Zambezia (1978), VI (i)PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF INCREASEDPASTORAL PRODUCTION IN THETRIBAL TRUST LANDS*D. L. BARNESDepartment of Research and Specialist Services,Ministry of Agriculture, Henderson Research StationTHE ENVIRONMENT in the Tribal Trust Lands differs radically from that inthe commercial agricultural sector. Accordingly, it is pointless to consider thetechnical feasibility of increasing pastoral production in the Trust Landswithout taking into account the relevant demographic, sociological, economicand ecological facts. As they apply overall, these can be summarized asfollows:In most Trust Lands the pressures of the human and livestock popula-tions are intense and are increasing. Overstocking is widespread, and stocklosses from poverty exceed 100 000 livestock head in seasons of poor rain-fall. In fact, in many areas the position has been reached where there areheavy stock losses even in favourable seasons. Large areas of veld areseverely degraded, especially in the medium and low rainfall areas. Becausevegetative cover has been drastically reduced, run-off is increased and dryenvironments have been made yet drier.Whereas there is individual ownership of livestock, grazing land is usedcommunally on the basis of tribal, family or kinship groups. Many tribes-people hold strong beliefs relating to tribal and ancestral spirits and theassociation of these with land and livestock. Generally speaking, there is nocontrol of numbers of livestock.Only about one-quarter of Tribal Trust Land is situated in areas ofmoderate to high agricultural potential, that is Natural Regions I, II and III(Vincent and Thomas, 1957); also about one-quarter falls within the areapresently infested by tsetse. Production systems are largely of a subsistencenature and land use is commonly exploitive, without regard to renewal ofresources. Capital formation is negligible, and, in the absence of collateral,credit is rarely available.Sociologically, there is often pressure on the individual to conform tothe views of the majority. The outlook is generally conservative and, in thecircumstances, is understandably oriented towards security in terms of* This is an edited version of a paper delivered to the Fourth Rhodesian ScienceCongress in September 1977,4950INCREASED PASTORAL PRODUCTION IN T.T.Ls.basic needs at subsistence level. There is a traditional obligation for indivi-duals to distribute surpluses among the more needy members of the com-munity.The infrastructure is poorly developed and is pegged to the prevailingsubsistence economy. The land use pattern, and the siting of services andfacilities, is commonly haphazard and without regard to well-establishedprinciples of land classification. Many adult males leave to work in thecommercial sector, and consequently the rural population comprises a re-latively high proportion of old people, women and children. Because of theireconomic status and the national land tenure policy, most of the Africansemployed outside the Trust Lands have been forced to look to the TrustLands for security of domicile and for the means of providing subsistencefor their families, and, when necessary, themselves. Large areas of arableland are cultivated merely to maintain tenure rights. The standard of hus-bandry on such lands is especially poor, productivity is low, and the pro-blem of depletion of fertility is greatly aggravated.LIVESTOCK IN THE TRIBAL ECONOMYApart from any religious connotations, livestock and cattle, in particular,have special significance in the tribal economy. In all but the exceptionallydry areas, they are not kept primarily for the production of meat or milk,but as essential components of the subsistence production systems on arableland. Danckwerts (1974), for example, estimated from a socio-economicstudy in Victoria Province that of the total gross output from cattle, draughtfor ploughing and manure (arable inputs) comprised 49,2 per cent, milkand meat for home consumption 33,2 per cent, and sales of livestock 17,6per cent.Extensive areas of inherently infertile sandy soils in the Tribal TrustLands have been severely depleted by exploitive cropping. It is now wellestablished that the rehabilitation of these soils, as well as the maintenanceof productivity, is difficult, if not impossible, without the application ofcomposted manure (a well-rotted mixture of dung, urine and dry plantmaterial) as well as fertilizer (Grant, 1976); inorganic fertilizers alone arenot effective. Experiments indicate that the desirable average annual dressingof manure for satisfactory results is about ten tonnes per hectare, and thatto obtain this amount six metric livestock units (one livestock unit = 500 kglive body mass) are needed (Rodel and Hopley, 1973).Because of the present imbalance between numbers of livestock andthe area of land cultivated, applications of manure fall far short of the de-sirable level, and yields are only about one-third of those attainable withthis application. Numbers of draught animals are also inadequate. In con-sequence, land preparation is often sub-standard, crops are planted late,and the transport of such manure as is available is difficult. These factors con-tribute further to low crop yields.D. L. BARNES51With increasing population pressure and with declining yields, thecultivated area is increasing with a corresponding decrease in the area ofgrazing land. It is imperative that this trend be reversed by raising the pro-ductivity of the arable land; it is imperative also that the right balance bestruck between the number of stock which can be carried, and the area ofland cultivated. The aim should be to carry six livestock units for everyhectare of cropland, and livestock should be so distributed and managedthat the making of composted manure and its application to cropland isfacilitated. The realization of this aim would make it possible to reducethe area presently cultivated by two-thirds.In the drier environments of Natural Regions IV and V rainfall is ex-ceedingly variable, both within and between seasons. In such circumstances,the tribesmen cultivate relatively large areas of land in an attempt to producetheir food grain requirements. Crop failures due to drought are commonand in drought years livestock are sold to cover cash needs and in order tobuy grain.Hence, livestock play a vital role in tribal agriculture in both thehigh and low rainfall areas. Their rational management and the adoptionof measures aimed at increasing carrying capacity and production are keyfeatures in a programme of rural development. This implies not only theintensification of production, but also the reclamation of the large areas ofgrazing land which is presently degraded as a result of overstocking, orwhich, having been depleted of fertility by exploitive cropping, has beenabandoned,RECLAMATION AND INTENSIFICATIONReclamation can be regarded as a particular form of intensification, whichin turn can be defined as the production of more and better quality feed,and arranging for its efficient use by livestock. In practice, intensificationinvolves some or all of the following factors:1. Restoration of the plant cover to the appropriate level for a given en-vironment, and changing its botanical composition to that characteristicof sound veld in the area.2. Elimination of undesirable plants and their replacement with plantswhich are inherently more productive.3. Increasing the supply of nitrogen to the plant, and eliminating deficien-cies of nutrients other than nitrogen,4. Improvement of plant soil-water relations.5. Application of efficient grazing procedures, and, where necessary, theprovision of suitable mineral and protein-rich supplements for live-stock.The manipulative possibilities and the level of intensification which52 INCREASED PASTORAL PRODUCTION IN T.T.Ls.is feasible are determined by the physical environment, particularly the rain-fall, and by economic considerations. A high level of intensification is exem-plified by an irrigated grass pasture, heavily fertilized with nitrogen and suchother elements as are required. At a low level, intensification might involvemerely the provision of water points in low rainfall areas and the applicationof grazing procedures designed to maintain the grazing resource. From theone extreme to the other, the difference in output might be one-hundred foldor more.Pastures can therefore be regarded as falling on a gradient of pro-ductivity. The position of pasture on the gradient largely depends on thedegree of manipulation of the environment, and the level of capital input.Normally high production is not possible without appreciable manipulationand appreciable capital input.Of the complex of factors militating against reclamation and intensifica-tion of veld and pasture production in the Trust Lands, three stand out asbeing of overriding importance:1. The imbalance between the numbers of people using the land and itsproductive potential under reasonably intensive management.2. The prevailing system in which the number of livestock is not con-trolled and ownership of livestock is divorced from responsibility forthe grazing resource.3. The lack of capital and poor credit-worthiness of the tribespeople.Apart from the obvious need to reduce the growth rate of population,the solution to all three problems depends on a vigorous and comprehensivenational programme involving both urbanization and rural reform: urbaniza-tion as a means of drawing off the surplus population, and rural reform as ameans of rationalizing land use patterns, increasing subsistence productionper unit area and increasing production of cash crops and livestock products.As mentioned earlier, large numbers of people who are employed out-side the Trust Lands cultivate land merely to retain the right to use it.Population pressures are such that little progress in rationalizing land useis possible unless these f non-farmers' and their families are provided withalternative social security, security of domicile and the means of permanentlyearning a living. This involves a national commitment, and its successfulapplication would pave the way for the rational use of land by full-timefarmers under a system of land tenure conducive to such use.At the very least, the terms of occupancy should be such as to notinhibit the desire by groups of people, or, where appropriate, individuals, toImprove and develop the land. It should be absolutely clear to the occupantsthat they will be able to reap the benefits flowing from such activities andthat their rights cannot be rescinded.In the tribal context, attempts to motivate individuals to change havebeen largely unsuccessful. In general, the tribesman does not make decisionsas an individual but as part of a community. Moreover, individual ownershipD. L. BARNES53of ffarmlets', incorporating both arable and grazing land, is impracticable inthe Trust Lands.There is a need, therefore, to foster sound land use by communities.To this end the 'grazing scheme' approach, which proved successful in pro-moting rational land use, notably in Victoria Province, is of interest. Inthese schemes, specific communities, with the consent of the greater majorityof individuals comprising it, and of the neighbouring communities, assumedresponsibility for a defined area of land, Using standard farm-planning tech-niques, arable and grazing land were demarcated. Arable holdings wereallocated to individual families. The grazing land was divided into paddocks(or beaconed areas equivalent to paddocks). The livestock owned by indivi-duals were combined in a single herd which was run on veld during thegrowing season, using a short duration grazing procedure. The schemes wereadministered by elected committees who were given special training in ad-ministrative procedure and the principles of agricultural production.Rationalization of land use in this manner would provide a basis formovement towards more intensive profit-oriented farming. In addition, itwould provide for the maintenance of soil productivity through the inte-gration of livestock into production systems. Because it is not a radicaldeparture from tribal custom it should be sociologically acceptable, andthe credit-worthiness of an organized community of this nature is likely tobe enhanced.MATCHING INTENSIFICATION TO NEEDSIntensification invariably involves capital inputs, and these must naturallybe set against the value of the increased returns. In the tribal situation, withthe strong emphasis on subsistence, the economics of intensification mustbe appraised with particular care. Practices which would be profitable andquite feasible on commercial farms might not be so in the tribal context;conceivably, the reverse may apply. In considering pastoral production it isespecially necessary to take into account the inter-dependence of livestockand crop production in the tribal areas. For example, expenditure whichincreases livestock-carrying capacity may in part be recouped indirectlyin the draught and fertility inputs on arable land.Because of the uncertainties inevitably attending intensification of tribalproduction systems and because of the limited skills of the tribespeople,sophisticated production systems and high-cost intensification are generallyinappropriate. Rather, the aim should be to increase efficiency and outputand to ensure maximum return, particularly in terms of carrying capacity,per unit of capital invested. ;Discounting improvement in animal management as such, there appearto be but four feasible ways of intensifying livestock production from veldand pastures in tribal areas: '54INCREASED PASTORAL PRODUCTION IN T.T.Ls.1. The development of adequate stock-watering facilities and the adoptionof rotational grazing.2. The selective thinning of trees and shrubs in woodland veld.3. The use of goats and sheep in combination with cattle on a rationalbasis.4. The use of legume-based pastures, and especially the introduction oftropical pasture legumes into the veld.In all cases, however, successful intensification would require that stocknumbers are in keeping with the carrying capacity of the land. Over-stockingso common at present, would be disastrous.STOCK-WATERING AND ROTATIONAL GRAZINGOver large areas of the Trust Lands in the drier parts of Rhodesia lack ofdrinking water for stock precludes the efficient use of the available grazing.In addition, poor distribution of water supplies leads to over-use and tramp-ling, and hence to severe degradation in the vicinity of the more permanentwater supplies.With uncontrolled grazing and the prevailing high stocking rates, thereis over-use of certain favoured areas and more palatable constituents of thevegetation. In the drier areas this leads to destruction of the grass cover and,in some cases, to an increase in unpalatable and useless species.Undoubtedly, the planned development of water supplies, the applica-tion of rotational grazing, and the control of stock numbers would allowfor increased production and would favour the reclamation of degraded veldas well as the conservation of sound veld. Nevertheless, recent claims thatthe use of large numbers of paddocks per herd and a short duration grazingprocedure will result in very large increases in carrying capacity (Nicholas,1976) are not supported by the results of critical studies of rotational grazingon veld (Gammon, 1976; Denny and Steyn, 1977; Denny and Barnes, 1977).SELECTIVE THINKING OF TREES AND SHRUBSIt is well established that in many woodland types in Rhodesia the clearingof trees and shrubs results in large increases in yields of grass and, therefore,carrying capacity. Except in heavily populated areas on the highveld, whichhave been all but denuded of trees, the Tribal Trust Lands carry a moderateto dense cover of trees and shrubs. Timber is used in large quantities bytribesmen and current consumption for local use in the tribal areas has beenset at 2,7 million cubic metres each year (Wiltshire, 1977). There is muchIndiscriminate felling of trees and this often leads to the development ofthicket vegetation, in which the understorey of grass is suppressed. Suchvegetation has a low carrying capacity, especially where the trees and shrubshave little browse value.D. L. BARNESS5Timber and fuel are essential commodities in the economy of the tribalareas, and in considering the improvement of grazing land by means ofthinning and clearing of trees, this must be taken into account. However,there is a strong case for a rational approach to the exploitation of timberin the Trust Land. In suitable areas, the establishment and controlled ex-ploitation of plantations of exotics, notably Eucalypts, is indicated, often asa matter of urgency. There is a need also to replace indiscriminate cuttingwith controlled felling or stumping and mattocking, bearing in mind timberand fuel requirements as well as the improvement of grazing land. In someareas useless shrubs such as Lopholaena coriifolia and Helichrysum kraussiiabound. These are relatively easy to remove by mattocking, or simply handpulling.In the lower rainfall areas many of the trees provide palatable browse,and in the more heavily stocked tribal areas, livestock subsist for long periodson browse, even in seasons when rainfall is adequate for good grass growth.Nevertheless, there is compelling evidence that selective thinning of trees,leaving the useful species, would under controlled stocking lead to a markedincrease in livestock production. In addition, there is evidence that theamount and availability of browse may be increased by lopping or fellingselected species.RATIONAL USE OF GOATS AND SHEEPThe size of the small stock herd in the tribal areas is not definitely known,but Cross (1974) stated that unofficial estimates set it at about 3,5 millionhead, and that evidence from the sale of goat skins indicates that currentslaughterings in the tribal areas may exceed 600 000 head a year.It has been shown, for example, that, in the mopane (Colophospermummopane) dominant woodland of the lowveld (Kelly, Schwim and Barnes,1975), in the teak (Baikiaea plurijuga) forest on the Kalahari sands (R. P.Denny, personal communication, 1976), and In Acacia veld (Oates, 1956;Du Toit, 1972), that browse comprises an appreciable portion of the diet ofgoats. Likewise, the results of a trial reported by Ward and Cleghorn (1970)indicate that the coppice of trees of musasa (Brachystegia spiciformis) andmunhondo (Julbernardia globiflora) in woodland at medium altitudes is ex-tensively browsed by sheep, but strangely enough, not by goats. There isevidence also that, provided adequate amounts of herbaceous material areavailable, cattle spend very little time browsing (Kelly et ah, 1975).At the appropriate stocking rate, goats or sheep can be used in conjunc-tion with cattle to make more efficient use of the available feed in manywoodland types. Moreover, by feeding on the woody vegetation, they tendto maintain a more favourable tree-grass balance. There is, however, a needfor further research to establish criteria on which to base stocking rates forsmall stock and cattle in different vegetation types, and to determine the56INCREASED PASTORAL PRODUCTION IN T.T.Ls.management procedures which will give high production and prevent damageto the browse component of the vegetation.Contrary to popular opinion, goats, and to a lesser extent sheep, may,in the appropriate environment, be regarded as veld improvers rather thanveld destroyers. There is a clear case for rational management and exploita-tion of this resource in the tribal areas.LEGUME-BASED PASTURESThere is abundant evidence that the major limitation to pasture productionis the supply of nitrogen to the plant. Accordingly, any practice which in-creases the amount of available nitrogen in the plant-soil system leads tolarge increases in production, even in relatively dry areas.In the higher rainfall areas grass pastures fertilized with inorganicnitrogen supported by superphosphate are a potent means of intensificationof pasture production. For example, dryland Star grass pastures fertilizedwith 350 kg of nitrogen per hectare per season have a carrying capacity ofabout six livestock units per hectare during the growing season. This isbetween ten and twelve times the carrying capacity of cleared veld in thesame areas.Although nitrogen-fertilized pastures may be profitable in commercialfarming, and may well be used in tribal areas in the future, it is difficultat present to envisage their use in tribal farming. However, the use of pasturelegumes, thus harnessing atmospheric nitrogen, does seem to be a feasiblemeans of intensification, and is applicable in the medium as well as thehigher rainfall areas.In tribal practice livestock are grazed on veld or reverted land duringthe rainy season and early dry season, and on crop residues during the midand late dry season. In suitable areas, the practice of fattening cattle (usuallyold oxen) in pens using crop residues and bought concentrate food has gainedincreasing acceptance in recent years. Apart from the sale of small stock,sales of cattle finished in this way provide the only important cash returnfrom livestock. With fattening, conventional comparison of return from salesand cost of production provides an adequate assessment of profitability.However, in the case of the total herd, returns on capital outlay must besought mainly in the 'hidden' items, draught and manure.In the tribal environment, pasture legumes could conceivably be usedin two main ways: for veld improvement, with the primary object of increas-ing carrying capacity during the growing season; and for the production ofhigh-protein roughage for use in fattening rations.For the former purpose legumes are established in disced strips coveringone-third to one-half of the area, and these are fertilized with single super-phosphate at rates of 100-200 kg/ha before seeding. Two legumes appearto be particularly valuable for veld improvement, the Oxley fine-stem cultivarD. L. BARNES57of Stylosanthes guianensis and the Siratro cultivar of Macroptilium atropur-pureum. The former is an erect plant rather similar in habit to lucerne, whilethe latter has a trailing habit and develops stolons which root at the nodes.Both are perennials and are readily established from seed. They have beenfound in screening trials to have a wide range of adaptation. Where the rain-fall is adequate, Oxley fine-stem stylo (to use the common name) would begenerally more suitable than Siratro, for it withstands heavy grazing, whereasSiratro is weakened, and in extreme cases killed, by over-use. The require-ments of single superphosphate for the maintenance of stands is not definitelyknown, but present indications are that the required rate is unlikely to ex-ceed 50 kg/ha/year and might be less. With proper management, the inter-vening unseeded areas are colonized by seedlings over the years.Experimental evidence suggests that the carrying capacity of veld, inwhich Oxley fine-stem stylo has been sown in strips covering half the totalarea, is about 50 per cent higher than that of untreated veld. With year-round grazing, production per unit area in well-established stands is aboutdoubled (Clatworthy, 1977), the increase being due partly to the increase incarrying capacity and partly to the increase in gain per animal. Differencesin animal performance between improved and unimproved veld occur mainlyduring the dry season Š a time when in the tribal situation, stock are nor-mally carried on crop residues. Hence, the full benefit of the legume mightnot be realized.Costs of veld improvement should be regarded as part of the inputcosts on arable land, for the increase in carrying capacity will allow forthe production of more composted manure and for an increase in the numberof draught animals.Pasture legumes established for the production of high-protein roughagescould be grown on or near cropland, where they would be protected fromgrazing during the rainy season. The most suitable legumes for this purposeare probably the twining legumes Archer macro (Macrotyloma axillare) andSiratro. However, in suitable circumstances, consideration could be givento the use of Silverleaf desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum) a trailing legume,and the shrub Vi Vi (Leucaena leucocephala). All are perennials and can beestablished from seed.Unlike lucerne, for example, they can, without undue loss of quality,be left to grow for most of the growing season before harvest, a particularlyuseful attribute in the context of tribal agriculture. However, some advantagewould be gained, especially in terms of quality, by harvesting twice in theseason Š a procedure well within the capacity of the more skilled tribalfarmer. Yields of Vi Vi under local conditions are not known, but satisfac-torily stands of the other legumes could be expected to yield from two to fourtonnes per hectare with a crude protein content of about 20 per cent of thedry matter. Good stands might yield as much as eight tonnes per hectare.58INCREASED PASTORAL PRODUCTION IN T.T.Ls.CONCLUSIONThe continuing misuse of land in the tribal areas and the attendant highrate of population growth is a matter of great concern, and, if not checked,will destroy the nation, or, at very least, reduce it to penury. There is anurgent need for a vigorous programme of rural reform in the Tribal TrustLands, based on sound land use and increased agricultural production.Success in such a programme will depend in part on the implementationof a national programme of urbanization as well as measures which willprovide financial security and security of domicile for urban Africans. Onlythen will it be possible to introduce reforms involving the residual popula-tion in the tribal areas.Socio-economic conditions in the tribal areas are such that individualownership of 'farmlets', as they would of necessity be, appears impracticable,even if they were sociologically acceptable. However, it does seem feasibleto rationalize land use by means of the 'grazing scheme' approach, in whichspecific communities assume responsibility for specific areas of land, whichcould then be planned in accordance with sound principles of land use.Such changes in the pattern of land tenure will set the stage for the in-tensification of pastoral production. On the medium and high rainfall areasthis will provide an essential basis for the rehabilitation and conservation ofextensive areas of depleted cropland by means of adequate applications ofmanure in combination with fertilizer. In the low rainfall areas it will makepossible the rationalization of animal production systems, thus increasing cashincome and halting the despoilation of land which occurs at present.ReferencesCLATWORTHY, J. N, 1977 'Pasture legumes for beef production', Cattle World, III,xii, 7-11.CROSS, E. G. 1974 'Goat marketing in Rhodesia', Rhodesia Agricultural Journal.LXXI, 159-60.DANCKWERTS, J, P. 1974 A Socio-Economic Study of Veld Management in theTribal Areas of Victoria Province (Salisbury, The Tribal Areas of Rhodesia ResearchFoundation, mimeo).DENNY, R. P. and STEYN, J. S. H. 1977 'Trials of multi-paddock grazing systems onveld. 2. A comparison of a sixteen paddocks to one herd system with a four paddocksto one herd system using breeding cows', The Rhodesian Journal of AgriculturalResearch, XV, 119-27.DENNY, R. P. and BARNES, D. L. 1977 'Trials of multi-paddocks grazing systemson veld. 3. A comparison of six grazing procedures at two stocking rates', ibid.,129-42.DU TOIT, P. F. 1972 'The goat in the bush community', Proceedings of... theGrassland Society of Southern Africa, VII, 44-50.GAMMON, D. M. 1976 'Studies of Patterns of Defoliation, Herbage Characteristicsand Grazing Behaviour during Continuous and Rotational Grazing of MapoposSandveld of Rhodesia' (Univ. of the Orange Free State, unpubl. D.Sc. (Agric)thesis).-«4 -D. L. BARNES59GRANT, P. M. 1976 'Peasant farming on infertile sands, The Rhodesia ScienceNews, X, 252-4.KELLY, R. D., SCHWIM, W. F, and BARNES, D. L. 1975 'An exploratory studyof the production potential of goats in lowveld gneiss woodland', in Division ofLivestock and Pastures, Department of Research and Specialist Services, AnnualReport for the Year Ended 30th September, 1975 (Salisbury, Government Printer,1976).NICHOLAS, G. 1976 'Results of the Savory grazing trials', Farmer's Week-ly, 21 July, 12-15.OATES, A. V. 1956 'Goats as a possible weapon in the control of thornbush', Rho-desia Agricultural Journal, LIII, 68-85.RODEL, M. G. W. and HOPLEY, J. D. H. 1972 'Investigations into systems offarming suitable for Tribal Trust Land', Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, LXX, 1-17,VINCENT, V. and THOMAS, R.G. 1957 Agricultural Survey of Southern Rho-desia. Part I : Agro-Ecological Survey (Salisbury, Federal Govt. Printer).WARD, H. K. and CLEGHORN, W. B. 1946 'The effect of ring barking trees inBrachystegia woodland on the yield of veld grasses', Rhodesia Agricultural Journal,LXI, 98-105, 107.WILTSHIRE. J. E. B., 1977 'Forest and timber resources', The Rhodesia ScienceNews, XI, 196-200.