Zambezia (1982), X (ii).ESSAY REVIEWEPIPHENOMENA OF THE STRUGGLETHE PEARCE COMMISSION to enquire Into the acceptability of the Home-Smithagreement was in the early weeks of 1972 the first important turning point in thehistory of Rhodesia since the events of 1962-5 (the rise of the Rhodesian Front, thebreak-up of Federation and U.D.I.) had set the country on its path towardsisolation and war. The idea of a test of aceptability was something of anafterthought (the fifth of the original Five Principles) and was of little importance aslong as the negotiations centred on the details of an independence constitution thatwas to be offered to the White Government. Once put into effect, however, the testprovided the first real expression of African opinion; and once the answer was 'No',it became clear for the first timeŠat least for the Whites in Rhodesia and the BritishGovernment1Šthat the constitutional details of independence were not the realissue. The real problem was how to transfer power to the African majority and toarrive at the minimum safeguards for Whites that would make this possibleŠaproblem that was to become increasingly obvious from the end of 1972 whenZANU launched its new guerilla offensive in the north-east.This basic change, however, was only slowly perceived in the academicliterature, whereas some pamphlets published by interested bodies2 at the time ofthe Pearce Commission did, by their advocacy of a 'No' answer, implicitly seizethe point, and then go on to develop it.3 Few of the numerous pamphlets that haveappeared since 1972 have had the same impact but their very number, and theirephemeral nature, creates the need for some record and review, particularly asthey are often derivative one from another and share certain characteristics that arecrucial for understanding the international context of the Rhodesian problem.After the flurry of activity in 1971-2, there was something of a lull in this sortof publishing on RhodesiaŠthe last days of Portuguese rale tended to divertattention perhapsŠand the tendency was to publish fewer but with more extended1 For earlier pamphlets, out of the same stable as the later ones discussed below, which equally hadnot seen this point clearly, see Africa Bureau, Background to Rhodesia (London, the Bureau, 1966);F.M. Nehwati The Effects of Racial Discrimination on the African Worker in Rhodesia (London, Anti-Apartheid Movement, 1967); R.H.F. Austin, The Character and Legislation of the Rhodesian Frontsince U.D.I. (London, The Africa Bureau, 1968); M.J. Christie, The 'Fearless'Proposals and the SixPrinciples (London, The Africa Bureau, 1968); International Defence and Aid Fund, Rhodesia: WhyMinority Rule Survives (London, The Fund, 1969); United Nations, A Principle in Torment: 1ŠTheUnited Nations and Southern Rhodesia (New York, U.N. Office of Public Information, 1969); E.M.M.Mlambo, Rhodesia: The British Dilemma (London, The International Defence and Aid Fund, 1971).2 Periodicals are not included in this essay; also excluded are the publications of the directparticipantsŠthe Rhodesian Government, other White political parties and the African nationalistparties. There are different reasons for this in each case. The Rhodesian Government's publications aremore easily identifiable and availableŠas White Papers, or as Press releases in the library of theMinistry of InformationŠthan the more scattered ephemera discussed here. Secondly, the ephemera ofthe other White parties are being written up by another author and it is hoped to publish that study in alater issue. Lastly the ephemeral and periodical publications of the nationalist parties have not beengenerally available for study in this country and present an enormous task of collection which has beenbegun by the National Archives Library, but so far without great success or co-operation from the partiesconcerned; nevertheless it is hoped that at least a preliminary survey will be published soon.Also excluded are pamphlets that deal more with the actual fighting and those of the CatholicCommission for Justice and Peace in Rhodesia; these will be reviewed later.3 The first of these pieces was Christian Council of Rhodesia, A Guide to the 'Proposals for aSettlement': The Proposals Promise but... (Salisbury, The Council, 1971), 8 pp.. This brief pamphlet143144ESSAY REVIEWSbackground material. Notable among these was a series of booklets by theUNESCO Press. Only one of these, by Dr K. Weinrich (Sr Mary Aquina), is ofacademic valueŠa sociological survey of Mucheke which has already beenreviewed in this journal,4 The two other books on Rhodesia, Racism and Apartheidin Southern Africa: Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia: The Effects of a ConquestSociety on Education, Culture and Information5, purport to be factual, 'to assistthose who wish to inform students and pupils'; but the UNESCO Secretariat tookgreat pains to not endorse the contents even in respect of an indisputable matter asthe legal status of Rhodesia. The caution was understandable, because both bookswere polemical rather than academic, determined to condemn out of hand, withoutunderstanding; their tendentious treatment of the non-racial University ofRhodesia is a typical example.6 Even more serious in both of these books as factualrecords was the refusal to admit that things did change in Rhodesia. Thus Austin(p. 49) gave the small annual numbers of Africans registered as apprentices butstopped his figures in 1969, just when they began to rise significantly (from 3 percent of the total in 1968 to 18 per cent by 1975). The inevitable effect of this sort ofdistortion is that other authors accept these fictions for fact. Thus the International(only two pages really as it contains a translation into Shona and into Ndebele) was probably the mostdecisive single publication in the liberation struggle and was far more influential with African opinionthan the more publicized Catholic publications. In fact it mobilized Africans, who at first tended to acceptthe Proposals, not only to oppose but also to reorganize politically,"This decisive local publication was followed by others in Britain as part of a general campaign:G.C. Grant, The Africans' Predicament in Rhodesia (London, Minority Rights Group, Report 8,1972), 31 pp., £0.30; M.J. Christie, Rhodesia: Proposals for a Sell-Out (London, Southern AfricanResearch Office, 1972), 32 pp., £0.15; K. Maxey, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe (London, FabianSociety, Research Series 301, 1972), 40 pp., £0.45; M. Jones, Rhodesia: The White Judges* Burden(London, International Defence and Aid Fund, 1972), 25 pp., £0.30; E.E.M. Mlambo, No Futurewithout Us: The Story of the African National Council in Zimbabwe (S. Rhodesia) (London,privately for African National Council, 1972) 48 pp., £0.25. The Justice for Rhodesia Campaign thenwent on to propose stricter sanctions in A. Baldwin, Token Sanctions or Total Economic Warfare?(London, Justice for Rhodesia Campaign, (1972]), 20 pp., £0.10 (which is based on G. Arnold and A.Baldwin's larger work of the same title (London, The Africa Bureau, 1972), 58 pp., no price indicated,and G. Arnold Sanctions against Rhodesia 1965 to 1972 (London, the Africa Bureau, 1972), 47, ii pp.,no price indicated. Another pamphlet published at this time was International Defence and Aid Fund,Rhodesia: The Ousting of the Tangwena (London, The Fund, 1972) but had been written before theHome-Smith agreement. See also R. Dore, Rhodesia: The Settlement and after (Brighton, Univ. ofSussex, Institute of Development Studies, Discussion Paper, 1972), 13 pp., no price indicated.For the Rhodesian Government's reply to the Pearce Commission's report, see Where DidPearceGo Wrong 1 (Salisbury, Ministry of Information, Immigration and Tourism, 1972), 4 pp.4 By C. Brand, ante (1978), VI, 218-20.5 R. [H.F.] Austin, Racism and Apartheid in Southern Africa: Rhodesia (Paris, Unesco Press,1975), 122 pp., no price indicated; M.O'Callaghan, The Effects of a Conquest Society on Education,Culture and Information (Paris, Unesco Press, 1977), 293 pp., no price indicated: the fourth book inthe series is .Racism and Apartheid in Southern Africa: South Africa and Namibia (Paris, UnescoPress, 1974), 156 pp., no price indicated.6 A good example of extended distortion both of logic and fact is to be found in Austin's Racismand Apartheid (p. 51) where he claimed that any beneficial effects which the multiracial University ofRhodesia might have had was destroyed because some European students went to South AfricanuniversitiesŠthus leaving more room for more African students (45 per cent African to 48 per centEuropean in 1974 when Austin was writing!). To fortify this strange argument, he then used statistics toshow that in 1972 there were about 2,500 Europeans at universities and about 5,000 qualified Europeanschool-leavers, and thus this therefore meant that 50 per cent of European school-leavers could expect aR.S, ROBERTS145Commission of Jurists in a similar sort of background booklet largely devoted todetailing repressive legislation repeated both Austin's incomplete figures onapprenticeship and Ms claim that 50 per cent of European qualified school-leaversgo to universityŠbut with a new exaggeration to the effect that they are all state-aided,7Very similar to these books were two pamphlets of factual information by theInternational Defence and Aid Fund; and again there was, amidst the facts, thestraining to create an effect; for example in one it is implied that mining companiesactually expropriated Tribal Trust Lands, whilst in the other it is said that theamendment to the Land Tenure Act was passed by the bare necessary two-thirdsmajority, implying extensive, die-hard White resistance even to limited change,whereas in fact, of course, it was almost equally the lack of support by the AfricanM.P.s who naturally felt that the amendment did not go far enough.8The common denominator of such books is a simplistic approach to humanand political problems, due perhaps to the excessive involvement of lawyers in theircompilation. Discrimination is presented largely in terms of legislation with theimplicit assumption that the laws cited are all equally and ruthlessly appliedŠthusgiving the impression that there has been effective influx control or that ZAPU, forexample, could not function at all as a political group in the mid-1970s, or thatAfrican nationalist groups did not receive financial help from abroad. There is alsoan underlying assumption that it is law that creates discrimination and inequalityand that repeal will solve such matters simply; thus great emphasis appearsthroughout on the Land Apportionment Act but little consideration of the fact, bothbefore 1930 and since 1977, that it has been the high level of market-prices forcommercially profitable land that stops Africans from purchasingŠin other wordsa complex situation in which poverty has helped create discrimination as much asdiscrimination has created poverty, a situation which law, by itself, will not change.university educationŠconveniently Ignoring, of course, the simple and obvious fact that a figure of 2,500Europeans at university at a given date constitutes the combined intake of several years and that hisremarkable figure of 50 per cent is in reality one of about 18 per cent!A similar sort of approach can be seen in the companion volume, O'Callaghan's SouthernRhodesia; The Effects of a Conquest Society where it was half-heartedly admitted that there seemed tobe no racialistic discrimination against Africans at the University of Rhodesia in the awarding ofscholarships to school-leavers (p. 101); the fact, of course, was that this scholarship money had alwaysbeen given to Africans, almost in its entirety, to the virtual exclusion of Europeans, but for the author toadmit this might detract from the general impression that was sought after. To confirm this impression theauthor seized upon the fact, in the University's 19 75 Prospectus, that some private donors restricted theirscholarships to EuropeansŠcarefully not telling the reader that her source equally showed that otherdonors restricted their scholarships to Africans, to Coloureds, to Zambians etc, etc.Šand so determinedwas she to prove discrimination that she quoted as evidence the British Goldsmiths CompanyScholarships, which, however, are British scholarships, granted in Britain, to graduates of Britishuniversities and of United Kingdom (not White, let it be noted) parentage, and were merely tenable at theUniversity of Rhodesia amongst other universities in Britain and the Commonwealth.These points may not be important in themselves but it will be seen below how they contribute to anoverall impression.7 International Commission of Jurists, Racial Discrimination and Repression in SouthernRhodesia (London, Catholic Institute for International Relations; Geneva, International Committee ofJurists, 1977), 119 pp., £1.00 (see pp. 23-4).8International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, Zimbabwe Quiz: Basic Facts andFigures about Rhodesia (London, The Fund, 1975), 41 pp., £0.20 (see p. 19), and The Facts aboutRhodesia (London, The Fund, 1977), 76 pp., £0.60 (see p. 23).146ESSAY REVIEWSThe same stock in trade of attitudes also ran throughout several special issuesof more academic publications which were remarkably similar, and often drewtheir contributions from the same small circle of'professional' Zimbabweanists.9Of slightly more value to the scholar are more general surveys,10 or pamphletsdealing with more specific subjects, which by their nature are more factual, such asBritish and South African business links with Rhodesia,1' the Rhodesian closure ofthe border with Zambia in 1973,12 the use of the death sentence,13 the details ofpolitical prisoners,14 the Law and Order (Maintenance) Act,15 and lastly, but bestof all, labour conditions.16It is noticeable that the vast majority of the works mentioned so far were againin a cluster, around the years 1975-7, when detente, talks with Nkomo, Kissinger'sintervention, the Geneva Conference, and the Anglo-American Proposals made asettlement again appear likely. As such they were again largely the spontaneousexpression of the interests of outside bodies, and negative rather than positive.Notably absent in fact in all this publication was the sort of considered, topicaldiscussion that South Africa's problems had attracted for some time. For example,the South African Study Project of Christianity in Apartheid Society (SPRO-CAS)had begun a series of studies, first to analyse the South African situation, and thento propound strategies for change. Most of the resultant publications were issued by1973 (and two of the more important were reviewed in this journal)17 and the RavanPresss an ecumenical publisher, continued the thrust of such enquiry;18 similarly an'See, for example Ufahamu (1975), V, iii: Southern Africa: Zimbabwe Next?, 180 pp.US$7,00: African Perspectives (1976), i: White Minorities, Black Majorities, 136 pp., DJ.13;Africa Today (1977), XXIV, ii: White Rule under Pressure in Southern Africa, 112 pp., US$2.50,R.M.F. Austin for example, the author of the Unesco volume contributed one of the articles to AfricanPerspectives; and another contributor, K. Maxey, has been cited above (fn. 3) as author of a pamphlet."e.g. L.A. Sobel (ed.), Rhodesia/Zimbabwe 1971-77 (New York, Facts on File, 1978), 166pp., no price indicated (this is a successor to R.W. Peterson (ed.), Rhodesian Independence (New York,Facts on File, 1969)); G.M. Houser, Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: A Chronology 1830-1976 (New York,The Africa Fund, [ 1978], 14 pp., no price indicated. D. Venter, The Rhodesian Constitution Dispute;Black Majority or Meritocracy? (Johannesburg, The South African Institute of International Affairs,Occasional Paper, 1976), 28 pp., no price indicated.11 Anti-Apartheid Movement, British Companies In Rhodesia (London, The Movement, n.d.),15 pp., no price indicated, and List of British Firms with Subsidiary Associate Companies Situated inRhodesia (London, The MoYement, n.d. [1976]), 12 pp., £0.10; J. Sprack, Rhodesia: South Africa'sSixth Province (London, International Defence and Aid Fund, 1974), 87 pp., £0.35.12 International Defence and Aid Fund, The Rhodesia-Zambia Border Closure January-February 1973 (London, The Fund, Special Report 1, 1973), 26 pp., £0.10.13 Anti-Apartheid Movement, The Smith Regime and the Death Sentence (London, TheMovement, 1975), 6 pp., £0.10.14 International Defence and Aid Fund, Ian Smith's Hostages: Political Prisoners in Rhodesia(London, The Fund, Fact Paper on Southern Africa 7, 1976), [ii], 38 pp., £2.00.15 International Defence and Aid Fund, 'Civilised Standards' in Rhodesia: The Law and Order(Maintenance) Act (London, The Fund, Fact Paper on Southern Africa 1, 1976), 16 pp., £0.20.16 [D.G. Clarke], Labour Conditions and Discrimination in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)(Geneva, Intematioeal Labour Office, 1978), 145 pp., Swiss F. 17.50. This booklet is really in adifferent class from the others and covers its subject in a wide-ranging manner that shows thatcommittment and scholarship are not necessarily incompatible.17 See ante (1973), III, i, 78-80." See for example, L.G. Wells, Health, Healing and Society (Johannesburg, Ravan Press,1974); T. Sundermeier (ed.), Church and Nationalism in South Africa (Johannesburg, Ravan Press,1975); for a general review of SPRO-CAS, see A. Stadler, 'Anxious radicals: SPRO-CAS and theapartheid society', Journal of Southern Africa Studies (1975-6), II, 102-8.R.S. ROBERTS147iotemational effort began in 1974 as the Study Project on External Investment inSouth Africa and NamibiaŠa project sponsored by universities in Britain, theU.S.A., Sweden and West Germany.19The only topical studies of Rhodesia that approached this sort of level inRhodesia were those published by Mambo Press as a series of brief Socio-Economic Occasional Papers commencing in 1974 and a series of even brieferpamphlets in the 'Rhodesia to Zimbabwe* series commencing in 1978 (which werereviewed in this journal as they appeared20) and these are not so much as a plannedseries as the result of the particular academic interests of Dr D.G. Clarke and othermembers of the Department of Economics at the University of Rhodesia a fewyears ago, who between them wrote 14 out of the 24 so far published.Perhaps the reason for this disparity was that Rhodesia, since the time of thePearce Commission, was much nearer, psychologically at least, to meaningfulpolitical change than South Africa, even if the actual resolution of the politicalproblems dragged on from year to year. Consequently, whilst there was not muchmeliorative, academic discussion of Rhodesia's problems, there have been morepractical, non-academic attempts to propose concrete solutions for immediateimplementation.The first of these was by R.S. Walker, a well-known businessman inSalisbury,21 who proposed rather ingenious separations of power, not simplybetween the Executive and Legislature but also between 'higher-franchise',mainly European urban-counties, and lower-franchise', mainly African rural-provinces. Schemes such as this might have been useful gradualist solutions toracial fears in the 1950s. But after the Pearce Commission the question was one ofpower, not simply one of justice and removal of discrimination; and suchseparation of power or functions could never be acceptable to Africans, inZimbabwe or South Africa, particularly in the case of Walker's 'urban-counties',where African political consciousness is at its highest and where the inevitableAfrican influx would sweep away such delicate mechanisms.The second such booklet came as soon after the Kissinger proposals and theGeneva Conference, written by A.J.A. Peck who some ten years earlier publishedtwo books attacking British policy towards Rhodesia.22 There was nothing ofparticular note in the proposals but the way in which Peck in late 1976 saw thingsdeveloping was very close to what in effect happenedŠthe Rhodesian Government"The studies which are published in London by the African Publications Trust are wider Incoverage than the title of the project indicates; see, for example, J.E. Spenee, The Political and MilitaryFramework (1975); J. Suckling et al.. The Economic Factor (1975); C. Harvey et al., The PolicyDebate (1975) and W.H. Thomas et al., The Conditions of the Black Worker (1975).20 For the SocioEconomic Series, see ante (1973-4), III, ii, 113-16, forNos 1-3; (1975-6), IV, i,139-41, for No. 4; (1977), V, 203-11, for No. 5; (1978), VI, 75-86, for No. 6, and 87-93, for Nos 7 and9, and 102-3 for No. 8; (1979), VII, 2, 36-41 and 264-5 forNos 13 and 14; (1980), VIII, 106 for No.12.For the 'Rhodesia to Zimbabwe' series, see ante (1979), VII, 255-8 for No. 4, and 259-62 forNos 1 and 7; (1980), VIII, 85-99, 105-6 for Nos 8 and 8.21 R.A. Walker, Rhodesia: The Zimbabwe of Southern Africa (Salisbury, Sirmione Invest-ments, 1975), 94 pp., no price indicated."A.J.A. Peck, Proposals for a Settlement (Salisbury, Three Sisters Books, 1977), 50 pp.,Rh$1.00; Rhodesia Accuses (Salisbury, Three Sisters Books, 2nd edn, 1966); Rhodesia Condemns(Salisbury, Three Sisters Books, 1967).148ESSAY REVIEWStrying to introduce its own majority-rale constitution retaining a considerable andseparate representation for Whites.A third such booklet was a sincere but impractical plan to unify Rhodesiansociety by abolishing class divisions by means of profit-sharing and political partiesby means of best man government' selected by personnel-selection techniques.23A fourth booklet which appeared in 1978 indicated that further deteriorationin the situation since Peck wrote his book; for although such a constitution had beenagreed, the author of these last proposals, D.N. Scott, was concerned more withfinancial guarantees for Whites.24 The more thoughtful White politicians, particu-larly in the Centre Party, long realized the psychological importance to Whites ofexternally supported guarantees of their pensions and assets, and did much toensure their acceptance by the British and American Governments and Nationalistleaders. After the collapse of the Kissinger-Geneva initiative, such guarantees fellinto the background while the Rhodesian Government was negotiating its ownsettlement first with Nkomo and then with Muzorewa, Sithole and Chirau.While these private and ineffective, but positive, proposals were being made,the Anglo-American proposals for a settlement were published in September1911 i2S and these produced a new flurry of pamphlets much as had happened overthe 1971 proposals.The British Council of Churches, after a long review of events and its attitudeover the years, basically accepted these proposals as a working basis for a transferof power.26 The Anti-Apartheid Movement, however, came to the oppositeconclusion and argued for total sanctions and aid to the Patriotic Front,27 In theevent, of course, the Anglo-American Proposals came to naught and weresuperseded by the Internal Settlement of March 1978. This was rejected as asuitable agreement by the Commonwealth Secretariat which simply dismissed it asa subterfuge28 and by the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace whichargued, more reasonably, that it would not stop the war and that the Anglo-American proposals were preferable.29Later in the year the Commission in conjunction with the Catholic Institutefor International Relations in London summarized the events in Rhodesiafollowing the internal settlement and sought to show that far from the war beingended it was being intensified with danger of civil war; and the International23 F. Pessina, An Urgent Demand for the Citizen of today (Bulawayo, B.E.M., 1977), 72 pp., noprice indicated.24 D.N. Scott, 'Rho-PIan 60' or Guarantees That Will Work (Salisbury, privately, 1978),43 pp., Rh$0.95.25 Great Britain, Rhodesia: Proposals for a Settlement. , . 1977 [Cmnd. 6919],26British Council of Churches, Rhodesia now: The Liberation of Zimbabwe (London, TheCouncil, 1977), 20 pp., $0.30. The earlier pamphlets were Rhodesia and Ourselves (London, TheCouncil, 1967); and Rhodesia and Our Responsibilities (London, The Council, 1970).21 The Anti-Apartheid Movement, Rhodesia: What Chances for a Settlement? (London, TheMovement, 1977), 9 pp., $0.10.28 Commonwealth Secretariat, An Analysis of the Illegal Regime's 'Constitution for Zim-babwe Rhodesia' (London, the Secretariat, 1979), 15 pp., no price indicated. Similar is T. Dunn,The 'New' Rhodesian Constitution: The Illusion of Majority Rule (New York, the AmericanCommittee on Africa, 1979), 5 pp., no price indicated.29 The Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace in Rhodesia, An Analysis of the SalisburyAgreement (Salisbury, The Commission, 1978), 14 pp., free.R.S. ROBERTS149Defence Aid Fund came to the same conclusion.30 The only real defence of theInternal Settlement came from Ndabaningi Sithole and, obliquely, from his brotherMasipula31Š and even their enthusiasm waned as events favoured Muzorewa andwon him the elections of May 1979, Those elections, and the hope of internationalrecognition, aroused widespread interest again, as in 1971-2 and 1977-8. Therewere predictable reports on the election and equally predictable recommendationsnot to recognize the new government,32 not on the logically acceptable ground thatthe war would not thereby be stopped but on the assertion that the elections had notbeen free and fair and that the settlement was not acceptable to the people as awhole (despite the high turnout and negligible spoiling of papers). All of these viewswere brought together in a report by Counter Information Services in 1979, which,just after the Lusaka Conference, turned out to be as wrong in its prognostication asit was stale in its reporting."When the Lancaster House talks were announced pamphlets were quicklypublished to emphasize the urgency of a settlement and provide backgroundmaterial by updating Grant's 1972 publication34 and to provide details of politicalprisoners held in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and bring attention to the fact that suchdetentions had continued since the Internal Settlement.35The success of Lancaster House and the 1980 elections led to somepamphlets celebrating Zimbabwean IndependenceŠbut remarkably few in pro-portion to the plethora of hostile publications on Rhodesia, thereby tending toconfirm the largely negative nature of the self-righteousness that seems to haveprompted most of this writing by people outside the actual struggle (shared indeedeven by the couple of pamphlets celebrating independence for they harped largelyon the past36).30 The Catholic Institute for International Relations, Rhodesia after the Internal Settlement(London, The Institute, 1978), 25 pp., £0.50; International Defence and Aid Fund, Smith's Settlement(London, The Fund, Fact Paper on Southern Africa 6, 1978), 37 pp., £0.50.31N. Sithole, In Defence of the Rhodesian Constitutional Agreement; A Power Promise(Salisbury, Graham Publishing, 1978), 71 pp., ZS1.60; M. Sithole, Frontlinestatism and theZimbabwe Question (Salisbury, privately, 1978), 72 pp., Rh$1.00.32 C, Palley, The Rhodesian Election (London, Catholic Institute for International Relations,1979), 36 pp., no price indicated; and Zimbabwe Rhodesia: Should the Present Government BeRecognised? (London, Minority Rights Group and Catholic Institute for International Relations,1979), 40 pp., £0.50. Lord Chitnis and E. Sudworth, Free and Fair (London, Parliamentary HumanRights Group, 1979), 53, [xix] pp., no price indicated.For a different view, see Viscount Boyd of Merton et al, Report to the Prime Minister on theElection Held in Zimbabwe Rhodesia in April 1979 ([London, Conservative Perty, 1979]), 132paras, 15 appendices, no price indicated; J. Drinkwater, 'A Report on the General Elections Held inApril 1979 in Zimbabwe Rhodesia' ([London, n.d.], 1979), 36 pp., 10 appendices, no priceindicated; Freedom House, Report of the Freedom House Mission to Observe the Common RollElection in Zimbabwe Rhodesia - April 1979 (New York, Freedom House, 1979), 36 pp.,9 annexures, US$3.(X); D. Willers, The Rhodesian Elections: April 1979 (Johannesburg, TheSouthern African Institute of Internal Affairs, Occasional Paper, 1979), 17 pp., no price indicated.33 Counter Information Services, Sell out in Zimbabwe (London, Counter Information Services,Anti-Report 24, {1979]), 32 pp., no price indicated.34 C, Hitchens, Inequalities in Zimbabwe (London, The Minority Rights Group, 1979), 16 pp.,£0.75. For Grant, see above, fn. 3.35 International Defence and Aid Fund, Political Prisoners in Rhodesia in 1979 (London, TheFund, Fact Paper on Southern Africa 7, 1980), 58 pp., £0.50. For the earlier version, see above fn. 14.36 S. Geary, Zimbabwe Is Born (Johannesburg, South Africa Institute of Race Relations, 1980),46 pp., R2.00. K. Ndlovu, Zimbabwe Is Free (London, Liberation, revised edn, 1980), 19 pp., £0.75(there was an earlier mimeo edition in 1979).150ESSAY REVIEWSThe notable characteristic of the ephemera reviewed is their sameness, theirrepetition one of another's facts (and, often, errors, as has been pointed out), Theappearance of a closed system of thought is remarkably reinforced by their frequentuse of the same photographs, which themselves are often plucked out of context tocreate an exaggerated impression. Compared with the pamphlets reviewed above,those written from a right-wing stance are few but interestingly different incharacter. Some, like the broadsheets put out by Women for Rhodesia, adopt thesame 'factual' approach of the opposition to White Rhodesia," but most, of thefew, are much more politically combative, arguing in terms of the West's interestsin face of a Communist threat. These tend to be American or church-orientated andrange from fairly academic to violently polemical tracts on alleged conspiraciesand weakness in the West;38 because of their more political approach, the strugglein Rhodesia does not hold the centre of the stage but is only part of a world-widestraggle; consequently as propaganda they are much less effective than the morenumerous opposition pamphlets which focused intensely on Rhodesia itself. Theopposition's success was to influence Western opinion against any sort of internalsettlement with the result that even carefully argued pieces from an academic asinfluential as Chester Crocker had little effect when it counted,39R.S.R."Women for Rhodesia, Rhodesia as It really Is; 1977 ([Salisbury, Women for Rhodesia,1977], [4] pp., no price indicated; D. Partridge, Rhodesia as It really Is in the Autumn of the Year1978 ([Salisbury, Women for Rhodesia, 1978]), [6] pp., Z$0.05.38 See J.E. Doman (ed.), Rhodesia Alone (Washington, D.C., The Council of American Affairs,[1977]), 95 pp., US$5,00;the contributors are as varied as L.M.Gann, the historian, and Robin Moore,the novelist and erstwhile, self-appointed, unofficial American ambassador to Americans fighting inRhodesia. See also R. Pearson (ed.), Sino-Soviet Intervention in Africa (Washington, D.C., Councilon American Affairs, 1977), 103 pp., US$5.00; R. Skimin, The Rhodesian Sellout (Roslyn Heights,N.Y., Libra, 1977), 153 pp., US$6.95; A. Lewis, Rhodesia Undefeated (Salisbury, RhodesianChristian Group, 1978), 80 pp., ZS1.S0; Liberation in Africa (Sunnyside, Transvaal, The ChristianLeague of Southern Africa, 1979), 13 pp., ZSO.65; B. Smith, The Fraudulent Gospel; Politics and theWorld Council of Churches (London, Foreign Affairs Publishing, 1977), 99 pp., £1.00.39 C. A. Crocker, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: The Fine Art of Transition (Washington, D.C.,Georgetown Univ., Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1977), 29 pp., US$3.50. This arguedfor a careful move of American policy from the Anglo-American Proposals of 1977 towards the InternalSettlement.