr M K Wilson:
Assistant Professor of Social Work & Women's Studies, School of Social Work,
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.

Dr L-K Mwansa, Senior Lecturer; Prof K Osei-Hwedie, Professor, Department of

Social Work, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana.

72

S C Anderson, M K Wilson, L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

(the development

life); economic empowerment
of the means
income to live a life of dignity and to provide for the adequate
requisite needs of shelter, food and clothing); and political empowerment
ment in democratic decision-making).
ones that
mediator.

Social work roles inherent
facilitator,

focus on that of colleague,

to earn a sufficient
fulfillment
of the
(involve-
in this model are
and

advocate,

political

ally,

Introduction

call

(HaIl,

socialisation,

the colonising

home country

and issues confronting most African
if social work is to be a meaningful

the development of social work in African countries has been strongly
by and modelled after
1990;

custodial
social work roles are not without
countries
and viable profession

Historically,
influenced
Midgley, 1981; Kendall, 1987). In most instances this has meant
the development
of social service policies and programmes which have centred on a traditional
care and therapeutic
focus of social work (casework,
the social
models). While traditional
their utility,
for a different
problems
emphasis
on the
and
continent. As long as social work remains principally
To
custodial
services,
have a significant
and
of society and its effect on different
practice should be guided by an understanding
groups and locations; programmes must bebased on knowledge
and understanding
of specific societal conditions. Social workers must begin to unravel
namics, especially those that breed poverty and disadvantage,
tematically in practice.

involved in remedial
the profession increasingly will fmd itself marginalised.
impact on people and situations,
social work education

societal dy-
these sys-

and treat

deterioration

the African socioeconomic

unemployment/underemployment,

Many of the needs that exist in African countries are little different

from those
which are not well addressed nor adequately met in other parts of the world. These
of poverty,
needs include the oppression of specific population groups, conditions
homelessness,
of family struc-
tures, urban problems, AIDS, and inadequate medical care and education. How-
ever, since the mid-1970's,
dra-
matically. The drought and famine of the 1980's, amidst high population
growth
rates; the unemployment
of about 50% of the continent's
totaI labour force; malnutrition and mass poverty; and increasing income dispari-
ties have been devastating. Available data indicate that 33% of all African children
are malnourished;
and that 51 % of pregnant women, 40% of non-pregnant women
and 42% of all women suffer from nutritional anaemia (WHO. 1992). In the face
resources,
oflow economic productivity, misuse and mismanagement
heavy debt service burdens and adverse socia-political
condi-
most
tions. and the demand of economic

and environmental
programmes.

and underemployment

crisis has escalated

of national

adjustment

structural

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

for social

realities
and the extent

73
have difficulty meeting the needs of their people (UN, 1987;
directly affect
the fISCal
socioeconomic
to which social welfare
services
(Rao, 1990). Given the nature of the social and
it is
focused
the limitations
functioning.
the
to adequately meet the real human services needs of people

Similar questions have been raised about

and the types of social needs identified,

of a social work practice model

conditions

1990). These

are developed

available

African governments
Osei-Hwedie,
resources
bureaucracies
economic
readily understandable
primarily on casework
relevance of this model
in the US (perlman,

environmental

1975).

the population

The search for new models of practice is especially urgent

in Africa given its
poverty status. For example,
sub-Sahara Africa has about one-fourth of the world's
poor. The absolute numbers of the poor are expected to rise from 184 million in
1985 to 216 million in 1990 and to 304 million in the year 2000. The population
below the poverty line was 47,6% in 1985 and rose slightly to 47,8% in 1990. It is
below the poverty line will reach 49,7% by the year
projected that
2000. On the other hand,
the per capita GDP growth in the year 2000 is expected
than that of 1985 (UNDP,
to be lower
In the 1980's, Africa suffered a
fall in per capita income from already low levels. Per capita income in
significant
the 1960's
increased
rate of 1,4%. This rate declined to 0,2% in the
1970's and to -2,8% between
the number of Africans
in the first half of the 1980's alone
in absolute poverty grew by about
to include more than l1alf of the population.
such as Nigeria, Liberia
real incomes declined by over 25%. Itis contended that even under the
and Niger,
assumption
a growth of 4% per annum in the 1990's,
that
sub-Sahara Africa will see an increase of about 85 million in the number of the poor
by the year 2000 (Osei-Hwedie,

1980 and 1986. As a result

at a moderate

the continent

In countries

two-thirds

achieves

1993).

1992).

Human Focused/Social Development Model: A Framework for
Practice

Specific to the social problems
number of priorities
activities
Economic

to be tied to national
and Social Council

and conditions

development

report, Rao states:

for social welfare activities and underscores

in Africa, Roo (1990)

identifies a
the need for these
Citing a 1987 United Nations

"Priorities include redesigning existing social welfare infrastructures to
detach them from the negative aspects of their colonial heritage and
reinforcing traditional social support networks of the family. kinship
groups. and the community. Aligning social welfare to employment genera-
tion and alleviation of poverty, especially in rural areas. is a challenge
faced by both governmental and nongovernmental organisations inAfrica.

74

S C Anderson, M K Wilson, L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

Current African realities require social welfare policies and programmes
that derive from an overall social policy that is central to national devel-
opment and social change rather than peripheral or merely reactive
(p 197)".

This perspective of social welfare is similar to that articulated by Galper (1980).
He emphasises the need for social services to address not only the immediate needs
of people, but also the larger social and economic changes necessary to prevent
future individual disruption and to improve the quality of life for all. In making
changes to improve the quality of life, Hall (1990) underscores the importance of
a social development focus that impacts social disadvantage and structural inequal-
ity. A central element in the process of social development
is the promotion of
maximum community participation (Ankrah, 1987; Hall, 1990; Osei-Hwedie,
1990). While many African countries have long employed community develop-
mentmethods such as the creation of village development committees,
the process
has seldom been one of involving people at the local level in the identification of
their own needs. Rather, the identification of community needs has often followed
a top-down form of planning. This type of process only serves to reinforce the
oppression of disadvantaged groups at the hands of an "enlightened" few. In dis-
cussing the underlying assumptions of a human focused/social development model
for social services, Osei-Hwedie (1990) states:

"This humanfocused development philosophy is based on the assumption
that all sectors of society should have access to information, goods,
services, opportunities and the decision-making process. This is an egali-
tarian principle which implies giving attention and emphasis to the most
disadvantaged or vulnerable groups in society. Humanfocused
develop-
ment has also been referred to as a social strategy approach. The goals of
this approach include improvement in the quality of life through the mobi-
lisation of human and natural resources, equitable distribution and utilisa-
tion of resources, income and other benefits of economic progress, mass
participation in socioeconomic activities and associated political actions;
and special programmes thatfocus on disadvantaged groups" (pp 89-90).

The adoption of this social development model for practice stresses greater in-
volvement on the part of social workers in the tasks of social policy and planning,
social administration, programme evaluation and community organisation. This
requires knowledge and skills in working with professionals
in the areas of
economic development and planning, health, and education. It further requires a
sensitivity to socio-cultural and political factors and knowledge of how to engage
in effective social action strategies.

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

75

social

service

systems

their application

values underlying

are most often reactive,

While many of the above areas are touched upon or are part of traditional

work education curricula,
mezzo level systems. Little attention has been given to their application
level systems. Thus,
proactive,
is also related to Western
of social services. Adopting
work practice,
social work values,
"elasticity"
number of critical
matic approach to the practice
values, needs, economics,
four major characteristics

social
has most often been related to micro and
to macro
than
in dealing with current or anticipated human needs. This reactive stance
approach to the provision
for social
of the base of
and skills. The model must also have sufficient
that differ on the basis of a
of a prag-
and teaching of social work based upon local culture,
approach,
are:

and politics.
are identified as being salient. These characteristics

in locales
(1981) argues

a human focused/social

and reconceptualisation

development model

for the development

factors. Midgley

the identification

such a pragmatic

to be relevant

and effective

In developing

knowledge

a residual

requires

rather

1. Social problems must be dealt with in a direct manner, but in ways that are not

reliant on conventional
is one based upon direct
services must
role of village headmen
cultural values
of,

the individual.

that differ

take into account

casework methods. The social development model
services. However,

the approach to providing these
the
and chiefs, extended family and tribal systems, and
from the traditional Western emphasis on, and value

factors such as traditional

religious beliefs,

2. Practical

versus

theoretical

skills must be emphasised.

skills related to setting up and managing rural cooperatives,
vegetables,
goods in areas that lack electricity, water and fuel are all potential examples of
necessary

and the use of new technology

of livestock,

and skills.

to produce

knowledge

raising

Practical development
the growing of

3. The emphasis

of social work intervention must be directed toward the most

needs and social problems

of developing

countries.

In particular,

pressing
social work intervention
effect and ramification
activities
clothing

aimed at providing
are especially

critical.

in developing

of dire poverty. Engagement

countries must be able to deal with the
in economic development

for basic needs related to food, shelter and

4. Social work must

reflect

the principle

of "indigenisation".

in a manner

social work must bepractised
the country. Social work practice and education that is relevant
in meeting
it remains
and professional

the needs of people cannot be successfully
solely centred on the development

roles which have been developed

that is appropriate

in the West.

of practice knowledge,

This means that
to the people and
to and effective
carried out as long as
theory

76

S CAnderson, M K Wilson, L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

The utilisation of the human focused/social development model serves to
provide a frameworlc:through which social work can assist in fulftlling a meaning-
ful and vital role in addressing the pressing social problems of African developing
countries. Central to this framework is the connecting of individual needs to the
larger social and economic changes required to be made in order
to prevent
individual dysfunction. A remedial approach, utilising primarily casework meth-
ods, is not likely to bring about this. Rather, there is a need to focus on a social work
practice model that will enable social workers to function effectively utilising a
social development perspective. Social work must develop a theoretical base that
will move practice away from theory based upon concepts of individual deficits
and toward theory that emphasises
individual strengths and focuses on the
underlying socioeconomic structurai factors correlated with social problems. An
effective practice model needs to have an "environmental" fit and be founded upon
a base of knowledge which is primarily rooted in sociological
and political
concepts. It should also engender a knowledge base which is relatively culture
neutral with an emphasis on concepts which have broad understanding
and
applicability.

One such model, which bears both promise and the need for greater develop-
ment, is that of empowerment The rationale for empowerment may be found in the
"appropriateness" argument Thus, the search for focus or emphasis must include
rmding new local ways, or revisiting old ideas and processes of problem-solving
and service-delivery. This involves understanding and articulating local
indige-
nous resources, relationships, helping and problem-solving networks;
and the
underlying ideas, rationale, philosophies or values. Basically, social work must
develop processes and procedures which relevant groups, communities or indi-
viduals are comfortable with, understand and control. Thus, empowerment
calls
for appropriateness, which also requires reconceptualisation and a radical review
of social work models and process.

The underlying notions are rooted in Freire's (1985) conscientisation approach
and liberation theology of Latin America Reconceptualisation is seen as focusing
on the reformulation of concepts so that they are in line with efforts to empower
In general, practice is to be based on local
marginalised groups in society.
experiences from which new 'constructs' are then created. This approach empha-
sises the rethinking, restructuring and strengthening of social work practice, and
places social work practice in the context of civic and political society (Mup-
edziswa, 1992; Osei-Hwedie, 1993).

Reconceptualisation also calls for the radicalisation of social work and its role
in society based on the argument that current social work practice in Africa is not
relevant, appropriate, or particularly effective. Social work must shed its liberal
character and adopt a more pragmatic and radical approach to get away from

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

77

the disadvantaged

and processes which cause the social
The profession must develop
from traditional
formulations

ills that social work is supposed
a more dynamic paradigm that
and procedures.
in
to develop the necessary skills to par-
and agitate
The central element of a radical approac~ places emphasis
changing
This orientation means that social work focuses on structural
It

institutions
to help eliminate.
marks a departure
this context, must assist
ticipate in national debates, organise
on behalf of themselves.
on the desire
alienating conditions.
change,
also stresses
capacity to work for their own welfare. Thus,
of empowerment

stance.
people's
social work is placed in the context

thereby taking a preventive
aimed at enhancing

and popular participation

and social disadvantage,

justice, and demonstrate

the disadvantaged

(Osei-Hwedie,

Practitioners,

self-reliance

collectively

inequality

for social

to work

towards

1993).

for

and capacity-building
the search for appropriateness
to the question

of control. To redefine

setting the social work agenda. Social work's

On the whole,
ment also relates
course also means
appropriateness
the interests which it serves
paper is devoted to defining
pertaining
to empowerment,
empowerment

practice

are tied to the manner

(Osei-Hwedie,

social work and chart

in the context of social develop-
its
and
in which the agenda is set, who sets it and
focus of this
reviewing the literature
of

of five different dimensions

1993). The remaining

legitimacy

the concept of empowerment,

and the explication

for social work.

Empowerment: A Model

for Practice

resources

repression

(Gutierrez,

is more
about

than simple
social

At the micro level, power

force,
power
It is inherently

of empowerment,
Societies

it is helpful
consist of individual

is embedded
power as developing

levels of power and control over
and positive
of groups.

to look at notions about
groups of people with
1991). Both a
over or
and the role of

To understand
the concept
power and powerlessness.
differing
negative
domination
interactions
power within them, a notion of working on and through people.
in social development.
Solomon (1976)
through positive experiences within the
in social
ability to
(eg
These additional
competen-
roles which are valued by the
has attained
three spheres of
power),
and the ability to
(political power) (Gutierrez, 1991; Friedmann,

views an individual's
family, giving
interactions.
manage
church and school)
cies provide
society. By adulthood,
power:
the ability to influence
influence the distribution
1992).

is reinforced
the family and to use social
competencies.
other adult social
individual

the empowered
individual
others
of resources

competency
outside
to gain additional

needs met (personal or psychological

and competency
by the individual's

a sense of confidence

skills for performing

social. relationships

the ability to get

or social power),

the individual

(interpersonal

institutions

This

social

78

S CAnderson, M K Wilson. L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

Within a larger context of the community or macro system, power refers to the
domination of one social group or institution (eg, government) over others, often
around the distribution of resources. According to Freire (1985), this domination
may be something as simple as rules regulating social behaviour,
imposed by the
state through such agencies as the police and the courts. It also may represent
the
manner in which power, technology and ideology produce forms of knowledge,
social relations, and other cultural forms that function to actively silence people.
These forms of domination, over extended periods of time, become institutional-
ised within a society as "negative valuations" and result in the silenced group ex-
periencing a sense of powerlessness (Solomon, 1976).

Powerlessness takes place within a construct of continuous interaction between
the individual andhis,lherenvironment
(Kieffer, 1984). The powerless individual
rather than that of
assumes a role of object, being acted upon by the environment,
subject, acting in and on his,lherworld. The powerless person alienates him/herself
resulting in a
from participating within the social reality of the environment,
passive acceptance of oppressive cultural givens about him/her
(Freire, 1985).
There is an attitude of self-blame, a sense of generalised distrust, a feeling of
alienation from resources for social influence, an experience of disenfranchise-
mentand economic vulnerability, and a sense of hopelessness in the socio-political
environment (Kieffer, 1984). Thus, being powerless represents:

"...the inability to manage emotions, skills. knowledge, and/or material
resources in a way that effective performance of valued social roles will
lead to personal gratification" (Solomon, 1976: 16).

Overcoming powerlessness requires the strengthening of the individual's adaptive
capacities to use resources within his/her socio-political environment and the de-
velopment of the abilities to participate competently within that environment
(Kieffer, 1984). Thus, empowerment

is:

"...a process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so
that individuals can take action to improve their lives" (Gutierrez, 1991:
201).

Empowerment

eliminating,

strategies must be focused on reducing,

and
reversing those "negative valuations" held by those identified as powerful within
the society (Solomon, 1976). According to Kieffer (1984), strategies utilising
empowerment include both the development of empowering skills and the attain-
ment of "participatory competence". The notion of participatory competence
includes:

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

79

(1) the development
(2) the construction

of a more positive
of a more critical and analytical understanding

or sense of self competence
of the social and

self-concept

political

environment,

(3) the cultivation

action (Kieffer,

and
of resources
1984).

(individual

and collective)

for social and political

Interventions
cies are considered
that combination
pate in the on-going
1985).

to be empowering

taken and efforts made to develop or achieve any of these competen-
individual portrays
and abilities necessary to assertively partici-
(Freire,

of his or her socio-political

skills. The empowered

of understandings

environment

construction

constraints

The individual

is viewed

of participatory

competency

the development

strategies

assist

of that world.

Intervention

The empowerment

as an actor within a complex

the notions of the individual
and the development

practice model proposed within this paper uses, as its
embedded within a social and political
cornerstones,
as a strategy to
environment
socio-
empowerment
in his/her world within the social, political,
political environment, making choices
individuals
and economic
to identify their concerns within a shared social and political context rather than as
isolated individual
of social networks of empow-
ering relationships
The discovery
petencies broadens
available
coping within a socio-political
sents the individual's
leads to increased motivation
and direction
1959; Locke et al, 1981). This goal-seeking
of the individual. Achieving
empowerment
skills and resources
ated the o~pression
agent
and efficacious

problems. Thus,
increase
com-
of individual
the access and use of options and resources within the choices
and
repre-
in turn,
(White,
is not limited to the world
of
the root sources which have created and perpetu-
as an
from a helpless victim to an assertive

of competencies
growing mastery over his/her environment, which,
behaviour

to the individual. Key to this approach is the placing of competence

for goal-seeking
behaviour
also necessitates

for social change.
and development

context. The development

the potential
strengths

to confront
(Kieffer,

in finding solutions

sees himself/herself

and is transformed

1984). Thus,

the individual

of participatory

the developing

person.

Empowerment: Dimensions of Practice and Social Work Roles

Five dimensions
sonal, social,
focus for practice

educational,

of practice

economic,
and are inexorably

are identified within an empowerment model: per-
serve as a

and political. These dimensions
intertwined with each other.

S CAnderson. M K Wilson, L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

80
Personal Empowerment
This dimension reflects upon the client system as having the strengths
and
capabilities to positively impact its position in life. Personal power is based upon
the competencies,
self-esteem, and motivation of the client system. Germain
(1991) relates personal power to the ability to engage in self direction. She states:

"It is thepower to make choices, reach decisions, and engage in socially effective
action on behalf of the self and the collectivity
self-
managing, and self-regulating" (p 26).

to be self-directing,

-

Empowerment within this dimension enables the client system to break free from
entrenched habits. It entails a process oflearning to move from only being reactive
to life events to becoming proactive in shaping one's vision for life. The building
of personal power requires an action-oriented approach to practice. The social
worker must become a supporter, partner, and role model for the client in taking
action (doing), rather than engaging in passive talking. The content for work is
based upon the strengths of the client system and the development
of new
competencies
identified life's
aspirations, hopes and dreams. The context for taking action is in the client's
environment, rather than in the worker's environment. Salient roles for the worker
are those of broker, enabler, teacher, behaviour changer, and advocate.

toward achieving hislher

that move the client

Social Empowerment
Personal empowerment reinforces social empowerment. This dimension demands
radical realignment of values and beliefs about control of decision making. It
brings forth the hope of transforming social institutions, and strengthening group
freedom, dignity and self-governance. Social empowerment
increases a sense of
responsibility and ownership and pushes governance to the masses. Itunderscores
the notion that leadership direction and control are best exercised at the lowest
levels of society (Block, 1991).

The nature of African societies underlines the importance of social empower-
ment For example, Midgley (1981) emphasises that, in most Third World coun-
tries, clients are not always amenable to individualised intervention.
In most
African societies, the individual is a being within a societal or group context and
[rods character and expression of the self within the group. Given this cultural
context, social work must look to the community to define its process and outline
its practice boundaries. Social work practice must be based on the cultural milieu
of the society in which it is evolved and practised, and must use the social structure
model of that society. In this sense, the principles and ethics must embody the

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

81

of activities

the unearthing

facilitate
and control

values of the locality (Midgley,
1981). Social workers must understand institution-
alised cultural values which give meaning and direction to a society. In this context,
and processes by which
social work must
people understand
of
people and their world view - economic,
and
for the social worker. Midgley (1981) sees poverty, depriva-
political
as the major and real problems
facing developing
tion and inequality
countries.
and their resources, other pro-
Social work must work together with communities
fessionals
roles for the
worker are those of data manager,
and
mobiliser.

to solve these problems. Salient
advocate,

themselves. A comprehensive
religious,

community planner, consultant,

understanding
psychological

and para-professionals

- is critical

social,

serves

of a nation's

human resources

educational
engagement
education

Educational Empowerment
require the free and ready
The fullest development
systems. Effective educational
systems prepare
access to meaningful
in both their social and work environments. The
people for productive
to severely limit how one fully rea1ises his!
lack of an adequate
can range from low self-esteem to an
her hopes and dreams. These limitations
for often scarce jobs in the workforce.
compete
impaired ability to successfully
the most basic
Within Africa, many
countries
are hard pressed
In the best cases, such as in Botswana,
educational
often diminish rapidly, beginning with junior high level
educational opportunities
leaving, results in
education. The lack of opportunities,
and unskilled young men and women into
a tremendous
influx of under-educated
rates of 40 to 60 per cent, this large pool of
the workforce. Given unemployment
unproductive
an exploding social problem that serves to
feed other problems. This lack of education most often equates to living ata poverty
level.

coupled with early school

young people represents

to their populations.

to offer but

services

followed

education,

and flexible

by accessible

for both young and older adults, needs to be a key component

educational
in any
programmes
plan. Central
to the practice of empowerment within
country's
social development
is for social work to become involved in the creation
a social development model
This task entaUs the ability to contribute positively to the
of these opportunities.
educational policy at the macro level. At
shaping and implementation
the community
in the prevention of
early school
of community based literacy and basic
education projects. Salient social work roles within this dimension include that of
advocate, mobiliser,

level, social work tasks require involvement

leaving and in the development

teacher and planner.

of relevant

consultant,

Basic

literacy

SCAnderson. M K Wilson. L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

82
Economic Empowerment
Economic empowennent
is the ability of each able member in society to obtain
sufficient income to live a life of dignity, and one in which the requisite needs of
shelter, food, and clothing can be adequately fulfIlled. There is not space enough
within the confmes of this discussion to talk about the structural factors underlying
poverty and its impact on the human condition. However, the shaping of effective
economic development must include a greater focus on the human impact of that
development. This underscores the need for social work to develop the expertise
and ability to shape policy at the macro level. At the community level it requires
that social workers become better educationally prepared to engage in the devel-
opmentand management of coopemtiveeconomic development schemes. In many
African countries, social workers in both the public and non-governmental organi-
sation (NOD) sectors are involved in mobilising individuals to develop cash
income projects. The extent to which lhey succeed or fail often rests on the abili-
ties of lhose planning the schemes to select a saleable product, control costs related
to the production of the product, and effectively market the product. These skills
are typically not ones in which social work has much prepamtion. Salient social
work roles in lhis dimension include that of advocate, planner, consultant, data
manager, teacher, and administmtor.

Political Empowerment
Political empowennent embodies lhe fonnation of democmtic systems in which all
citizens can participate in a manner in which they are heard and can influence the
shaping of those policies that impact their lives. These democmtic systems include
both those at the community and national level. Oil (1990) notes the difficulty in
engaging in social change-oriented politics at the electoral level. He states:

"Electoral politics are geared primarily to winning by manipulating the
voting of ill-informed electorates. This involves dichotomising issues into
over-simplified alternatives. reinforcing unexamined assumptions and
stereotypes. and generating distorted images through media-technolo-
gies" (pp 18-19).

Although Oil (1990) suggests that fundamental social change is not likely to
occur through efforts devoted at lhis level, he does argue that activity not be
abandoned as itcan serve as a" ... defence against severe exploitation, oppression,
(p 19). More fundamental change can occur in the political
and repression .....
arena through building strong social change movements at the gross roots level. By
beginning to take control at the local level, coalitions can be formed that can serve

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

83

dimension

It is within

the political

that can impact

for empowerment

regional and national policies. The inclusion of
to build networks
is viewed here as a critical arena for
the political
arena that debates and decisions
social work practice.
effecting the basic values of the society occur. For example,
in most countries of
Africa, the status of women as equal members of society is under much debate.
cultural values are often used as a reason not to advance the status of
Traditional
women as full and equal members
of the society in which they live. However,
the
serve as a reason to keep certain members of
principle of indigenisation
cannot
and cultural values are like all other
society in a state of servitude.
systems;
state of change. Thus, the attainment of socialjustice
and equality for all groups
the political processes
social work roles
mobiliser. Critical
individuals
at meaningful

in a society requires an ability to effectively engage in
of both the community and nation in which one lives. Salient
and
teacher
groups and
fmd a positive way of being political and sustaining related activities

those of advocate,
tasks include helping communities,

in this dimension
professional

they are in aconstant

Tradition

include

levels.

are inadequately
of development,

for Social Work Education and

Implications of Empowerment
Practice
Social workers
best promise
Rahman (1990) emphasises
analysis. These can be enhanced by practice and consultation (external
that self-development
with someone
else's
conditions
changes

prepared to meet most of the above demands. The
therefore,
initiatives.
that ordinary people are capable of social inquiry and
input) given
totally develop
or
calls for radical

starts with one's own action. One cannot
ideas which do not fit one's own special circumstance

of living (Osei-Hwedie,
in social work education

1993). Thus, empowerment

lies with ordinary people's

and practice.

justice

for the communities

The notion of change

in the structure of social wode envisioned here is based
on social
that need the most help. For Africa, social
work training should be consistent with local conditions. Social work practitioners
and students
life and
activities.
and their conditions
(Osei-Hwedie,

and to work in, and relate to, local communities

be equipped with the tools to penetrate

cultural

should

1993).

that empowerment

It must be emphasised

preceded by the iRdigenisation
must be in line with the conceptualisation
processes,
more than produce
sensitivity to, and critical awareness

through social work practice must be
of social wode education. The defmition of practice
of education based on local needs,
and control. Social wode education must do
high-level manpowec. Students and practitioners must gain
the services to

of their society and its needs,

inputs, design.

structure,

S CAnderson, M K Wilson. L-K Mwansa, K Osei-Hwedie

84
be rendered, and the procedures which may be appropriate in different contexts.
More importantly, social workers must not see themselves as privileged and
removed from society, "...but as ordinary members of the society ready to use their
newly-acquired knowledge and skill in the service of that society" (Nyirenda,
1976). This perspective is critical if social workers are to be believable change
agents. The shift in emphasis also means that social work education and practice
must pay more attention to the nature and consequences of social conditions in
which people live than has hitherto been thecase. The consciousness-raising which
lies behind social work's emphasis must be placed on self-directed learning,
explomtion and analysis. Students must be exposed to such an approach if, in the
future, they expect clients touse self-directed learning, exploration and alaysis suc-
cessfully. In short, social work education must become a joint effort between
students and lecturers, the same way social work practitioners implement problem
solving as a joint effort with clients.

The current socioeconomic situation in Africa calls for a complete rethinking
of national development and social welfare, and hence social work education. This
also means taking a new look at social work programmes and deciding which ones
are consistent with and relevant to nationafdevelopmentneeds and the requirement
of empowerment Social workers and their client systems must focus on the
identification of deficiencies in economic, political and social structures and con-
tribute to social development through institutional development and control, and
the classification of values and goals. Social work educators must seek to make
social work practice a conscious process for social action utilising innovative,
im-
provised and outreach strategies in a cooperative and communal effort to free the
minds, the hands and the energies of the poor and disadvantaged masses.

Conclusion

For social work to positively address the many varied and complex social needs of
African developing countries, a broad-based model of social work practice needs
to be developed. Current models of practice which are reflected in Western social
work education and litemture have not been relevant either in the past or today. The
failure of these tmditionally focused practice models (ie clinical, socialising,
custodial, thempeutic and care-taking functions) is not only evident in the devel-
oping countries of Africa, but also equally evident in addressing similar social
needs found in the urban areas and among oppressed populations in theWestem
countries.

Within a human focused/social development model for social work practice, an
empowerment model of pmctice has also been articulated. This model views the
individual as interacting within a social and political environment. The degree to

and political)

Empowerment & Social Work Education and Practice in Africa

successfully
skills and the opportunities
of empowerment
represent

85
is dependent upon both the individual's partici-
which one interacts
for participation within the envi-
patory competency
practice (personal, social, educa-
ronment. The five dimensions
the primary participatory competencies
tional, economic,
thrust of social work intervention efforts. The model
is
that serve as the primary
based upon the strengths of the client system and views the development of em-
as a means for increasing the possibilities of social change.
powering relationships
of this model holds forth a broad and comprehensive view of
how a social worker would function in addressing client needs. The encompassing
of such a model would require both the need for an expanded set of skills and
knowledge
practice and delivering
services. While the delivery of traditional
services focused on micro level systems
would still be carried out, much greater emphasis would be placed upon address-
factors within mezw and macro level systems that relate to the
ing the underlying
micro system needs.

as well as a different way of conceptualising

The development

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