Zambezia (1982), X (i).ESSAY REVIEWCONTRASTING VIEWS OF SHONA SCULPTURE*REMARKABLY LITTLE HAS been written on the artistic and material culture of theShona and what little there has been is either superficial and extravagant, as in thecase of writers on art like McEwen and Kuhn who were seeking to popularize ratherthan analyse,1 or severely utilitarian, as in the case of archaeologists like Schofieldwho were seeking to date and classify rather than appreciate.2 Newspapercomment on Shona sculpture, which began to be exhibited some twenty years ago,has generally been uncritical in its praise.3Therefore, it is of great value to have Arnold's book on Shona sculpturewhich, although sympathetic to the subject, is analytical and academic (being, infact, based on her M.A. thesis). Her conclusion is that Shona sculpture is not reallytraditionally Shona but 'has a complex identity and is the product of a transitionalsociety' (p. 138), in which the motivating influences have been commercial andEuropean (pp. 39, 136-7).4Arnold qualifies this judgement somewhat by referring to Shona supernaturalbeliefs that influence the iconography (pp. 38, 137), but there is little evidence inŁRecently published is the first serious study of Shona stone sculpture: M.I, Arnold, ZimbabweanStone Sculpture (Bulawayo, Books of Zimbabwe, 1981), xxvi, 230 pp., 66 illustr., Z$31.75. The viewsof the editor of Zambezia which follow immediately are, perhaps, too drily analytical, if not philistine,and for this reason he has invited experts in art and in Shona literature and mythology to put their views aswell (R.S.R.)."F. McEwan, 'In search of art in Rhodesia', Horizon (1960), II, vi, 32-4; New Art fromRhodesia ([Salisbury, The National Gallery, 1965]), [ 1 ]; 'Return to origins: New directions for Africanarts', African Arts (1968), I. ii, 25, 88; 'Shona art today', African Arts (1972), V, iv. 8-11; TheNational Gallery, The African Workshop School ([Salisbury, The Gallery, 1967]), [2]; J. Kuhn,Myth and Magic: The Art of the Shona of Zimbabwe (Cape Town, D. Nelson, 1978). Also in thiscategory, although less extravagant, came the more recent handouts and publications of the NationalGallery of Zimbabwe; see, for example, P. Wood, 'Rhodesian art: A general survey*, Arts Rhodesia(1978), 18, and Insight (Apr. 1980), I, [7].2J.F. Schofield, Primitive Pottery: An Introduction to South African Ceramics, Prehistoricand Protohistoric (Claremont, The South African Archaeological Society, 194S); see also E. Goodall,'Rhodesian pots with moulded decorations', NADA (1946), XXIII, 36-49; R. Summers, HumanFigures in Clay and Stone from Southern Rhodesia . , . (Salisbury, National Museums OccasionalPapers, III, xx"i A, 1957), 61-75.'See for example, Diario de S, Paulo, 26 July 1962; The Sunday Times (London], 24 Feb.1963; The Times, 26 Feb. 1963; Frankfurter Zeitung, 25 Sept. 1963; Algemeen Handelsblad, 20May 1964; The Illustrated London News, 25 Sept. 1965.See also local reports: 'African talent sets art world buzzing', The Evening Standard [Salisbury],25 May 1962; 'Rhodesian art show creates a record', The Rhodesia Herald, 17 April 1963;'Rhodesianart is "greatest in the world"', The Rhodesia Herald, 29 July 1967; 'World collectors "clamouring" forlocal sculpture', The Rhodesia Herald, 13 Aug. 1968; The Sunday Mail, 1 Dec. 1968;C. Style,'TheTengenenge art school', Chirimo (1969), II, i, 5-12; P. Larrnan, "World fame for Shona artists',Radiopost (Feb. 1974), 2-3; M. Peppiatt, 'Shona sculpture: An African renaissance', Art Inter-national (1972), XVI, iii, 20-1, 62.Following the ending of sanctions in 1979, there has been a resurgence in interest abroad, most ofit as uncritical, inaccurate and uninformed as before; see, in particular, G. Norman, 'Rhodesian art: Awide open field', The Times, 9 Feb. 1980; 'Plastik in Afrika . . .', Art (Nov. 1980), 36-9; S. Day,'London raves over Shona sculpture', In Flight, (1981), I, v, 36-7; The Herald, 31 July 1981; G. Garb,'Zimbabwe: Stone sculpture thrives again', Africa now (Aug. 1981), 75-6.4For somewhat similar views, see J.B. Nyoka, 'The role of art in Zimbabwe', The Herald,21 Oct. 1981.4950ESSAY REVIEWPlate 1: MELANESIAN PROW-HEAD.1 i .* »* i2: BOIRA MTEKI: GRANITE HEAD.R.S. ROBERTS, GILLIAN J, WYL1E AND A.C. HODZA51Plate 3: RICHARD MTEKL LIMESTONE HEAD.her work that it is such beliefs that are being visualized in the sculpture; and indeedher treatment of both the history and the religion is rather uncritically based on ahodge-podge of secondary sources that do not inspire confidence. Thus theproblems of relating form to iconography are doubly difficult. A baboon, forexample, may be amutupo and can give rise to a shave spirit, but its popularity as asubject for sculpture is not demonstrably related to the attributes of a totem(whatever they may be) or of a spirit; and its varying representation, resembling aRed Indian totem pole (by Fanizani), or greatly incised or ribbed (by JohnTakawira and Moses Masayo), or naturalistically rounded (by Phineas Moyo)surely owe more to Western-derived models, in the first three cases, or to the stonemedium, as in the last case mentioned. The question of medium and form is, ofcourse, much easier to decide than questions of influence. Carving in stone has nolong tradition among the Shona (at least, not since the creation of the ZimbabweBirds) but it is the very nature of the medium that largely dictates the predominantlynon-functional form and its 'compactness, solidity and static nature . . . whichevoke timelessness and a universality' (p. 137).But in Zimbabwe medium and influence worked together in the form ofPaterson's influential work which Arnold rather discounts in favour of McEwen'slater influence and innate Africanness. Paterson's own work at Cyrene has a52ESSAY REVIEWsimple, romanesque-like quality ideally suited to carving in stone by sculptors withlittle experience or skill, a style that allows, for example, the arms to be leftintegrated with the torso. And it was to such simplified forms, which McEwen alsoencouraged, that Shona sculptors have equally been encouraged (again because ofMcE wen's influence, as Arnold half admits, pp. 34,137), to fit African names andexplanationsŠand as time passed these were increasingly found, allegedly, inShona religion or folklore.5 But one suspects that the iconography is as dubiouslytraditional as the expressionism is derivatively Western. Thus one doubts if it iscoincidental or entirely due to their greater use of wood as a medium that Africansintroduced to carving under different and less aggressive Western influences, atCyrene and the Canon Paterson Sculpture Centre in Harare, Serima, St Faith's oreven the Internal Affairs' Rowa Training Centre, are often more representational,more didactic, as in African tradition, and, except perhaps at Serima, moreindividualistic.6Modem Shona sculpture, therefore, has, as Arnold admits with somehesitancy, more in common with twentieth-century Western sculpture7 than withAfrican art and is in fact much of a muchness stylistically with mannerisms copied(cf. Plates 2 and 3) to such an extent that it often degenerates into 'airport art'(particularly when soapstone is employed). Thus for me the main academic interestin Shona stone sculpture is not artistic but socio-historical. For example, of theexhibiting 'Shona' sculptors, usefully and carefully listed by Arnold, from a quarterto a third are not Shona at all but mainly Malawian or Mo^ambican; originallylinked to McEwen's Workshop School of the National Gallery in Harare andproducing for the market in Harare. Similarly, of the Shona sculptors, about two-thirds were 'trained' at the European-organized National Gallery Workshop,Tengenenge, or the Inyanga-Juliasdale Workshops. Consequently the vastmajority of all Shona sculptors, whether actually 'trained' at these places or not,come from a narrow area bounded by Gurave, Chinhoyi, Harare, Rusape andNyanga. Thus if we except a handful of men trained at Cyrene or Serima, there arehardly any Shona sculptors from the rest of the country.5 This was not generally the case in the early days, as can be seen in pieces like Chigwanda's Man,Ndandarika's Woman with Four Children, Dube's Head of a Woman, and Likoto's The Old M'Lozi(in wood); and these were praised in Europe precisely because they owed nothing to African traditions;see The Sunday Times (London], and The Times, 24 and 26 Feb. 1963, respectively.6 A good illustration of these qualities is the work, in stone, of Nicholas Mukomberanwa who wasassociated with Serima and who does not invoke mythological symbolism. It is a weakness of Arnold'sbook that insufficient attention is given to the wider background of carving and sculpture in Zimbabwe,notably the work of Canon Paterson,7 'Western' is used, I think, rather loosely, meaning in some cases contact through Western mediawith other forms of art; for example, it is difficult to believe that Boira Mteki's prognathic heads are notderived from pictures of Melanesian canoe-prow heads in Western museums (see Plates 1 and 2), This isthe view even of Ulli Beier who was the most vigorous admirer of these works and popularizer ofMcEwen's approach (who equally believed that Thomas Mukarobgwa's paintings were prompted bythose of German Expressionists), U. Beier, Contemporary Art in Africa (New York, Praeger, 1968),75-88. For less enthusiastic conclusions from the same facts, see M.W. Mount, African Art(Bloomington, Indiana Univ. Press, 1973), 123 Š conclusions which Arnold rather peremptorilydismisses, partly because she generally underestimates Paterson's romanesque influence and partlybecause she does not consider what art books may have been seen by the early Shona sculptors; thesimilarities between much Shona sculpture and widely published illustrations of South Pacific, Centraland North American art are often striking.R.S. ROBERTS, GILLIAN J, WYLIE AND A.C. HODZA53These facts must throw some doubt on generalizations about the essentialShona nature of the carvings and their intimate relationship with Shona religion andtraditional culture (particularly with Great Zimbabwe far to the south and theMwari cult far to the southwest). What is indicated, unfortunately, is a 'hot house'of European-inspired production motivated by commercial or 'arty' considerations,in a small segment of the country conveniently focused on Harare as the art andcurio centre of the country. That much of the activity springs from short-termcommercial needs rather than dedicated artistic expression is probably also thereason why so many 'artists' are related to one another and drift in and out ofproductionŠsome twenty per cent of those who have exhibited, for example, nolonger sculpt.The real achievements of Shona material culture have been in representationalcarvings (like the Zimbabwe Birds, happily restored to us), and attractivegeometric decoration (as in the chevron pattern) and anthropomorphic orzoomorphic embellishments of functional objects. It is earnestly to be hoped that,when the cultural programme of the Ministry of Education and Culture gets underway at the proposed Culture Houses, it will be such indigenous traditions that willbe encouraged to develop rather than the Western art establishment's tiredexpressionism decked out in dubious folklore.R.S.R.Traditional African sculpture has had a great impact on the West since its'discovery' in the first decades of the twentieth century. The powerful expressionismcontained within the stylized wooden masks and statues particularly of West andCentral Africa, had a significant influence on the early developments of'modern'art. The basic motivation for these works was religious or social, and theyfunctioned as a dynamic means of re-inforcing the religious or social order. Thesculptured forms were characterized by pronounced stylization, natural form beingdistorted in order to achieve a powerful symbolism.There is a distinct geographical division formed by the Great Lakes and RiftValley, between the sculpturally rich areas of West and Central Africa and thecomparative poverty of sculptural traditions in the areas to the East and South, onemajor exception being the rather commercialized Makonde carvers of Tanzania.The reasons why almost no sculpture was produced in this part of the continent lieburied in the nature of the traditional societies themselves, and the factors whichshaped their histories.As is pointed out above by Professor Roberts, within known Shona traditionsaesthetic expression is manifested in the decorative embellishment of utilitarianitems. Basketry, pottery, woodcarving and beadwork carry patterns which show astrong sense of design essentially geometric in nature. The various cultural groupsin Zimbabwe, including the many sub-groups under the umbrella term 'Shona' arecharacterized by district styles of pattern. The craftsman/woman works within agenerally accepted format of technique and design, and individual variations keepwithin the overall character of the style. If a purpose over and above a simplepleasure in design and embellishment is to be found behind this type of activity, itseemingly functions as a statement of group identity. In reaffirming a culturalidentity, the security of its members is strengthened.54ESSAY REVIEWThis overall characteristic of traditional African art, that it serves as anexpression of a common cultural identity, is in direct contrast to the basicmotivation behind contemporary Zimbabwean sculpture, which is the expressionof the thoughts and feelings of the artist as an individual. However, one elementwhich links contemporary Zimbabwean sculpture to an African tradition is the useof strong expressionistic form. Traditional African sculpture achieved a forcefulsymbolism by stripping form of superfluous detail, retaining and emphasizing onlythose elements most evocative of the intended imagery. This strength and vitality ofform is equally evident in Zimbabwean sculpture. Here we find equally no evidenceof naturalistic proportions, and a simplification and distortion of natural form inorder to express more powerfully the essence of a particular concept.It was this elemental force of vision which attracted such interest in the West,when Zimbabwean sculpture was first exhibited overseas in the early 1960s.During this formative period, sculptors were experimenting with form, as yetunsure of the formal qualities of their material. They had not yet attained themature sensitivity to the qualities of line, mass, weight and tension inherent instone, a sensitivity which is evident in those same sculptors' work today. However,these early works possessed a vital force, an identity which proclaimed itself in nouncertain terms, and which demanded a response from the viewer.Arnold has stated that ideas expressed in Zimbabwean sculpture relfect onthe whole a specifically Shona iconography: their inspiration is drawn from theimagery pervading Shona folklore, mythology, and traditional religion. This isdisputed by Roberts, who makes the valid point that many sculptors, specificallyfrom the Tengenenge community, were of Malawian, Moc,ambican and evenAngolan extraction. The contemporary sculpture movement, rather than being acultural phenomenon specific to the Shona appears more broadly based, reflectingcultural elements characteristic of African societies in this part of the continent.Zimbabwean sculptors, certainly in the formative period of the movement, weremen with strong ties with rural communities where cultural traditions remainedcomparatively strong. Many worked in the rural environments of Vukutu andTengenenge. The pull of both traditional and of Western values were equallysignificant in shaping their lives and characters. The expression of any artist is amicrocosm of his material and psychic environment, and will reflect to some degreehis social background. The themes of Zimbabwean sculpture tend to reflect orcomment on the general nature of man as a social and spiritual being, and on thebirds and animals in his natural bush environment, particularly the manifestation ofthe spiritual in these forms. The idea expressed in each sculpture, however, tends tobe one man's personal vision. I do not see evidence of an overall system oficonography through which sculptors visualize generally accepted tribal orreligious concepts. I believe that the so-called 'spiritual' iconography is not born oftribal or religious dogma, but of the sculptor's attitude of mind towards hisenvironment, conditioned by his social background. There is no overt attempt atrepresenting universal principles of a social or religious nature. The sharing of acommon environment and social history naturally results in the commonality ofcertain themes. The representation of certain animals, for example, which do havesignificance in cultural traditions. However, ten sculptures of baboons woulddemonstrate ten different interpretations of the character or symbolic significanceof the baboon.R.S. ROBERTS, GILLIAN J. WYLIE AND A.C. HODZA55The concept of spiritual power was a deeply moving force in much traditionalAfrican art, and is a recurring theme in Zimbabwean sculpture. Spiritual vision istranslated with a directness of expression, resulting in forms of great strength andpresence. Work that is essentially derivative, whose inspiration is not the psychicwill-to-form of the artist, but inspired by some secondary force, cannot have thesame impact on the viewer. This is precisely how one can describe the mission-inspired carvings, for example of Serima, where all overt symbolism is biblical.Produced within the rigidly imposed inconography of a foreign Christian tradition,the carvings lack the strength of conviction evident in contemporary stonesculpture. Roberts maintains that the 'real achievements of Shona material culturehave been in representational carvings (like the Zimbabwe Birds)'. Althoughrepresentative in overall imagery, the sculptural forms have been stylized toexpress an idea, rather than simply the natural form of a bird. Natural form has beensimplified and proportions altered to achieve a feeling of static majesty. The abilityof the African carver to produce highly accurate and clearly observed realistic formis demonstrated by the vast quantity of tourist curios churned out for the trade.However, indigenous carvings demonstrate an affinity with the African tradition ofstylization, which can be clearly seen, for example, in Shona carved woodenwalking sticks. Each one shows a sensitive rendering of form, often a humorouscomment on society, with no attempt at realism in the Western sense.Frank McEwan was without doubt the man who made the contemporarysculpture movement possible. He was an influential, charismatic figure who madeavailable opportunities to men who in many cases, prior to gravitating towards him,had felt a creative potential within themselves and had produced as a result smallsoapstone or wooden carvings. McEwan influenced a growing body of sculptorstowards finding the source of their inspiration within themselves as individuals. Inhis own words, 'Artists come to us with their workŠwe do not teach them at all, butjust try to give them courage. Instead of teaching them we try to induce them alongtheir own very personal lines of expression. There is absolutely no enforcedobedience to pattern or master.'1 Roberts maintains that critical comments byMcEwan were the sole basis for the particular form and character of Shona StoneSculpture; but it seems to me that, although McEwan's influence was a motivatingfactor in the launching of the movement, nevertheless the impetus arose from aninherent ability and will to express ideas in three-dimensional form. Thecomparative lack of visual symbols in two dimensional form that characterized thecultural background of many sculptors results in a greater ease of expression inthree dimensional sculpture. Sculptors have consistently produced aestheticallysuccessful work of a diverse nature over a period of two and a half decades.Moreover, the movement is still vigorous. Individual sculptors continue to move innew directions, break new ground. With the experience of two decades behindthem, there is evidence of a greater understanding of sculptural principles, a moresophisticated rendering of form. There is also a greater diversification in thesources of inspiration, as sculptors bring to their work new experiences of war, oflife in foreign cities, of the changing tempo of life in independent Zimbabwe.'Quoted in D.N. Walker. 'Preliminary Synopsis for the History of the Workshop School'(Harare, National Gallery of Zimbabwe, unpubl., 1978), 197.56ESSAY REVIEWThe criticism that Zimbabwean sculpture is motivated largely by commercialgain has as much relevance here as anywhere else in the world. Artists the worldover suffer from the hugely tempting lures of catering to commercial taste. With itsexpanding popularity 'Shona Sculpture' has proved extremely lucrative. It is aunique individual who can withstand these pressures. The wholesale churning-outof sculptures for a commercial market has, in some cases, tended to obscure the factthat there is a fair percentage of aesthetically satisfying work produced. Excellenceis a comparatively rare commodity in any community of artists. Perhaps it has beenthe Westerner's taste for the exotic that encouraged sculptors to look for overtexplanations in 'tribal folklore' and religion in their work, with the aim of increasingits appeal to a potential buyer. McEwan himself actively fostered this notion,perhaps in an attempt to root the movement in a 'tribal tradition*Šin the eyes of theWestern art world of the time, the only acceptable basis for any art form from Africa.No culture exists in isolation. Cross-cultural assimilation has been a factor ofman's development since the Stone Age. How can one deny contemporaryZimbabwean expression any links with Western values, which have had such anenormous impact on the lives of these same artists? Would one have the forms ofmodern Zimbabwean literature stagnate in epic poems and folklore? If the historyof his people has been cataclysmic in its huge leap forward into the twentiethcentury, complicated by a suspension of cultural growth during the colonial period,it cannot be expected that the contemporary artists' expression reflect a slowcultural growth and continuity.The role of the artist has changed along with the structure of Ms society. InWest and Central Africa, sculpture in the traditional mould is no longer produced,as it no longer meets the social or religious needs of modern societies; howeverthere has been an upsurge in other non-traditional mediums such as painting andgraphics. Perhaps it is time for the Government to validate the role of the artist inindependent Zimbabwe by supporting commissions for Zimbabwean stonesculptures to be displayed in public places.National Gallery of ZimbabweGILLIAN J. WYLIEIn reading Arnold's book on Shoea Stone Sculpture and Professor Roberts'scomments on it, I tend to agree with Roberts's scepticism. Most of the Shona stonesculptures do not represent traditional spiritual beings or concepts. According tomy knowledge, these carvings are carved by people who want to make money, andso in order to sell their carvings quickly they are bound to create stories behind eachobject that they carve; and foreigners on hearing this take these stories for granted.In any case a carver or sculptor is not a trained person for that job in oursociety but a man who has an inborn instinct. He carves anything that comes intohis vision, and what determines the object is the size of the stone that he has onhand. Most people, particularly foreigners, think anything carved by an Africanrepresents African spiritual beliefs, an idea that was passed on to them by theirpseudo- anthropologists who, during their term of office as District Commissioners,got this far-fetched information from those who were their office messengers andthen later claimed the knowledge of everything concerning African beliefs.However, there are particular birds and particular animals believed to besacred traditionally, notably Chapungu or Chipungu (bateleur eagle), which theR.S, ROBERTS, GILLIAN J. WYLIE AND A.C. HODZA57Sfaona respect because the elders say that their dead founding fathers transformedinto bateleur eagles after their death. Thus, traditionally, when we see a bateleureagle hovering over our heads while on a journey, we sit down and start clapping ourhands saying,Tichengetei vasekuru,Onai tin parwendo rurefu,Bvisai zvinokuvadza munzira,Kuti tifamhe takasununguka.Look after us, o grandparents,Just see, we are on a long journey,Remove (for us) from the path all dangerous things.So as for us to travel freely.Only after this recital do we resume our journey.Similarly Hungwe (fish eagle) becomes sacred because of its two colours,namely, white and black. Though not quite white or black, the two colours arelikened to two black and white pieces of cloth given to a spirit medium. When thetwo pieces are sewn together, and have become one, it is called jira rehungwe orfuko remudzimu. The white colour in this context represents Vari Kunze (thephysical world) and these will never be represented by carved statues. Also blacklions and white lions are the spiritual lions or rain-makers (mhondoro dzemldzimu)and they are harmless, but they can be harmful or very dangerous to those whoinfringe the laws of the creation {mutemo wepasi) and commit incest, sodomy,bestiality or lesbianism (chlmina, mapinahuna, makunakuna, chipini). The twojira rehungwe colours are truly represented here by the two black and white lions.Nheveravauya (Caracal) is also a sacred animal because according to Shonabeliefs, it is believed to be guard-servant or personal attendant of the lion spirits.Wherever the lion spirit is, a caracal must be behind it. One can hear the caracalcry, particularly in the evening when the lion spirit is taking a walk.Mwangato is a carved walking stick usually carried by a svikiro (spirit host ormedium). This particular walking stick has a carved lion claw at the base and acarved human head on the top. This shows the unity between the dead (spirits) andthe living.Apart from these examples, however, there is little in Shona tradition thatrelates to this so-called Shona sculpture; consequently most of what the sculptorsclaim and what Arnold ascribes to their work is fanciful.University of ZimbabweA.C. HODZA