Zambezia (1977), 5 (i).RESEARCH REPORTTHE STRUGGLE FOR SHELTER IN AN URBANIZING WORLD*:A RHODESIAN EXAMPLEDURING SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 1976 a squatter settlement of some 2 600 familiesmushroomed on Derbyshire Estate, European land located 16 km from thecentre of Salisbury. A combined exercise by the municipality and govern-ment during November relocated the majority of these people in a transitionalurban settlement, where they were provided with basic services. This articleattempts firstly to investigate who these people were, whence they came andwhy they were there, using material from a survey conducted by the SalisburyMunicipality Department of Community Development,1 and secondly brieflyto review how the authorities handled the issue.Squatters have been defined by Juppenlatz2 as 'the illegal occupants ofurban land whether government or private property'. Van Velsen3 points tothe fact that in addition to being illegal occupants of land these people are alsoinfringing a variety of building, planning and sanitation regulations. Themajority of cities in the developing world are already under pressure fromthe squatter problem. Generally the manifestation of urban squatting becomesapparent when the rate of in-migration of families from the smaller towns orrural areas is greater than the rate at which the city can absorb or integratethe families into the existing social structure of urban society.In Rhodesia the proportion of the indigenous population resident in theurban areas has shown little change over the past fifteen years,4 Rhodesia'surban centres are not being swamped by a wave of rural migrants and this isprimarily the result of legislation"3 which enables authorities to control theflow of work-seekers entering the towns. The African (Urban Areas) Accom-modation and Registration Act of 1951 requires that all residents of Africantownships and domestic servants resident on employers' premises are registeredwith township authorities. Further this Act stipulates that for a married manto obtain housing his marriage must be registered by a District Commissioner.* My title is taken from the sub-title of one of the pioneering works in the field ofhousing in developing countries, C. Abrams, Housing in the Modern World (London,Faber, 1966).> I should like to thank Mr D. Passmore, Senior Community Service Officer,Salisbury Municipality Department of Community Development, for giving me accessto data gathered during the survey.2 M. Juppenlatz, Cities in Transformation: The Urban Squatter Problem of theDeveloping World (St Lucia, Queensland, Univ. of Queensland Press, 1970), 12.3 J. van Velsen, 'Urban squatters: "Problem or solution"', in D. Parkin (ed.),Town and Country in Central and Eastern Africa (London, Oxford Univ. Press, 1975),297.<* The percentage of the total African population resident in the main urban areashas not changed appreciably between 1962 and 1975: 14,4 in 1962 and 13,6 in 1969,Rhodesia, Census of Population, 1969, 7; and 16,5 in 1975, Rhodesia, Supplement to theMonthly Digest of Statistics, October 1976, 2.s The Africans (Urban Areas) Accommodation and Registration Act [Chapter242]; The Vagrancy Act [Chapter 92]; The Land Tenure Act [Chapter 148],8384STRUGGLE FOR SHELTER IN AN URBANIZING WORLDThe Vagrancy Act empowers civil authorities to send back to tribal areasthose Africans who cannot prove they are gainfully employed or formallyregistered urban residents. The Land Tenure Act specifies those areas in whichpersons of each race may reside, and also enables authorities to sweep asideany embryonic squatter settlements. Thus Rhodesian towns have managedto avoid the growth of large 'shanty towns' or 'informal housing sectors' whichare frequently characteristic of cities in the developing world. The policy inmost centres is to regulate the flow of male migrants according to the avail-ability of employment and prevent the accumulation of a large body of un-employed, the latter being seen as a threat to civil peace in urban areas.'Single' male workers are normally able to obtain accommodation on em-ployer's premises, in barrack-like quarters in the African townships, or aslodgers. The size of the overall urban population (including dependents) isthus very much a function of housing provision and availability of employ-ment.While the legislation described above has prevented a large influx ofrural migrants, numerous unemployed persons do live in the urban areas,especially the larger ones. The true figure for the population of the varioustownships may be as much as double the official figure. Furthermore, althoughthere is no great influx of people into the cities, the urban population is grow-ing rapidly with the growth of second generation city-dwellers; Stopforth6estimates that 14,7 per cent of the adult population of Highfield was born inthe town. The African population of Salisbury according to the 1969 censuswas 280 000 while the estimate at 31 December 19757 was 430 000. Housingprovision over the last ten years has been at the rate of approximately 5 000units per annum; and this has not and cannot in any way keep pace withthe demand. The waiting-list for housing in the Salisbury Municipality com-prises some 14 000 heads of households, a figure which gives some indicationof the backlog. This housing shortage, combined with strict regulations onqualification for housing, forces a large number of people to seek alter-native dwelling arrangements.Alternative dwelling takes the form of legal, or, more frequently, illegallodging; lodgers generally pay exorbitant rents, such as Rh$8-10 a monthfor one room. Otherwise these people may use their own initiative and in-genuity to construct temporary shelters using whatever materials available,such as plastic sheeting, metal sheets, poles and grass. Squatter settlementshave existed in various areas of Salisbury since the birth of the city, butnothing has matched the scale of the Derbyshire Settlement. In the early1960s a squatter establishment of approximately 2 500 people was formed onthe banks of the Hunyani river. The government feared pollution of theriver and Salisbury's water supply, and over a period of two years it movedthese people from this area to plots which were individually served withrunning water and latrines on which the people built their own houses. Othersquatter settlements have merely been 'flushed out' by the municipal authori-ties with no alternative arrangements provided for the people.THE DERBYSHIRE SETTLEMENTThe core of the Derbyshire settlement, a group of about 200 people, hadexisted since 1958; these people were living illegally on European-owned landthat was not being farmed but on part of which a granite quarry is operating.4 f* \s P. Stopforth, Survey of Highfield African Township (Salisbury, University ofRhodesia, Department of Sociology, Occasional Paper No. 6, 1971), 18.t Rhodesia, Supplement to the Monthly Digest of Statistics, October 1976, 2.D. SEAGER85Over the years no attempt was made by the authorities to establish whetheror not these people were employed by the quarry.Between August and October 1976 this small settlement grew dramatic-ally into a population of some 12 000. The suddenness of the growth inpopulation appears to have been due to the fact that political considerationssuddenly impinged upon the underlying social and economic facts. Socialaspects are laid down in the legislation previously mentioned: the need for aregistered marriage. Many marriages remain unregistered because the fathers-in-law will not give due recognition to a marriage until the lobola paymenthas been completed. They consider that because of the influence of urbaniza-tion sons-in-law will fail to honour their payment obligations; this is differentfrom traditional marriage which is recognized after the first instalment oflobola has been paid. Economic factors, in addition to the increasing un-employment brought about by the state of the Rhodesian economy, includedthe raising of rents by Salisbury Municipality in August 1976; lodgers werefrequently prevailed upon to pay the greater portion of this rise. Politicalevents that suddenly supervened were the Prime Minister's statement to thenation on 24 September declaring majority rule within two years, and a state-ment to the press by Joshua Nkomo on 17 October in which he raised thepeople's expectations when he outlined his ten-point plan for Zimbabwe bystating that,8 'the land belonged to the people and would be used for theirbenefit. If a person used the land for the people's good, no one would take hisfarm. Absentee landowners would not be allowed nor would land speculation'.In addition to this, guerilla warfare in the rural areas resulted in men,hitherto 'single', bringing their families into the urban areas for safety. Thesefactors combined with the housing shortage, appear to have been the mainmotivating forces behind the massive move to Derbyshire.People moved to Derbyshire in their thousands. A committee was setup among the long standing residents under the leadership of a Mr Chimusoro,who had been in the area since 1958. This residents committee was res-ponsible for assisting and advising in the pegging out of plots of land onwhich people erected shelters using whatever material was available. A rockyoutcrop was used as a communal latrine and water for drinking was availablefrom wells in the area. Traders vended fruit and vegetables, and buildersand tailors conducted their trade. The community had its own football andnetball teams and playing fields were set aside in the centre of the settlement.THE SURVEYA survey of the people of Derbyshire was conducted at the beginning ofOctober by the Department of Community Development of Salisbury Muni-cipality. The purpose of its survey was to discover who these people were,their reasons for being in Derbyshire and their previous residence. Twohundred and sixty heads of households were interviewed, constituting at thatstage a sample survey of approximately five per cent of the population.The survey (see Tables I-III) showed that, of these 260 heads of house-holds, 212 were men and 48 were women. Self-employed and employed malesconstituted 81 per cent of male heads of households. However, in terms ofthe legislation only 25 per cent (53) were single or had a registered marriageand were thus eligible for municipal accommodation. This figure may be re-duced further when one considers the requirements of the present develop-ment schemes. A monthly income of Rh$50 is taken as an index in theThe Rhodesia Herald, 18 October 1976.86STRUGGLE FOR SHELTER IN AN URBANIZING WORLDTables because it is the cut-off wage figure used in assessing the suitabilityof applicants for housing at Zengeza, the area where new African townshipsare being developed. The survey showed that when considering the size ofincome only 11 per cent (25) would be able to take advantage of presentlyavailable housing. Those disqualified because of unregistered marriages, butotherwise earning a minimum of $50 were 20 per cent (43) of male heads ofhouseholds.Women heads of households constituted 18 per cent of the sample. Themajority of those women were divorced or widowed, generally earning lessthan their male counterparts; 79 per cent (38) of the women earned someform of income, but only 12 per cent (6) of them earned more than $50 amonth. Besides low incomes women have further problems in obtaininghousing. When a couple who are tenants of the municipality are divorced orseparated they must forfeit the house. The man may find 'single' accommoda-tion, but for a divorced woman with children finding accommodation isextremely difficult. At the discretion of the township superintendent, depend-ing on the demand for housing in the area, widowed women may maintainthe house providing they can meet the rent; otherwise they have to find them-selves alternative accommodation.The survey showed clearly that the majority of heads of households wereurban dwellers of long standing: 59 per cent (154) of the total had been livingin Salisbury for eleven years or more and 21 per cent (57) had been livingin Salisbury for between six to ten years.TABLE 1NUMBERS OF RHODESIAN MALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS BYINCOME IN DERBYSHIREMarital StatusLength of Stay in Urban Area0-5 Years " 6-10 Years 11 + Years-Rh$50 Rh$50+ -Rh$50 Rh$50A Rh$50 Rh$50 +N N N N N NTotalNA: EMPLOYEDMarriage RegisteredMarriage UnregisteredSingleTOTALB: SELF-EMPLOYEDMarriage RegisteredMarriage UnregisteredSingleTOTALc: UNEMLOYED: NOMarriage RegisteredMarriage UnregisteredSingleTOTAL82111INCOME16612330111126203733172101352712315994101156182211871695712322815225SOURCE: An unpublished report by D. Passmore, Senior Community Service Officer,Salisbury Municipality Department of Community Development.D. SEAGER87TABLE IINUMBER OF ALIEN MALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS BY INCOMEIN DERBYSHIRELength of Stay in Urban Area0-5 Years 6-10 Years 11+ YearsMarital Status -Rh$50 Rh$50+ -Rh$50 Rh$50+ -Rh$50 Rh$50 + TotalN N N N N N NA: EMPLOYEDMarriage RegisteredMarriage UnregisteredSingleTOTALB: SELF-EMPLOYEDMarriage RegisteredMarriage UnregisteredSingleTOTALc: UNEMPLOYED: NOMarriage RegisteredMarriage UnregisteredSingleTOTAL3111INCOME_3Š1112_2131214221417239843182633162844391266214TABLE IIINUMBER OF FEMALE HEADS OF HOUSEHOLDS BY INCOMEIN DERBYSHIREFamily SizeLength of Stay in Urban Area0-5 Years ' 6-10 Years 11+ YearsŁRh$50 Rh$50+ -Rh$50 RhSSO^ Rh$50 Rh$50 +TotalA: EMPLOYED1 5 .g __ . ,4. 15 1 Šg7+ i _TOTAL 11B: SELF-EMPLOYEDl _2g , ,4g ,g j .7 _L __TOTAL 10-5 Years 6-10 Yearsc: UNEMPLOYED: NO INCOMEi 2 Š2 1 _2A5 Š 16 Š Š7_j_TOTAL 3 143311Š.Š13__.Š_____Š,ŠŠ11 +_Š1ŠŠŠ_ŠŠ.ŠŠYears111.ŠŠŠ31_____12Š1Š21Š_Not581.Š__ŠŠŠ211ŠStated11131164232129122211Š9331Š1111088 STRUGGLE FOR SHELTER !N AN URBANIZING WORLDGOVERNMENT AND MUNICIPAL ACTIONOn 4 October the Mayor of Salisbury and the Minister of Local Govern-ment and Housing met to decide on a policy of action for the growing squattercommunity on Derbyshire. At this stage the population numbered nearly2 000. but with publicity from the mass-media this figure was to grow to12 000 bv the end of October. As the squatter community is a few kilometresouisidc the city boundary, the municipality did not consider it to be itsproblem, but the government was reluctant to assume responsibility for thesettlement. The Minister of Local Government and Housing referring to thelarge number of low-cost houses to be built at Seki to accommodate someof the squatters made the following statement to the press on 12 October1976:The Government is not normally involved with providing AfricannousiiisT, which is largely the responsibility of the municipal authori-ties. We have launched this crash programme to help them out dueto the size and urgency of the problem.9It was decided at the meeting on 4 October that the squatters should bemoved some 20 km by road to land at Zengeza. This land, located approxim-ately 22 Km from ir.e centre of Salisbury, was previously excised from Sekihi')--;] ] r :-,i Ltn.i i\uA was scheduled for development in 1978. The area at/enge/;» is boin^ considered as a 'transitional settlement'. Here provisionwas made for 2 600 plots of 9,5 x 10 m onto which the people, with the assist-ance of municipal transport, moved their belongings and building materialsii()d constructed thjir own dwellings similar to those in which they had livedrit Derby, h'-.c Communal taps, latrines and a refuse collection service wereprovided: p]:>ns ;ji!-"\vcd for one tap per six families (i.e. approximately 30people). I'iiJ one latrine per four families. Rent for each plot, to cover servicesfpd w.-;:;cs f'V e\ira iv.aff employed by the Zengeza Township, is Rh$2,50a month. 1 lie Salisbury City Council agreed to move people to Zengeza ifthey could prove thai they were employed; and a select number of self-employed members of the informal sector10 of the economy were also in-cluded.In the nine days during the joint operation by the Government andSalisbury City Council 1 909 families (approximately 9 000 people) werescreened and moved. This selection process left an estimated 700 families(approximately 3 000 people); these were families of aliens or unemployedfor whom the Department of Social Welfare and Internal Affairs were con-sidered responsible. The government departments appeared unwilling toaccept this responsibility and asked the Council to reconsider its decision notto accept aliens and unemployed. At a council meeting on 18 NovemberCouncillor Jock Alves introduced an urgent resolution which was adoptedby the council meeting to the effect that:1. Council views with the gravest concern the information receivedfrom the Secretary for Lands and Natural Resources, to theeffect that the Ministry of Internal Affairs is unable to dischargethe function undertaken by it in prepation of conjoint plansfor the sympathetic and expeditious removal and re-settlementof the squatters in the Derbyshire area.s The Rhodesia Herald, 12 October 1976.i° R. J. Davies, 'The informal sector in Rhodesia; How important?', The RhodesiaScience News (1974), 8, 216-20, gives examples of the type of work engaged in by thesepeople: pirate-taxi operators, shebeen queens, cowdung sellers, fruit and vegetablehiuvkers, second-hand clothing traders, bicycle repairers, and basket makers.D. SEAGER 892. Council considers that it is now being called upon to dischargefunctions that do not fall within the sphere of its responsibilitiesand to do so at the unavoidable expense of the limited resourcesavailable to Council which are heavily committed to the dis-charge of Council's onerous housing responsibilities.3. Council is, furthermore, most concerned that the inadequacyof the appreciation of the situation made by the Ministry ofInternal Affairs and the inadequacy of the arrangements madeby that Ministry could affect adversely the success that hasattended Council's efforts thus far.4. In the light of the above the City Council cannot agree to makingitself responsible for the housing at Zengeza, of those squatterswho are not employed in the City of Salisbury."The Government was reported to have noted the Council's response toits request and 'its implications were being studied at high level'.12For those people already at Zengeza the Government policy envisagedrelocation of the majority on a Rh$l million government housing scheme atSeki which provided for 1 500 fully serviced two-roomed houses at a rent ofRh$9,50 a month. These units are specifically designed for workers earningless than Rh$55 a month. The first 40 homes were completed by the endof November 1976 and the remainder made available at the rate of 50 perweek. Those people already on the municipal housing list were given priorityin the move; legislation concerning the need for a registered marriage waswaived. A Government Notice on 21 January 197713 noted the revocationof the appointment of District Commissioners and Assistant District Com-missioners as competent authorities for the purpose of assessing Africanwomen as approved wives in terms of the Africans (Urban Areas) Accom-modation and Registration Act and listed the appointment of various com-petent authorities with the power to recognize women as approved wives. InSalisbury this power was granted to the Directors and Assistant Directors ofAfrican Administration of Salisbury Municipality.CONCLUSIONPopular misconceptions portray squatters as poor peasants new to townsand the money economy. The survey clearly shows that the people of Derby-shire were urban dwellers; 80 per cent of the sample had been living in Salis-bury for six years or more. Furthermore, although in the majority of casesthe wages earned by these people could be considered to be low, only 18per cent of the total sample were found to be unemployed. Van Velsen's14study of 'unauthorized settlements' in Zambia also found that there was noevidence that squatter areas were largely occupied by rural migrants whocontinued to flock to town irrespective of the availability of employment.The Derbyshire squatter settlement was an attempt by the people to meettheir needs for shelter in the urban environment. The shortage of housing, inparticular low-cost housing, together with legislation disqualifying them from" Salisbury City Council, 'Minutes of the 1488th Ordinary Meeting of the CouncilHeld ... on Thursday. 18 November 1976 . . . '.12 The Rhodesia Herald, 20 November 1976.'3 Rhodesia, Government Gazette, 21 Jan. 1977, Rhodesia Notice No. 66 of 1977.'4 Van Velsen, 'Urban squatters: Problem or solution', in D. Parkin (ed.) Toxvnand Country in Central and Eastern Africa (London. Oxford Univ. Press, 1975),234-307.90STRUGGLE FOR SHELTER IN AN URBANIZING WORLDtaking advantage of available accommodation left these people homeless;25 percent of male heads of households were eligible for housing but dueto the backlog of housing or cost of available housing were obliged to findalternative accommodation, and the unregistered marriages of 57 per centof males disqualified them from obtaining housing. In terms of life style andsocial networks, it appears that no real distinction can be made betweenDerbyshire people and the township dwellers; rather differences appear to bein marital status and size of income (factors that have driven many from thetownships). The Rhodesian Government's relaxation of housing regulationsby waiving the requirements that marriage be registered has made a consider-able number of families eligible for housing.Urban housing for the low income population in Salisbury has generallytaken the form of subsidized mass public housing programmes, the rationalebeing that public sector management and control of this section of the urbanhousing supply would ensure adequate housing standards and facilitateorderly urban development. However, despite legislation controlling the flowof population into the urban areas and specifying qualifications for housing,the provision of housing through these schemes has not kept pace with demand.In many other developing countries a smaller and smaller proportion of thepopulation has benefited directly from the performance of urban housingauthorities and the formal housing market generally; while a greater propor-tion of these cities' households have found or invented settlement and housingsolutions outside the urban laws and institutions that supposedly govern theiraction and meet their needs. An example is the city of Lusaka whose squatterand slum population increased from 27 per cent of the city's total populationin 1967 to 43 per cent in 1970.Rethinking on housing policy in many developing countries has led tothe realization that a very substantial part of the low-income population canand do house themselves without direct control or direct housing assistance.Furthermore, there was the realization that these popular actions are likelyto happen relatively speedily and satisfactorily in a secure urban setting wherefamilies have at least the prospect of long term legal tenure of their land andthe use of urban facilities and services; hence the introduction of 'site and ser-vice' schemes. Many variations of the 'site and service' scheme have been triedout in various developing countries. Zambia provides an interesting case ofevolution in public housing policy towards self-help 'site and service' schemes.15These schemes were initially introduced in the mid-1960s as a means ofresettling squatters. The government accepted the fact that available resourceswere grossly inadequate to provide conventional contractor-built houses forevery urban family.The Rhodesian Zengeza 'site and service' scheme was not in terms ofGovernment policy to be considered a permanent 'transit camp' for thoseunable to find accommodation in the townships; rather the municipality wasanxious to house those people as soon as possible in government and muni-cipal housing schemes. However, the squatter problem is going to arise fromtime to time until the urban areas are able to provide adequate accommoda-tion at rents that are within the reach of the low income groups. Site andservice schemes may well prove a satisfactory way of meeting these peoples'needs for shelter.University of RhodesiaDIANA SEAGER>3 C. E. Madavo, 'Zambia; Squatters' Self-help*. South African Outlook (Tune1976), 90-1.