Sfaona Traditional PoetryG. FortuneDepartment of African Languages,University of Rhodesia, Salisbury.Shona poetry, in its nascent written form, re-ceived a welcome new expression in 1969 in theshape of an anthology entitled Mabvumira Enhe-tembo (The Harmony of Poetry). Before itsappearance, there had existed only two veryslight collections, Madetembedzo Akarc Namatsva(Poems Old and New) and Mutinhimira Wede-tembo (The Rhythm of Poetry).1 These littlebooks contained some examples of traditionaloral poetry in written form but the bulk of theircontents was original in the sense that it had been*Ł <r composed in the medium of writing, a mediumrelatively new and strange to an institution whichis very ancient in its oral form.When it first appeared, in the work of Chivauraand Mutswairo, written poetry in Shona was anew departure showing no continuity with theoral tradition. But gradually more and moreaccount has been taken of the forms and devicesof spoken art so that, in the work of Hamirtyineiand Kumbirai in the latest anthology, it is clearthat the earlier oral poetic tradition is finding anew and developed literate expression. This veryinteresting development, which is a part of thebrief history of written poetry in Shona, is some-' thing that calls for critical appreciation. Butbefore this can be attempted, and it should be aspart of a general assessment of written Shona 'poetry since its inception,2 it is necessary to saysomething about the nature of traditional Shonapoetry. Informed criticism and appreciation ofthe work of modern poets, particularly when theycontinue the past, is only possible in the light ofan understanding of the oral, pre-literate traditionout of which it has grown. This article attemptsto describe that part of traditional poetry whichwas recited rather than sung; and the treatmentof sung poetry and the relation of written poetryto traditional verbal art will be dealt with in afurther article.SOCIAL ROLEThe study of traditional poetry in Shona ispart of the wider subject of Shona verbal art inall its varieties which include all the registers ofspeech and song, as related to their appropriatesocial context. Against this background, thepoetry, both spoken and sung, stands out and isrecognisable in virtue of its formal character-istics which it will be the business of this articleto attempt to define. But it is helpful to statethat the poetic styles and registers are part of alarger variety of verbal styles of speech sincethey formed part of the common repertoire ofordinary people and were in daily, functionaluse.3 The recitation of oral poetry was widelydiffused in Shona society. There were certainsocial occasions which demanded and encouragedit and certain social relationships which receivedappropriate expression by means of it. Thesesituations and relationships were those of theordinary clansman and danswoman and hencewere part of their social role, to be learned as41this was learned. Poetry and its recitation werenot limited to exclusively literary occasions or toa relatively restricted social group. In keepingwith the relative lack of specialisation in Shonasociety, ordinary men and women had to be theirown poets if they were to be fully members oftheir society and cooperate adequately in thesocial occasions which demanded poetic expres-sion rather than some other register. There willbe much to say later concerning other character-istics of this poetry and the extent to which itwas traditional and original. The point to em-phasise here is that poetry formed a normalingredient in certain common sooial situationsand relationships. This fact will be found to haveinfluenced the poetry in its poetic qualities ofimagery and form, and criticism, by which ismeant informed and appreciative understandingof this poetry, should never lose sight of thesocial occasions in which and for which it wasrecited.CLASSIFICATIONThere is no single parameter which will yieldan adequate typology of Shona traditional poetry.In fact there are several involved and the appli-cation of any one of them results in overlappingand anomalous results. We may categorisepoetry according to its delivery into sung, intonedand spoken varieties; but this will yield a divisionwhich is irrelevant from the aspect of structuralform, imagery, language or social context. Tn anycase the study of Shona traditional poetry hasbarely commenced and at this stage only a ten-tative typology can be offered. In compiling anddistinguishing the following types, the followingconsiderations have been kept in mind: mode ofdelivery, imagery, form and structure of thetypical single utterance or line, existence of largerstructural units such as verses, poetic devicescommon to Shona poetry in general or specific toparticular genres, and social context. Each genreis given a Shona term to bring this typology intoagreement, as much as possible, with that of theShona themselves. Before the various types canbe listed, exemplified and described, however,the nature of Shona poetic devices must beclanified.POETIC DEVICESSince Shona poetry is part of Shona verbal artin general it will be found to be limited by theresources of Shona phonology and morphology.Tt is also limited by the further constraints of thepoetic tradition which Shona poets have elabora-ted. Gleason's definition of poetic form is a use-ful one to recall at this point: 'Poetic form is anyconventional patterning superimposed on the nor-mal phonologic structure required by the lan-guage . . . Only after a text has qualified as asample of some specific language can the questionbe raised as to whether it is poetry or not, fora poem is always a text which uses the resourcesof its language in a characteristic poetic way.'4Shona poetry shares a common phonology andmorphology with the other registers of Shonaverbal art. It is distinguished from them by thefurther conventional patterning which is imposedon it. But these poetic devices must lie withinthe phonologic and morphologic resources of thelanguage and not be foreign to them. This mustbe remembered in the attempts to develop Shonapoetry. It cannot be expected to imitate foreignmodels which are constructed on completelydifferent phonologic principles. Shona does notemploy word stress as English does. Hence itcannot be expected to develop a prosody basedon the principle of recurring patterns of stressedand unstressed syllables. Metrical rhythm as itoccurs in Engliish poetry can be expected to beforeign to it since it finds no place in the soundsystem of Shona. Similarly Shona does not employthe opposition between long and short voweils onwhich Latin metric patterns are based. The typi-cal Shona syllable consists of a consonant andvowel (CV) or of a vowel (V) alone. With theexception of certain ideophones which end withsyllabic nasal consonants, e.g. ho-m (barking ofa baboon), ba-m (sounding of a gun), words inShona never end in a consonant. Hence Shonacould never develop a system of rhyming akin Łto the so-called "strong" rhymes of English poetry.Rhyming schemes, if any, would have to be weak;but. in fact, Shona traditional poetry has neverused rhyme as a poetic device to achieve repe-tition.The poetic devices of traditional Shona poetryare: linking, which may be initial, cross or final;parallelism; alliteration and assonance, and otherssuch as antithesis and repetition of a refrain. Theseare the forms taken by the principle of repetitionin Shona. Poetry consists essentially of imagerybut, as Cope reminds us, its effectiveness is greatlyincreased by the judicious use of repetition.5This contributes the aesthetic necessity of form'which gives unity and satisfactory completenessto a poem and to its constituent parts. Imagerywith repetition, Cope reminds us, combine to makepoetry more evocative, more emotive and morememorable than other forms of speech and -42issue in a greater richness and concentration oflanguage. He also reminds us that mere repeti-tion in itself is monotonous and so it appears incombination with variety and in various guises.LinkingLinking is a pervasive feature which is foundas a poetic device in all types of Shona poetry,spoken as well as sung, of children as well asof adults. When applied to single lines or utter-ances, it consists in the repetition of an identicalitem in two or more successive cases. There arethree kinds of linking, initial, cross or final, de-pending on the relative positions of the two re-peated items. We have initial linking when therepeated items occur at the beginning of thesuccessive lines:abeda e f gWe have cross Iinkiing when the repeated itemsoccur, one at the end and another at the begin-ning of the successive lines:abedd e f gWe have final linking when the repeated itemsoccur at the end of the successive lines:abede f g dThe lines which are linked combine automati-cally to form a larger structure, normally acouplet, but sometimes a triplet.The principle of linking is also applied to largerentities than lines or utterances. Thus a seriesof lines may be initially linked to another follow-ing series by both series beginning with the sameitem. Similarly a series of lines may be mediallyor finally linked to another following series bythe medial or final repetition of an identical item,such as by a recurring refrain at the end ofsuccessive groups of lines. The recurrence of theselinking elements or items serves to indicate theexistence of the unities which are linked, whetherthese be lines which are linked into couplets orgroups of lines into a sequence of verses.The occurrence of lines and sequences of lineshas been mentioned. The unit out of whichShona poetry appears to be built is the line. Theline in oral poetry is recited within, and usuallywell within, the compass of a single breath. Butas Schapera has pointed out,6 there appears tobe an optimum length of line which is not duesolely to the physical necessity of drawing breathsince the favoured number of words to a line isthree or four. The position in Shona is similar tothat in Tswana; and the line most commonlyfound consists of three or four words. Each wordis marked by an accent of relative length and, itseems, slightly more prominent stress or breathforce, on its penultimate syllable, the final wordof each line receiving a more marked accent thanthose preceding. Thus the words and lines ofShona poetry are marked by penultimate accents.This may be one of its basic features: the re-currence, within very flexible limits, of a favouredpattern of three or four accents per line or phrase,the phrase itself being marked by a pause.A good example of cross linking is found inKumbirai's version of the children's jingle,Mwedzi wagara:1. Mwedzi wagara*Gwe-e kwe-e, mwedzi wagaraWagara kuna DondoreDondore ane mavaraMavara anenge edzctse.5 Gunyana nhasi wachenaWachena kuti ngwengwengweNgwengwengwe chando chatizaChatiza kutya madziya.Madziya mafadza vana10 Vana nesu tofaraTofara chando chaperaChapera, mbare dzaenda.Dzaenda, dzasiya vangaMavanga pane chembereIn examples 1-4 the linking elements are printedThe moon is newGather round, there's a new moon tonightNew moon where Mr. Fruit-toffee isFruit-toffee covered with stripesStripes like those of the bullfrog.September today is brightBright with shining lightShining the cold has fledFled out of fear of the summer.Summer that pleases the childrenThe children and we are gladGlad that the winter is overOver and scorch marks are gone.Gone but leaving their scarsScars on all the old womenin bold in the Shona versions and in italics in the English versions.4315 Chembere dzobuda panzeNokuti ave madziya.Madziya tinokwazimGunyana mwedzi wavanaWavana neshiri dzo.ye20 Dxorira rungwanangwana.Old women who creep out nowBecause the summer has come.The summer we welcome gladlySeptember the month of the childrenOf children and all the birdsWhich sing in the early morning.There exist many varieties of this jingle whichthe writer has adapted in order to convey somedevelopment of the thought and a recurrence ofcross linking. This device effectively threads linestogether into a unity of form though, as I haveimplied, the oral forms are not so developedeither in thought or form as this example is.Lines 19 and 20 show that elements smaller thanwords can be used to link lines. In this instanceit is the concordial affix of cl. 10 which is repeated.Similarly items longer than words, such as sub-stantive phrases, may be repeated and thus linklines.The following example, also an adaption byKumbirai, combines cross linking with initiallinking in the creation of three line stanzas. Thisis a very skilful example of the use of a tradi-tional device as a structural principle. The poemis a piece of advice which might be given by anuncle to his sister's son or indeed by any elderto a junior. It savours of the traditional instruc-tion given by elders at the dare (the villagemeeting place):10152. ChawanzwaChawanzwa usaudze mukadziMukadzi idare rinoti ngwengengweChaanzwa achiridza kwese.Chawanzwa usavanze muninieMurume idare risingamboriraChaanzwa charamba kurira.Chawanzwa pfimbika mwdundunduDundundu ipfimbi usine kaburiChawanzwa pfigira mumwoyo.Chawanzwa Msac/i/pamhidzireKu^mnhiAiitako kudira tunduruChawanzwa reva nepawanzwa.Chawanzwa ziva kuti wanzwaNdechenzeve, handi chokuonaChawanzwa ziva kuti watonzwa.What you have heardWhat you hear never tell a womanA woman is sounding metalWhat she hears ringing out everywhere.What you hear never hide from a manA man is metal that never ringsWhat he hears does not resound.What you hear store away in your breastThe breast is closed, a store to matureWhat you hear shut away in your heart.What you hear do not add toAdding means pouring in gallWhat you hear say as you heard it.What you hear remember you heardOf the ears, not of the eyesWhat you hear remember was only heard.The linking is initial between the first and thirdlines of each stanza. It is in fact this linkingwhich constitutes the stanzas. There is no linkingbetween 11. 3-4, 6-7, 9-10. Each stanza is similarlylinked initially into a series since the first elementof each is the same.At the same time there is cross linking betweenthe first and second lines of each stanza save thelast. Note that stanzas 1-4 are characterized by asimilar pattern of linking, both initial and cross.The last stanza departs from the pattern in havingcross linking between the first and third linesand in having final linking as well, a somewhatrare feature in the case of lines.The poem also makes very effective use ofparallelism in order to convey contrast. Parallel-ism is a device which will be discussed in the nextsection but which may be savoured in anticipationin this example. Stanzas 1 and 2 are almost whollyparallel in construction but sharply contrasting incontent. Stanzas 3 and 4 show hardly any con-structional parallelism but they also contrast.Thus, in keeping with the aphoristic and pro-44verbial style of traditional moral instruction whichdelights in pointed antithesis, this piece of adviceis conveyed by way of two pairs of balancing yetcontrasting images, the first pair that of theimprudent, talkative woman and the sage,circumspect man, the second that of the ripeningstore of fruit in the ground and the injection ofbitter gall. In the fifth stanza, which stands apartas a conclusion from the preceding two pairs,there is the antithesis between hearing and onlyhearing, which is conveyed by repetition, and thatbetween hearing and seeing of the second line.The whole poem is in fact a little gem of imageryand repetition of the forms of linking and parallel-ism.The repetition of initial, and sometimes final,forms as a framework for successive verses is afeature of children's "item songs" or memorygames. The games involve a song or a recitation inwhich items of a particular category appear suc-cessively within a constant framework. The songis sung by a soloist and a chorus. The soloist is acompetitor taking his or her turn in the game inwhich the winner is the one who can list thegreatest number of items of the sort consideredrelevant. The chorus is made up of the otherchildren competing in the game, having had, orwaiting to have, their turn and quick to notice ifthe competitor has defaulted in any way. It isusua.1 for songs to accompany communal activitiesin Shona life. The activity which these 'item songs'accompany is a game:3. Ndianiko? (Who is it?)Chorus (repeated after each line)*Ł Mushava anendarira, mushava(A brown one with a bracelet, a brown one)y SOU)Ndianiko? (Who is it?)Ndianiko?Muchafa (Boy's names)- TsikwaMhondiwaDzumbunu* ChinhoiNdianiko?Ndianiko?SekaiTaonaZviripiMariaDhokasiNdianiko?Ndianiko?TsiruMhanjeHandiraMhouMhuruNdianiko?Ndianiko?SadzaMhungaMapfundeMupungaZvioNdianiko?(Who is it?)(Girl's names)(Who is it?)(Names of various kinds ofcattle: heifer, barren cow.bull, cow, calf)(Who is it?)(Names of various kinds offoods: stiff porridge,bulrush millet, sorghum,rice, finger millet)(Who is it?)Ndianiko?Derere (Names of various kinds ofChijonga glutinous wild vegetables)HambakachereNyamwendaNyenjeNdianiko? (Who is it?)Ndianiko?Pfura (Names of hills)HarareTsikwiChishawashaHambadyaHere the competition consists in listing items ofall kinds of categories. In changing from onecategory to another the competitor-soloist shouldintroduce the new class of items by singingNdianiko? (Who is it?) a set number of times.Further, the number of items in each categoryshould be kept constant. In the above exampleNdianiko? is sung twice at the beginning of eachnew category and there are five items each sungby each competitor. The one who reaches thegreatest number of categories wins.454. Poll, potiChorus (repeated after each line)Going aroundSoloFirst Boy:Second Boy:Third Boy:Fourth Boy;Poti, poti!Ndinotsvaga wanguMusuki wendiroAnodzichcnesaSimuka, hende!Poti, poti!Ndinotsvaga wanguMureri wemwanaAsingamuchemedzeSimwka, hende!Poti, poti!Ndinotsvaga wanguMubiki wesadzaA norimonongaSimnka, hende!Poti, poti!Ndinotsvaga wanguMukuyi wezvioAnozvitsetsetsaSimuka, hende!The setting for this song is a game played be-tween boys on one side and girls on the other.Each boy in turn dances over to the girls singinghis part of the song, accompanied by the chorus.While singing the last line he touches the girl ofhis choice and brings her back to his side. Eachboy in turn must choose new lines for the variablepart of his verse within the constant framework.Tf a girl remains unchosen or a boy remains overwith no one to choose, she or he is mocked.Ttem songs of this general type, of which thereare many, were of great use in the education of5. Te-he-te*fSolo Tehete tehete Nhai, Gudo he1-3 \ 1 -3| Chorus tehete tehetef Solo Zimuswe chivi? Nhai, Gudo he4 ] " 4j Chorus tehete tehetefSolo Hayaya I mi zvenyu5 -! 5[ Chorus tehete tehete* In 5 it is the variable parts of the verse, not the linkingitalics in English.Zinyanga rinyangaGoing around, going around!I look for my oneA washer of platesWho will clean themGet up, let's go!Going around, going around!I look for my oneA nurse for my childWho will not make it cryGet up, let's go!Going around, going around!I look for my oneA cook for my porridgeWho will stir it wellGet up, let's go! ,Going around, going around! "T look for my oneOne to grind my grainWho will grind it fineGet up, let's go!children as memory training exercises and forteaching them the culturally recognised categories .,and typology. They also gave the children agrasp of different kinds of verse form.Songs consisting of verses which consisted of aconstant frame and partly of a varying element ofa. particular, relevant sort were also sung by adults,and minstrels' songs were frequently of this type. <The following song about the baboon, sung inalternating and interlocking parts, is a good ex- 'ample:Tehetef Solo Tehete tehete Tell me. baboonChorustehetetehetef Solo What is the big tail? Tell me, baboonChorusSolo HayayateheteteheteYou people1| Chorus tehete tehete4elements, which are printed in bold in Shona and in466 \(" Solo Hay ay aSere yenyuf Solo HayayaChorustehetetehete ChorusteheteI* * I Solo HayataZviri zvamboko f Solo Hayaya7 iChorus tehete tehete [ Chorus teheteSolo Zvataibata Tiri HarareChorus teheteSolo Kuvaruneu veduChorusteheteSolo Which we heldtehete Chorustehetef Solo At our employersChorusteheteYour jokesteheteIt's the sjambokteheteWhile in SalisburyteheteIn this song 11, 1-4 are sung to the baboon and11. 5-9 are its reply. The solo and chorus partsoverlap in the first part of 11. 1-4 but elsewherethey alternate in a pleasing rocking rhythm. Thesong consists of an indefinite number of versesof this sort, each verse consisting of a constantframe and a variable nucleus. The variable partmentions one peculiarity of the baboon afteranother for which it is twitted. Its reply is toexplain its oddity with reference to its employ-ment at Salisbury among the Europeans. Thusfurther verses would contain the following in thevariable slots:Verse 2:Verse ŁMamvcre chiyiko? What is thecoarse hair?Ari mctjazi The coatsA laipfeka We used to wearVerse 3:Muharwe chiyiko? What is the hollowin your stomach?Ari mabhande BeltsAtaisunga We used to tiearound usZheve chiyiko?Iri migwakuYataivezaVerse 5:Muromo chiyiko?Ari majegiAtainwisaWhat is the ear?LadlesWe used to carveWhat is the mouth?JugsWe used to drinkfromThe song makes fun at the expense of the ba-boon but was also a satire on employment in thetowns.ParallelismEnough has been said about the form of repe-tition called linking as applied to two kinds ofunit, lines and stanzas, and the way in which it isused to signal the presence of these units andcreate poetic structures. We must now turn tothe second pervasive poetic device, namelyparallelism. Parallelism obtains between twounits when there is similarity of grammatical con-struction. Cope defines parallelism as "repeatedstatements of identical construction with diffe-rent words expressing the same idea" and he ex-emplifies it by verses from the poetry of the Bible.A somewhat wider definition is more useful indescribing the Shona material for two reasons.Firstly, parallelism in grammatical structure ad-mits of a great number of degrees ranging fromcomplete identity at one end to something verypartial at the other. Just as linking can involvethe repetition of phrases, words, stems or affixesso parallelism can involve the repetition of largeror smaller grammatical patterns. Secondly simi-larity of construction between two units may existnot only to reinforce a common idea in differentwords but to develop an antithesis or contrast.The following lines taken from a love poem orset of courting praises show close parallelism:6. Mime meso anenge etsinza, anoendaenda.Mune meno anenge mukaka, akachenasemwedzi wechirimo.Mune mhuno yakati twi, kunge mutswiweduri.47(You have eyes like the oribi's, bright withlife.You have teeth like milk, white as a wintermoon.You have a nose that is straight, like thestamper in a mortar.)Each line consists of a verb phrase inflected inthe same way by the second person plural subjectprefix. Each verb phrase contains the same radicall-naj (be with) and similar object complementsmade up of similar substantative phrases. In thesesubstantive phrases we have a noun, one of thefeatures of the beloved, which is qualified byrelative inflected verb phrases. Three of theserelatives convey a simile for they include the verbradical /-nge/ (be like, seem). Structurally andin content these three lines are closely parallelthough not identical.Another example is given by the ending of atraditional love poem:7. Amai vangu vamakura-narwo, mukondewangu yuyu,Chiuyai ndikudetembei, iye tnuri munyasi.Dai zvainzi munopindurwa kuva tsimeremvura,Tsimero ndairisosa nemubaya-mhondoro.Dai rnaiva nwiwa, ndaikudyai nemhodzidzose.Uye dai pasina chakauya ichi, ndingadaindakusisitirai.(My mother versed in the ways of love.close as a bead girdle to me,Come and let me praise you, as you sitbeside me.Could you be turned into a spring of water.I would seal that spring with a branch ofthorny mimosa.Tf you were a melon, I would eat you,seeds and all.And if these new ways had not come, Iwould have carried you off already.)The last four lines consist of three hypotheticalconditional sentences of the same general struc-ture each expressing the desire of the suitor tomake his beloved his own.There are many cases where an idea is repeatedwithout any similarity of structure between thetwo phrases. Here for example are two pairs oflines, each of which is describing, metaphorically,a stingy woman:8. VaChipa imbwa rejena,Remupunga rinopa imbwa gwembe;Vavakidzani nezvipunguZvisodonhedza munhenga past(She who gives dogs only maize porridge,That made from rice would give themmange;Neighbour to the bateleur eagles »Who never drop a feather to the ground.)With regard to parallelism in structure servingto underline antithesis it is certainly true thatexamples are not numerous in poetry. Parallelismin poetry mainly expresses analogies. But in pro-verbs it is often used to express paradox or con-trast and examples can be found in didactic poetryas for example in the first poem quoted in thisarticle.9. Mukadzi idare rinoti ngwengwengwe,Murume idare risingamborira.(A woman is sounding metal,A man is metal that never rings.) -10. Munhu akarurama anodya chebanga misiyose,Asi munhu akaipa anotodya chedemo.(A just man eats what he can cut with aknife everyday (viz. has special favours),But an unjust man eats only what is cut byan axe (viz., can expect only the commonlot).)ŁtParallelism is a very common feature of pro-verbs as is its opposite, cross-parallelism. This ispossible because proverbs normally have a bal-anced structure and fall naturally into two halves,e-g-11. Kandiro enda, kandiro dzoka(Little dish go, little dish come back;viz. One good turn evokes another)12. Chiri pamuchena chiri pamutenhure(What is on a poor man is on a slopingplace; viz. A poor man's possessions arenot durable)13. Zvawakanzi dzipakatc, wakanzi dziridzehere!(When you were told to carry them, wereyou told to play them [mbira (the hand-piano)]? viz. A lessee is not an owner)14. Aive madziva ave mazambuko. Aive ma- ^zambuko ave madziva(What were pools have become fords. A +What were fords have become pools; viz.Times change) x '48— — Parallelism involves similarity of structure. Inproverbs it is often very close, the structures in> each part being as similar to each other as it ispossible to be. Thus in example 11 we have the* structure of imperative clause in both parts. Inexample 12 we have a clause consisting of sub-ject and predicate. What creates the parallelismt Ais that both subject and predicate are inflectedforms of verb phrases having in common theJ. same verb radical j-rij and similar complementspamuchena, pamutenhure, both adverbial locativecomplements of cl. 16. The subject is a relativeinflection and the predicate a principal inflection.The fact that these two inflections differ only% vtonally is made great use of to create proverbswith relative subject and principal predicateparallelism:15. Wakweva sanzu wakweva namashizha aro(He who pulls a branch after him pulls itsleaves as well; viz. If you inherit a wife,you inherit her children as well)16. Chafatnba chasvava(The thing which travelled wilted)I y In examples 14, 15 and 16 this is the basis of theparallelism. In example 13 the inflection of thefirst part is participial, that of the second principal.The parallelism is equally there, the commonstructures being repeated so that what is not com-mon, the contrasting forms, can convey theirŁmaximum effect:11. -end- (go)12. -muchena (poor man)13. -pakat- (carry)14. madziva (pools)15. sanzu (branch)16. -jamb- (travel)-dzok- (come back)-mutenhure (slope)-ridz- (play)mazambuko (fords)tnashizha aro(its leaves)-svav- (wilt)j. Parallelism is also created by the collocation ofsubstantives or substantive phrases in clauses. Just' as a clause can consist of a substantival or relativeinflected verb phrase as subject and a principal" 'inflected verb phrase as predicate so also it canconsist of a substantive phrase as subject and apredicative or copulative inflected substantive# phrase as predicate:17. Mbavha imbatwa(A thief is someone you catch in the act;L _ viz. Suspicions are not enough)Mbavha (a thief) and mhatwa (someone who isJ caught) are both nominals of cl. 9.In many instances the subject is an infinitivephrase and the predicate a copulative inflected in-finitive phrase:18. Kusema chivi huona chiuya(To hate the bad is to see the good)19. Mbudzi kudya mufenje hufane nyina(For a goat to eat the mufenje bush is toresemble its mother; viz. Like father,like son)In many cases of parallelism the likeness israther distant:20. Mwana washc muranda kumwe(The son of a chief is a servant elsewhere)Here the parallelism is between a substantivephrase of cl. 1 consisting of noun and possessiveand another substantive phrase consisting of anoun of cl. 1 and a locative.21. Mugoni wepwere ndiye asinayo(The expert with children is he who hasnone)Here the first member of the paraMel relationshipis a substantive phrase of cl. 1 consisting of anoun and possessive, a noun of cl. 9 (pwere)being the possessive stem. The second member isa substantive phrase of cl. 1 but consisting of thepronouns which refer to these nouns, I-ye I (he)and l-yoj (it), in a sequence of headword andrelative asinayo (he who does not have it).These examples and analyses are given in orderto make the point that the creators and users ofthese literary forms, both poems and proverbswhich are poems in miniature, have an awarenessand appreciation of relationships of structure ofa very abstract kind. Secondly similarity of struc-ture is a variable. It is greater or less dependingon how many structural elements are held incommon. The correspondence of structures eventhough of the most abstract and general kind isenough to create frames in which contrasts maybe appreciated.In cross parallelism the correspondence and thesimilar frames are reversed. Similar forms andstructures are not in corresponding positions ineach half of the proverb but in transposed posi-tions. And their relationship is like that whichobtains between objects and their mirror image:22. Chakanganwa idemo. Chigutsa hachika-nganwe(What has forgotten is the axe. The stumpdoes not forget: viz. One who injuresanother may forget but the injured partywill not)4923. Kugocha kunoda kwaaniai. Kwomwanakunodzima rnoto(Roasting requires the mother's [action].That of the child puts out the fire)24. Gore harizi pakaza rimwe(A year never comes where another hascome; viz. No year is exactly alikeanother)25. Makunguwo zvaakatya, akafa mangani?(When the crows took flight, those whodied were how many? viz. Those who runaway live to fight another day)In all these examples the variable correspondencemust be looked for crosswise. The contrast is per-haps sharpened by the contrasting words, axe andstump in example 22, mother and child in example23. being held in tight juxtaposition.Parallelism corresponds to initial linking whilecross-parallelism corresponds to cross linking.Alliteration and assonanceAlliteration and assonance are a final featurewhich is used as a poetic device to give unity ofform to lines and stanzas. The distinction whichCope has made between natural and contrivedalliteration in Zulu obtains also of course inShona as it rests on a similar structural linguisticfeature, name!)/ grammatical agreement.8 Thenouns of Shona are divided on the basis of theirprefixes into a number of classes. For example thenouns chinhu (thing) and chigutsa (stump) bothbelong to the same class as they have the prefixIchi-j in common. The nouns murume (man) andtnukadzi (woman) both belong to the same classbecause they share the same prefix jnui-l. Nowgrammatical agreement between headwords andqualifiers in substantive phrases and between sub-jects and predicates in clauses is brought out bythe repetition of the class prefix in varying forms:chigutsa hachikangemwi(the stump, (it) does not forget)chigutsa chldiki (a little stump)Since the class prefixes which are repeated inqualifiers and predicates to express agreementcommonly consist of both consonants and vowels,their repetition is accompanied by alliteration andassonance. The proverbs quoted above provide anumber of examples. Alliteration and assonancebased on repetition of the class affixes is naturaland inherent in the grammatical structure ofShona, Since class affixes are usually in prefixalposition it means that natural alliteration andassonance is common. Contrived alliteration andassonance is not common but does exist:26. VaChircrsi-nherera(One who brings up orphans)27. Mukadzi asina mhindu kana mhakanyiko; «VaCharehwa-tenda;Mudzimu usina shura kana shungu; *Panezuro ndipo panhasi.(A woman not unpredictable nor railing;Biddable;A spirit without brooding or anger;What she was yesterday she is today) .,LI. 1 and 3 of 27 are parallel even in their patternof alliteration. The alliteration of 1.4 is inherent, *TYPOLOGYThe oral and sung poetry of Shona is tentativelydivided into the following types: '1. Praise poetry addressed to people in virtue oftheir clan affiliation (Nhetembo).2. Praise poetry addressed to people in virtue of 4their social role and personal qualities (Made-temhedzo).3. Didactic poetry recited in order to implant andtransmit traditional sentiments and values"(Nhango dzepadare).4. Critical poetry aimed at expressing or rectify-ing social ills and personal grievances (Nheke- <terwa).5. Poetry recited at wakes to console and heartenthe bereaved (Nhembo).6. Entertaining verse (Ndyaringo).The above types are mainly spoken or intoned,but sung varieties are found as well, such as min-*stels' songs and the critical songs sung duringthreshing. What follows are sung:7. Songs sung to accompany communal activity ,.such as work in the fields, dancing, story-telling. Of these children's songs sung to Jaccompany their games form a separate cate-gory. ' '8. War and funeral songs.9. Songs sung to and by the spirit of a foundingfather.10. Nursery songs and lullabies.This list will certainly not prove to be complete >or satisfactory when more is known about Shonatraditional poetry; but in the absence of anything*more systematic it may serve for the purpose ofthis paper.Nhetembo «The Shona are segmented into exogamous patri-lineal clans, the members of which all claimdescent from a common ancestor. They also owna totem in common and a number of praise namesand praises. The olan praises enjoyed considerable A50^ prestige as poetry. Nowadays they are difficult tocollect in their entirety to such an extent has their* use fallen into desuetude. They were used to thanka clansman for a service and the praises used were,first of all, praises of the clansman in terms of hisA totem with which he was identified, and of theclan's particular virtues. Secondly they were thanks^addressed to all his ancestors. These were address-ed by name, in the case of famous men, or by theŁ" names of their burial places in the case of thoseforgotten. It was held that the whole clan shouldbe thanked for service done by any single mem-k ber since he would have been inspired to do it byhis forefathers. Indeed the primary object of,.thanks is the clan.In style the clan praises are apostrophic and» consist largely of praise names addressed to theclan, the imagery of the totem being used. This*" is often striking and bold. In other lines theancestors in their several burial places are address-ed, these being the names of places where the clan_once lived and left their dead. No one should beleft out from thanks for who knows which> ancestor was responsible for the kind thought?They are to be thought of as collectively respons-* ible for any good deed done by a member oftheir clan.Tn delivery the praises are recited in short lineswith a special accent of final length and fallingtone, high-falling if the final syllable is high-toned. »and low-falling if it is low. This cadence marksJ 28. Nhetembo yevaHera" Maita, Museyamwa!Malta, Nhuka,Shava yangu yiyi.Hekani, Mutekedza;5 Vari UHera mukonde.Maita, Vetsambo chena;Mhofu yomukono;' Zienda-netyaka,Mutunhu una mago.v 10 Hekani, Mhuka hum;Vemiswe inochenga muviri;Kuyambuka rwizi mvura yakwirai makomo;Vanovhimwa navanonyanga;i ., Vanovangira vashura'vhu kutsiviramutumbi;the end of each utterance, usually a completepraise, though a praise, if long, can be distributedover several lines. Praises are grouped intostanzas by introductory words of thanks likeMaita (You have done a service), Zvaitwa (Aservice has been done) and Hekani (Thank you).Thus stanzas can be looked on as initially linkedin this way. The intent of the nhetembo dzorudzi(dan praises, cp. -tetemb- utter praises, greetceremoniously, praise, thank in traditional wise)is to express the thanks, appreciation and indebted-ness of the beneficiary. The stanzas are of varyinglength and there is the greatest freedom in theorder in which they are recited. They are notcumulative or developed to reach a climax. Theyare essentially a string of praises, seemingly un-connected save in their subject matter, whichcluster round the object of thanks which is theclan. The lack of development and the free orderin which they may be recited accords well withthe apostrophic style. The praises usually have astandardised beginning and end. The beginningconsists of the totem and principal praise name ofthe clan and the conclusion commences with thephrase Aiwa, zvaitwa and concludes with a praisename.The following is the version of the clan praisesof the Hera people under Chief Nyashanu, quotedby Musiwa. Their totem is Shava (Eland) andtheir principal praise name Museyamwa (Sup-port).The Clan Praises of the HeraThank you, my support!Thank you, Eiand.My dear tawny one.Thank you, Mutekedza;The honoured dead who lie in Buhera.You have done a service, Those of thebracelet of white beads;Bull Eland;Going with power and graceful ease asthe noise when your knees bendreveals,Like a region full of wasps.Thank you, Great beast;Those of the tails that cover the bodyin their sweep;When you cross a river, the waterclimbs the hills in its excitement;Those who are hunted by the silentstalkers;When they turn a ridge, hoeing, while5115 Vanochemera wavatanga;Vane misodzi isingadonhi pasi.Kuti yadonha, yoda nhevedzo yero-nuinhu ropa.Tinotenda, varidzi vamatenhere;Vane nzanga chena kunge mwedzi.Zvaonekwa, Vahombarume.Aiwa, zvaitwa, Sarirambi.The Hera clansmen are praised in imagerytaken from the eland, the animal they revere, andfor certain moral qualities they are deemed topossess such as patience and self control. Mentionof ancestors and ancestral sites, as in 11. 4, 5, 8and 21, is meagre in this version compared withothers. There are usually also in such praisesreferences such as those of 1.6 which cannot befully understood.29. Kutenda masangoHezvoka, Vamatenhere narnasango!Vana vail, "Tobatanidza maoko,Titende vene vepasi namatenhereNeusavi nemichero zvamalipa."Vana vati, "Tat end a, inatateguruNezvamaita, vatenzi namakombwe."Matidziura mhanza, varidzi vavanhu.Munotonga musina tsinu kana godo;Mune kupa kusingasarudze;10 Munoti wasvika mati, "Mwana!"Mune mukurumbira wakapambiranyika;Mutisvitsirewo kune vari mberi;Ndimi motizivirawo vatisingazivekwavari.Aiwa, zvaitwa, varidzi vepasi.15 Malta, vashe.running, the very soil is amazed;Who cry for him who provoked them;Whose tears never fall openly to theground.But if they do, they will be requited in"human blood.We are grateful, owners of the youngbushes; ^Who bear white horns, white as themoon.Your kindness has been seen, hunters ofgood things. >Indeed a kindness has been done, Sarirambi,the one who stands firm.Other types of clan praises are: <1. those used to thank the daughters of clansmen,used before their marriage;2. those used by a wife to her husband as an ^expression of wedded love and, possibly,3. examples such as the following prayer ofthanks offered by hunters to the guardianspirits of the area in which they have found"game or fruit. As is made clear in the poem,the spirits addressed are not of the clan to "which the hunters themselves belong.Thanks to the Guardian SpiritsGracious, Guardians of the bushveld andthe wild country!The children say, "We clap our hands,And thank the lords of the land andythe bushesFor the relish and fruit you have given >us."The children say, "We thank you, our vfathers,For what you have done, mastersand lion spirits."You have opened a way .to good for-tune, masters of men.You rule without favour or spite;You exercise giving without partiality; 'You call whoever comes to you,"Child!"You have a renown which covers theworld;You will please take our thanks to .those who are beyond you;It is you who must acknowledge <them in our stead who do not knowwhere they are.Indeed, a kindness has been done, mastersof the land.You have done kindly, lords. -<52» This poem is remarkable both for the religiousfeeling and its matching form, far more organised*Ł than the loose sequence of apostrophic lines in28. In 29 we have a formal opening, characteristic* of ritual thanks, in the term Hezvoka and thet praise name of cl. 2a which follows. There isparallelism and initial linking between 11. 2-4 andA5-6, initial linking and repetition of the same senti-ment in 11. 7-10 and partial parallelism in 11. 12-* 13; 14-15 are a formal conclusion. This definiteyet flexible form is a fit vehicle for the praises andŁ* thanks which are in perfect taste. In comparison^ 28 is marked only by its division into praisestanzas of variable length and initial linking by,means of the reiterated cl. 2 affix /va-/. LI. 16-17are interesting for a form of negative-affirmativeŁ cross-linking which results in a couplet with cumu-lative effect.MadetembedzoThe praise style is also found in poems com-posed for, and addressed to, persons in virtue oftheir social role and personal qualities. Thus wefind praises addressed to young women by theirsuitors during courtship and by husbands to theirwives; praises in honour of chiefs and heroes, inhonour of smiths, hunters and outstanding tillersof the soil to be recited by their women, in honourof children by their parents and vice versa. Thereare also praises recited in honour of oneself, as bydiviners, or by any man in a situation where heis threatened by rivals, as in a fight or in court-ship. These poems, unlike the clan praises whichseem to be purely traditional, are a blend of tradi-tional and original lines. As an example here aresome lines of courtship praises collected byMusiwa with one or two further added.1530. Mhezi yomunwe wanguHouno musikana wandinoda,Tsvarakadenga, muti usina bunha,Muuyauya asina nekanongo kese.Mhezi yomunwe wangu,Muswa-ndakaringa.Ane meno anenge mamanda.Nhongora-mutsipa yomusikana,Ane mutsipa unorare-nda panzira.Ane mhuno inenge mutswi.Ane meso anoendaenda.Ane kufamba kunenge kukavira nyimo,Kutizira kuchinge kudyara nzungu.Vachirera-nhercra vangu vava:Vakanditi, "Fonda arnal,Ndigosara ndokurereni."Vanzunqu-nhokotera, niateko ndirini.Ndatoti kutakura ndotodii?Dai pasina varoyi,Ndingadai ndakusisitira.Pimple on my fingerHere she is, the girl I love,Straight as a tree without a knot as itstretches up to brush the sky.My beautiful one without a single blemish.Pimple on my finger,Which I turn to all day long.She has teeth as white as fat.Girl of the long and graceful neck,Which a louse may not traverse in one day.She has a nose straight as a stamper.Eyes that shine and glisten with life.Hers is a gait like the planting of ground-peas,And running like the planting of ground-nuts.My dear guardian of orphans;Who say to me, "Slay your mother.And I will then look after you."Kernel of the nut, the shells being 1.What do I do to carry you away?But for the witches,T would have bourne you off.The imagery of this love poem is clearly differ-ent from those of the dan praises. Here the inter-est is in the personal attractions of the belovedand images are applied through metaphor andsimile to describe them. All of these praises are^recurrent and hence, no doubt, traditional butthere is room for adaptation to the person praisedand for new and original lines. Otherwise thedevices used are similar to those used in the danpraises, parallelism in 11. 6, 8, 9, 10, 11 (1. 12being parallel to part of 1. 11); the use of praisenames which compress a great deal of imageryin nominal constructions of various classes andtypes (cf. 11. 2. 5, 7. 13; 1. 16 is one long praisename of cl. 2a), initial linking and alliteration(cf. 11. 11-12, 13, 17 and 19).53Nhango dzepadareThe genre of didactic poetry in which the tradi-tional mores and knowledge of social institutionswas passed down has been called here nhangodzepadare. As the title indicates, their appropriatecontext is the dare, the village meeting place,where the men gather and which is the focus ofvillage life. In the nhango the proverbs are* *appropriately expounded and given a context ofcommentary. The following example is calledRugare harurnbungirwe (Peace is not seized by ,force) and it develops in a manner reminiscent ofthe Book of Proverbs the paradoxes of humility *and pride.31. Rugare harurnbungirweIchokwadi kuti vakuru vanoti,"Kugarika tange-nhamo, rugare rugotevera."Munhu akangwara anofamba akazvirerekapanyika;Nounhu hwake hunozviratidza hwogapavanhu;Navanhu vanomupa chiremero nokuti haa-zvikudze.Asi mhengera-mumba inofamba yakatakuraungwaru mumaokoNokuti anoti baridzira ndihwo unhu.Chimiro chomunhu akarwama ane rukudzoChinokosha kupinda ndarama zvakapetwaruna.10 Mbiri haikungirwe hata, aiwa!Mbiri inouya yoga.Noungwaruwo hunoziviwa navamwe, kwetemuridzi-Usafambe wakashonga uzivi hwakopavanhu.Rega kufamba uchiparidzira ungwarunouchenjeri hwako.15 Zvirerekewo, ugozviisa pasi pavakuru vako.Zvikomborero zvinowanzowira kune vaka-shorekaKunyange zvazyo dzimwe nguva vakuruvachiti,"Chiri pamuchena, chiri pamutenhure."Asi ...vanaChinyamapezi ...ndovaiwana ...sha-ngura dzavakadzi.20 Chikara harisi henzi, Chikara imhepo ino-ziva kwainoenda.Varanda vakarurama vakazova machindaashe,Vakazopedzisira vapiwa rimwe divi kutivatongeSechipo chounhu nedikita ravo.Peace is not to be seized by force Ł*ŁIs it true what our elders say, \"To find peace start with trouble so thatpeace may follow after." *A wise man walks humbly through theland;And his worth speaks for itself to men; ^People respect him because he does notpraise himself. *But the fool goes about holding hiswisdom in his hands Ł*Since he thinks that worth consists indisplay.The character of a just man with respectfor others <Is more precious than gold four fold.Honour does not have to have a head-padto be carried away.Honour comes of itself.And the presence of wisdom is recognised*by others, never by him who is blessed ,by it.Do not go about before men wearing your -knowledge like a garment.Do not go about advertising your wisdom vand your prudence.Humble yourself, be submissive to yourelders.Blessings come most often to those who are *despisedAlthough the elders do say at times, Ł"All the poor man has will waste away."But the scabrous ones in the stories married"* "the most beautiful girls.God is no fool, he is a wind that knows itsdirection.The upright servants became the chief's >.councillors,And were given, in the end, a part of the- *Łkingdom to ruleAs a gift for their worth and devotion.54j. Saka vakuru vaine tsumo dzinoti,25 "Kudya chornuzvere hubata mwana.""Mupfuwira womukadzi wenhakaKumuzivira vana vake bedzi-""Chirango ndochinaamai, mugoti unopiwaany er ere.""Kukumhira hutsenerera, kukwangwamarat hunge une chako."30 Ushe hahufambwe nahwo kwawashanyira.' Chimiro chakanaka inhaka yaunovigwanayo.Chimiro chakarurarna hachigarwe nhakasehwakwati.Munhu akarurama anodya chebanga misi« yose,Asi munhu akaipa anotodya chedemo,35 Chimiro chakarurama chinokosha kupindandarama.*" This piece is clearly proverbial in its inspiration,not only because it is a development of the pro-verb quoted in 1.2 but also because its languagey. and tempo are philosophical and its imagery thesomewhat abstract metaphors of the moralist. Theproverb in 1.2 skilfully uses cross parallelism toconvey its contrasts, beginning : sequel, trouble:1 plenty. The poem in its first two stanzas contraststhe eloquent power of humility with pride and the*false pursuit of honour. Humility is shown to bev the prelude to the true blessings that come fromsolid worth (stanza 3), Though one proverb mightV seem to argue against it, the whole of the folkloreand many other telling proverbs show what thereceived teaching of the elders is (stanzas 4,5)._, The language is sententious and epigrammatic.It does not, even in its didactic aim, descend to* the use of simple language since it is held that theyoung are best taught by saws, adages and pro-1 verbs in all their compressed and undiluted power.Because enigmatic, they are also challenging andmake the young think for themselves and gradu-ally assimilate the wisdom of their elders. Pro-verbs are best elucidated by reference to otherŁ proverbs. The Shona find it distasteful and banalto translate the powerful metaphors and epigramsŁ into plain speech. However, the poem provides acontext of elevated commentary so that the mean-ing of the proverbs, themselves expressed in home-. ly images, may be fully appreciated.The element of external form does not appear* until 11. 31-34 where there is parallelism observedSo the elders have their proverbs which run."If you want food from a nursing mother,you must hold her baby for her.""The way to the heart of an, inherited wifeIs to think of her children more than ofher.""When the mother rewards, the quiet childgets the stirring stick to lick.""When you beg, humble yourself; arrog-ance will belie your need."A chief cannot expect to be treated as achief outside his country.A good character is a legacy that dies withyou.An upright character cannot be passed onby will.A just man is singled out for special treat-ment everyday,But an evil man just gets the common lot.An upright character is more precious thangold.in two pairs of lines. The ideas of 11. 31-32 and33-34 are expressed first in affirmative and thenin negative form.NheketerwaNhekeierwa or critical and satirical poetry is tobe found in a variety of contexts and forms, mostof them highly institutionalized and in sung form.In them the singers air their grievances, complaintsand frustrations, for the Shona very sensiblybelieve that if mental and emotional upsets do notcome out into the open they will only cause per-sonal and social harm. There are a number ofcorrelative registers recognised as belonging tothese institutions and which differ from each otheralong a scale of explicitness. At one end of thisparameter are nheketerwa which are veiled, crypticand allusive and at the other are the grindingsongs of young wives airing their complaintsagainst their mothers-in-law, the b ember a or pub-lic complaint of a man who believes he is beingbewitched and the songs sung at threshing timewhen all inhibitions on speech are lifted and whatdoes not come out kane mudzimu wako (musthave a special spirit to stop it).The language of criticism and complaint is call-ed madimikira. It is metaphorical and indirect.Different situations will call for different depthsof metaphor and allusion and the Shona are veryskilful at gauging the depth required so that thelanguage used may be intelligible but avoid beingactionable, hurtful or embarrassing by beingtoo direct. Art is at the service of delicacy55and produces pieces which are admirable for theirimagery and the adjustment of their imagery tothe situation in which they are spoken. It may bebecause of their aesthetic requirements in verbalart quite as much as for social and moral reasonsthat the Shona avoid plain speech in the languageof social comment. These qualities fuse in theverbal art of the responsible person, as much atone end of the scale as that of the other. Theinterest in this type of poetry lies in the imagerywhich is never absent even in the mavingu, thecomplaints which a wife may address to her^husband.The following example, entitled Madimikira,might be spoken by a village head at the dare inthe evening. He is seizing the occasion to commenton a number of things for which he has beenbiding his time. Mwoyo womukuru nditnaorera(The heart of an elder is a fertile heap of com-tpost.) It brings forth the fruits of reflection butwith no very ciear thread of meaning to link themtogether as far as the outsider is concerned.32. MadimikiraZuva igore.Rinodoka rava natnavi namauya.Mhosva haina mweni.Upfumi hahutenherwe,5 Asi hunotoenda pane humwe.Chemhanza ndechemhanza.Chomudzimu ndechawadanirwa.Rega dzive shiri.Mazai haana muto.10 Kugona nhavalava kuitevedzera.Irnhwa iveteHaimutsirwe kudya. Inokuruma.Kufa hwehanga,Mazai anoparara.15 Haabatirwe chake semuRozvi.Kutcya riva murutsva,Usatye mhapa kusviba.Makadzi akasimira mhapa,Kttpengera varwne.20 Dcnde dzvuku, mukati munendye.Gonzo mhini, gar a inumhango,Chomudzimu chikuwaniremo.Vari kumatondo ndivo vauya.Vari kumusha zvizengeya.25 Kuva nezivo kuva nesimba.Imhashu yomurwereInogochwa yakabatwa gumbo.Kuchengeta imbwa yomufambiKuda tenzi wayo.Allusive SayingsOne day is like a year.It sets with its fill of bad and good.Where faults are concerned, no one canplead ignorance.Wealth cannot be forced like cattle intotheir pen,It only goes where there is some already.Luck is luck and .,A gift from your ancestors will be yoursby name. Ł>Let the birds hatch out.Eggs make no broth.To catch a rogue in the act you have tofollow him.A sleeping dogIs not roused from its food lest it bite.When a guinea fowl diesIts eggs are scattered.A man objects to have his property taken *like the Rozvi.When you set a trap in burnt grass,You do not worry about soiling your rear-tskin.If insolent women have on their rear-skins, *They treat men with contempt.A red gourd is bitter inside.Tailless rat, stay in your hole.If you want to enjoy a natural death.Those who are in the forests are lucky.For those at home nothing is free fromtrouble.Knowledge is strength.The locust of a poor man <Is roasted by the leg.If you care for a traveller's dog,You show love to its owner.* 4 !5630 Zvauri mutsvuku, chizocherwa.Ruzivo rwendangariroKumachindarume nemachindakadzi,Makara asionane.Anoera mvura nechigunwe anonyima.35 Uyezve imbudzi yanyakupinda.Kuzeza busa reharahwaKuramba maraiwa.Makadya jenjedza, vambuya,Mukuwasha akadzura duwu.40 Ngauve mutova-kamwe, mwana wemho-ngora.Since you are ruddy and ripe, be ready tobe plucked soon.Wisdom and follyAre like young men and women,Wild beasts that avoid each other.She who measures water with her thumbis stingyAnd it is as with a goat belonging to apassing traveller.Avoiding a fool of an old manMeans denying yourself instruction.You revealed your true character, mother-in-law, by eating all the fishAnd your son-in-law has thrown away thefish trap.Let it be only once, a first-born calf.The introduction (11. 1-2) warns that the oldman has plenty to say and that he speaks to thosewho know, or should know, what is right (1.3).LI. 4-7 urge work, 11. 8-15 avoidance of intemper-ate action particularly if so advised by bad com-panions. Though fair on the outside, they infectone by their conversation. Li. 21-5 advise againstbeing provocative or taking offence too quickly;11.26-9 state that everything is to be gained bytact and a soft answer. An overwhelming sense ofone's own importance will land one into trouble(1.30); wisdom and foWy do not mix (11. 31-3).Stinginess. (11. 34-5), arrogance in the young (11.36-7) and another unattractive trait, such as mean-ness (11. 38-39). all adding up to lack of magnan-imity, are condemned with the plea that thisbehaviour be not repeated.Parallelism, with many different degrees of simi-larity, both within and between lines, is veryevident (cf. 11. 1-2, 6-7, 10, 23-4, 25, 28-9, 36-7);11. 4-5 show cross linking with negative-affirma-tive contrast. The piece is uttered in phrases asset out. The proverbs in themselves have a varietyof meanings and applications but their combina-tion and particular sequence in any recital aredeliberate and converge to convey a consistentmeaning to those in the know. The language andconstructions used are terse and severely econ-omical, each morpheme used carrying its maxi-mum reference particularly the person and classaffixes (11. 6-7, 22, 23-4). This genre, and that ofthe nhango dzepadare, which expound and formthe setting for the tsumo, the proverbs, areobviously influenced greatly by structures whichthe proverbs use and which second and serve thecommunication of their meaning with such deftfelicity.Nhembo dzeparufuFunerals are the occasions for recitals, or theexpression of sentiments of varying length, whichconvey sympathy to the bereaved and are aimedat heartening them in their affliction. The contextmay be the dare where the men of the village andthose who have come to mourn and console aregathered and the time either in the evening ormorning before the burial or after it. Mournersdo not come to share the funeral meal withoutexpressing appropriate sentiments. The recital maypass from one man to another and as each onespeaks others will chime in to show their agree-ment. This will explain the way in which thesenhembo dzorufu have been set out as if recitedby a leader and chorus, respectively A and B,though the part of leader passes from one toanother.33. Kuipa kusina magumoA: I we rufu, zita rako rinotyisa.B: A, kutyisa kutetetete?A: Hapana anoda ushamwari newe.B: Ungaite ushamwari nerovambira?Limitless evilA: Death, your name is a fearful one.B: And is the fright a small one?A: No one wants friendship with you.B: Would you be friends with adeadly snake?575 A: Hanzi shamwari yakanaka.B: Ingave shamwari yakanaka nokupi?A: Une mukundo mukuru pavanhu.B: Mukundo unengei?A: Munhu wese haakudc, anokuzeza.10 B: Kuzezwa kudikidiki?A: Hauna mhangami kana magamba.B: Mhangami yakazvarwa naani?A: Kuuya kwako kunozungaidza.B: Kuzungaidzwa kungataurwe nomu-romo?A: You are not a good friend.B: How could he be good friend?A: You have tremendous sway over men.B: A sway like what else?A: Everyone dislikes you, shuns you.B: And is that a slight shunning?A: No one is too clever, too much of ahero for you.B: A clever son of whom?A: Your coining throws all into confusion.B: Can the mouth utter such con-fusion?15 A: Hauna munhu ari parufaro rwakadii!B: Zvinoonekwa naani izvozvo?A: Hauna tsitsi noruregerero kana wasvika.B: Chinoregerera munhu ndicho chii?A: Mwoyo wako hauna kana nekatsiisizvako.20 B: Katsitsi kanobva kupi?A: Zvechokwadi rufu uri Chazezesa.B: Ko, ndiye mukuruka nhai?A: Kuipa kwako hakuna kwakungae-nzaniswe nako.B: Chin chii chingaenzaniswe nako?A: No one is so happy as to be safe fromyou.B: By whom would that be seen?A: You have no pity or mercy in yourapproach.B: What sort of thing is it that showsmercy?A: Your heart has not a scrap of pity.B: A scrap of pity from where?A: Truly, Death, you inspire fear.B: So his is the final word, is it?A: Your evil cannot be compared withanything else.B: What can be compared to it?25 A: Nehwako utsinye hunenge munhu anemanyemwe.B: Ari manyemwe akanaka?A: And your cruelty is like a person whocan't resist display.B: Display that bodes good?These are but two stanzas arbitarily chosen froma long series. The threnody is expressed in theform of a number of complaints addressed todeath in the most direct manner and which expresswell the mortal predicament of man. There are nomadimikira here. The responses are based on theprinciple of linking, usually a word in the secondhalf of the line being chosen, and all interrogative.At times a different response is chosen, which doesnot involve repetition, as a variation. Thesenhembo dzeparufu and their responses would re-pay study as they express in a clear way the Shonaphilosophy of life and death.NdyaringoThe term ndyaringo is another large categoryof recitals. They are told mainly for entertainmentand the examples which have been examined seemto deal with two sorts of material, social institu-tions and events or happenings which are notableor extraordinary in some way or other. They arenotable for their vivid language, their extravaganthumour and exaggerated descriptions in whichideophones play an important part. Ndyaringo areoften fitted into the various culturally determineddivisions of life and its activities. One may dealwith marriage negotiations in their sequence, an-other with an adventure explicitly segmented anddescribed according to the times of the day. Somendyaringo are satirical and most, like folk tales,convey a moral, distilled from the recital, whichmay be expressed in a proverb at the end.Ndyaringo make use of the usual poetic devicesbeing distinguished from the other genres bysubject matter, language and style.As an example here are a few lines from a ,description of a visit of a marriage intermediaryto arrange the bride-wealth.5834. Kuchiri kuroora here?Does bride-wealth still exist?«Ł Mune irnwe nyikayo isingadornwe,Nyikayo ina vambuya navatezvara vasinga-* durwe,Mumwe muchinda ndokuti tnwanasikanawavo tsvaru.x Hapo pakundotumira mari yerusambozvino,x 5 Samuturne akashama mari yaperevedzazviverengeto.Musikana ndokubva angomira pagumi rineŁ * tsere.Vatezvara guini repondo piku, zarura-*~ muromo.Pondo piku, chigaro chavatezvara;Pondo piku, sunungura-homwe.Ł 10 Pondo sharui uripi, makandinzwa-ani?Vambuya pondo shanu, rnwana waroorwa,* fc Pamunun'una wavafezvara pondo rnbiri,mwana waroorwa.In ndyaringo a good deal of fun and entertain-ment is given both by the subject matter (descrip-tion or social comment) and the racy style. Thisgenre shares a common approach to events and*Ł institutions with the item songs of which exampleswere given earlier in this paper. Ndyaringo alsov exists in sung form as minstrels' songs.The other types of poetry which have beendistinguished need not detain us here. They areremarkable chiefly for their developed verse formwhich involves the co-operation of a leader and'an interweaving chorus which can take all sortsIn a certain country which shall benameless,A country with a father and mother-in-lawwhose names are not revealed,A certain young man courted a sweetheart.The time came to send the first instalmentAnd the suitor's agent was amazed to seethe money disappear in perquisites.The girl herself forebore to take more thaneighteen pounds.Her father took ten as a fee for opening hismouth.One for the chair on which he sat;Another for opening his purse.Five disappeared on the title, "Who toldyou I had a daughter to wed?"Then her mother helped herself to five Šthe title, "My daughter is pledged."And her father's brother a further twosince she was his daughter too.of shapes and forms. Save for the mhondorosongs, which may contain statements of varyinglength in the allusive styles, these songs are notnotable for content. There are, of course, manyoccasions in which nheketerv-m are sung. Thethreshing songs of the jakwara have beenmentioned. Beer drinks are also the occasion forsongs of reproach or complaint. The children'sverses which accompany memory games as well asothers said or sung at other times have providedKumbirai with a number of models which will bestudied another time.ACK N OWLEDG M E N TSGrateful thanks are expressed to the Rhodesia Literature Bureau and Longman Rhodesia for per-mission to quote from their publications Madetembedzo Akare Namatsva and Mutinhimira Wedetembo,as well as to the authors and collectors of the poems quoted, in examples 1, 2, 3, 4, 28, 30, M. Shamuya->rira, J. C. Kumbirai and C. R. Musiwa. Thanks are also expressed to H. Tracey for permission to quotehis recording in example 5. The poems and fragments quoted as examples 6, 7, 8, 19, 27, 29, 31, 32, 33» and 34 were collected and arranged by Mr. A. Hodza, Shona Language Assistant, Department of Afri-can Languages, University of Rhodesia; they are quoted here by kind permission.REFERENCES1. Madetembedzo Akare Namatsva. Cape Town, Longmans, 1959; the traditional poems were collected by M. Shamu-<Ł yarira, the modern poems written by W, B. Chivaura and S. Mutswairo,Mutinhimira Wedetembo, ed. C. R. Musiwa. Salisbury, Longmans in association with the Rhodesia LiteratureBureau, n.d.; the traditional praise poems were collected by the editor, the modern poems written by W. B. Chivaura,P. Christie, P. T. Kazembe, J. C. Kumbirai, G. D. Mandishona, M. Manyika and E. M. Muzeze. MabvumiraEnhetembo. Gwelo, Mambo Press in association with the Rhodesia Literature Bureau, 1969; this is a much moresubstantial work than its two forerunners. Edited by the Shona Section of the Literature Bureau, it contains work59by some twenty-two writers. More than half of the book, however, is by two outstanding poets, M. A. Hamutyineiand J. C. Kumbirai. It received an enthusiastic review in Teacher in New Africa, 1970, 7, (v), 27-8 under theheading 'Some Great Shona Poetry', A further small publication to be mentioned is a collection of children's songscollected by S, M. Mulswairo, arranged, translated and annotated by G. Fortune and A. Hodza: Ambuyamuderere(The Praying Mantis), Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1967.2. The materials for this study are somewhat slender since it is only recently that the Shona have taken to giving poetrya written form:(a) Occasional verse was published in The Home Teacher, a supplement of The African Weekly, from 1957 untilabout 1960 under the names of L. U. Chaparadza, L. C. Chidavaenzi, I. S. Chiketa, W. B. Chivaura, L. Mukonora,F. 1. Munjoma, S. M. Mutswairo, M. Shamuyarira, E. J. Zvobgo.(b) The writer has copies of unpublished verse by J. C. Kumbirai, E. Mudadirwa Muzeze, S. M. Mutswairo andE. J. Zvobgo.(c) Poelry journals published in Salisbury carry work in Shona, but it is often marred by misprints and faulty trans-lations: Two Tone, a Quarterly of Rhodesian Poetry, published from P.O. Box 3598, Salisbury; Rhodesian Poetry,an occasional publication of the Salisbury Poetry Society, 22 Bradfield Road, Hillside, Salisbury; Chirimo, a thriceyearly review of Rhodesian and International Poetry, edited by C. J. E. and K. O. Style, Avondale, Salisbury; Poelryin Rhodesia, edited and annotated by D. E. Finn, College Press, Salisbury, 1968. In these publications the following,among others, have contributed:J. M. Chamunorwa, W. B. Chivaura, C. M. Gano, M. A. Hamutyinei, C. Kapfunde, N. Kashaya, J. C. Kumbirai,G. Mandishona, "L. G. Masimbe, H. Memba, E. Musarira, C. Nhau, C. Nyamupanda, A. H. Pangana, H. H. Pole,E. Zvobgo.(d) The three anthologies already mentioned and other journals which have printed poems in Shona very occasion-ally, such as Moto and NAD A.(e) CHITEPO, H. 1958, Soko Risina Musoro, translated and annotated by J. H. Carter. London, Oxford UniversityPress. The present writer intends to review this modern poetry in a subsequent article.3. The past tense is used to describe Ihe social role of Shona poetry because the description applies to an ever de-creasing number of people. Social change, evident in urbanisation, education and religion, has divorced most peopleaged forty and under from their traditional literature in its fullness.4. GLEASON, H. A. 1965 Linguistics and English Grammar. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pp. 421-2.5. COPE, A. T. 1968 Izibongo, Zulu Praise Poems. Oxford, Clarendon Press, pp. 38-9.6. SCHAPERA, I. 1965 Praise Poems of Tswana Chiefs. Oxford. Clarendon Press, p. 17.7. COPE, p, 38.8. IBID., p. 45.60