Zambezia (1984/5), XII.ESSAY REVIEWA SURVEY OF THE PLAY INDLALIFA NGUBANWMANY NDEBELE WRITERS have tended to glorify the traditional way of life of theNdebele people in their novels or poems. Some of them have even suggested areturn to the past. For example, S.O. Mlilo in her novel Lifile makes one of thecharacters, Sonkana, leave Bulawayo because of corruption there and return tothe rural areas of Sizinda where he hopes things are still better than in Bulawayo.However, in their criticism of the present these writers fail to make it clear to thereader what that past which they are glorifying was like. They even make thereader feel that the past he must return to is static.In the treatment of this subject of glorifying the past a break-through was madein 1976, in my opinion, by Ndabezinhle Sigogo. In his play, Indalifa Nguhani?[Who is the Heir?], he makes the reader aware of the nature of the past that he isreferring to. Furthermore he does not suggest a wholesale return to the past butinstead he attempts to show that some aspects of the past are good and worthpreserving whilst others need modification. In this essay it is intended to showhow Sigogo has achieved this; in doing this, it will also be necessary to examinebriefly some of the devices he has used to make his play appeal to his readers.THE STORY IN BRIEFThe play is based on traditional conflicts that are associated with polygamistfamilies. The head of the family is preparing to conduct umbuyiso which is to befollowed by the allocation of the deceased's property among his sons according tothe rules laid down by custom.2 Mhlolo has two wives who are also dead by thistime. The first wife is survived by one son, Mphunzo, and one daughter,Machibini. The second wife is survived by two sons, Luphondo and Phehlane.Mphunzo's mother, however, was not the senior wife because she had twoillegitimate children before marrying Mhlolo. Luphondo and Phehlane's mother,the second wife, was considered to be a virgin when she married Mhlolo and soshe became the senior wife. Therefore, even though Luphondo was younger thanMphunzo, he was the heir of Mhlolo's estate because he was the first son of asenior wife. These procedures were laid down by custom and Mhlolo'scommunity regarded them as laws of the land which were to be followed. It wasclear, therefore, that after the death of Mhlolo the headship of the family wouldpass to Luphondo.What complicated the situation in Mhlolo's case was that just before Mhloiodied he disclosed that Luphondo was not his real son but had been imposed onhim. He had then declared that Mphunzo should be proclaimed his heir and headof family. A further complication was brought about by the fact that whenMhlolo made this announcement he had sent all people away except his youngerbrother Mandlempisi. Mandlempisi did not call anybody else to be his witness,1 N. Sigogo, Indlalifa Ngubani? (Gwelo, Mambo Press, 1976), 112 pp., $0.72.2 Umbuyiso is a ceremony performed a year after the death of the head of a family. It is done inorder to bring home the spirit of the deceased.8586not even his elder sister Lomkhono. He first made this change known to his familyand public on the day when Mhlolo was being buried. Instead of lettingLuphondo hold Mhlolo's spears as the body was being lowered into the grave heoffered the spears to Mphunzo.Although Mandlempisi's actions at Mhlolo's burial caused anger and concernno one had any chance to ask him to explain what he had done. The issue is notdiscussed for the whole year until it is raised when it is time to conduct theumbuyiso and share the property of the deceased among the children of thedeceased. Then the suspicion and mistrust on both sides makes it very difficult forMandlempisi to allocate the property between the three sons and in the end aquarrel breaks out between him and Mphunzo. In the fight that followsMandlempisi murders Mphunzo.SETTINGThe play is set in the early days of settler rule in Zimbabwe. The way of life istraditional and European education and Christianity have had very littleinfluence on people's lives. However, Western influence is beginning to changethe way of life. Mnkandla, one of the local tribesmen, has a cart, and Mphunzo ismaking an effort to acquire it. Mphunzo's sister, Machibini, has a number ofillegitimate children all fathered by workers from the mining settlements that havesprung up throughout the region. Mphunzo. too, is described as smoking acigarette instead of using the traditional snuff. Thus, even if education has not yethad any effect, there is no doubt that the life of this community is experiencingchange. In fact Machibini puts the idea across very well when she reacts to heruncle's statement that customs have to be observed lest misfortunes occur;Ngokwakudala lokho malumami,Khathesi sekuyisilunguKonke lokho kakusasebenzi.That's an out-dated idea, uncle; these are moderntimes. All these traditional procedures no longerapply (p. 15).The eiders, however, are hostile to this change and express the desire to maintaintheir traditional way of life. Machibini's aunt, Lomkhono, agrees with Machi-bini's uncle that customs should be observed.This element of change, from the traditional way of life to what one might call'modernism', is incorporated in the setting of the play as a means of aiding theprojection of the theme of change from collective to individual responsibility. Butthroughout the play Sigogo projects the cause of the problem as stemming fromthe dichotomy between what the elders desire to see being done and what theyactually do to achieve these goals. However, this is weakened by the writer'sinconsistency. When community elders accuse Mandlempisi of tackling familyproblems alone he defends himself by saying he consulted them, and there is nofurther statement to contradict this.The action of the play is confined to a rural setting. It revolves around thehomes of Mphunzo, Luphondo and Mandlempisi. In all the three homes action isdominated by beer-drinking. Sigogo is portraying beer not as, traditionally, foodwhich gives man the strength and stamina to be able to continuously discusscrucial affairs; rather he is attempting to show how the young people are unable to87use it in its traditional way; they put beer-drinking before everything else andleave no time to consider important family issues. Even Mandlempisi sometimesfalls victim to this weakness. Lomkhono's statement to Luphondo and Phehlaneis relevant to the whole family: it seems that the writer is projecting the idea thatsome of the family conflicts stem from ihis weakness, and she says:Hmm. Kuyadliwa ho.Utshwala yiyonanto eyaziwayo.A bantu bangacabanga tiini-kv.Nxa kuzakuihi bcvuka phansiBabe bengenu emaqhagem otahwala.Babunathe haw ha.buye.kvle ngobaSekuphele amahek' eziphaleni?Alas, it. is always beer-<innking. Beer is the onrvthing that's considered important. How then cananyone have time to consider important matters ifthey sit around beer calabashes as soon as they gelup from sleep, and drink, and only stop when thegranaries are empty? (p. 34).Although i have emphasized that Sigogo uses setting to aid the projection of histheme it must be pointed out that sometimes there is some glaring discrepancybetween the physical description of a scene's*ettmg and what is explained by thewords and actions of the actors. In Act One, Scene Two, the physical setting andatmosphere, at Mphunzo's home are described as follows:KukoMphunzo. Sekuhlwiic. Bekukade kunaihwa. Abanengi sebehambile,Sekust'tc ku'ia/ha vena uMphunzo loMachibini loDumaza. Kukhona njaloisalukazi csingul.omkhono. Siieic sakujumeka kanti sikhangelc.ft is late in the evening at Mphunzo's place, 'There has been a drinking party.Many have left. Mphunzo,, Machibini and Duma/a are stiil drinking. There isalso an old woman called Lomkhono who is lying down half asleep (p. 14).This description implies thai (here has been a large crowd drinking at Mphunzo'shome that afternoon. Therefore, the following speech by Mphunzo the next daycomes as a complete surprise:Ngihle ngibonc malumami ukuihiKukhona imihlolo engizayibona.Kambe kwake kwenzeka ukuihiUmuntu aphekc utshwala, ezweni.Kungahi lamuntu oyabunatha?I felt that some misfortune was going to occur,uncle. How on earth does it happen that a manbrews some beer for the community and nobodycomes to drink it? (p. 48).It seems the writer is using this to back up his characterization of Mphunzo and hissister Machibini which totally contradicts the description above. Furthermorebecause Lomkhono is lying down at Mphunzo's home it suggests that there arecordial relations between her and her brothers children. If Machibini's behaviourfighting with her aunt Lomkhono had been completely unexpected the wholefamily should have been rocked with anger, surprise and bewilderment; but theirreaction seems to suggest that it was bad behaviour, yet did not come as acomplete surprise since it came from Machibini. This again contradicts the cordialrelations implied in Act One, Scene Two,This inconsistency in setting is also to be observed in the actions of some ofSigogo's characters; one realizes that inconsistency is not a trait of the character'spersonality but rather a reflection of the writer's weakness.ACTION: ANALYSIS OF EVENTSThe events can be divided into three subsections concerning the house ofLuphondo and Phehlane, the house of Mphunzo and Machibini, and Mandle-mpisi, the guardian and mediator. In summing up the portrayal of Mandlempisi itwill be necessary to bring in Nkala a close relation of the family throughmarriage Š and Lomkhono because their portrayal complements that ofMandlempisi.The house of Luphondo and Phehlane: This is the 'wronged' house which hasbeen usurped in a manner contrary to custom. As Luphondo states the case(p. 24), it seems that nobody is following any rule or tradition. This statementforces the reader to find out what custom has laid down in connection with thisproblem. Furthermore, the two brothers attempt to state the tradition since theyare aware of their predicament and at the same time are aware of their rights. Thisis so because they are well versed in the traditions of the family and tribe and thisknowledge enables them to disentangle their problem. The possession of suchknowledge is in itself a pointer to the nature of their personalities; they haveappreciated, long before, the importance of knowing their roots.The conflict is set in motion when they reveal that not only have they beendisplaced as heirs, but the new heir is threatening not to give them any share of theinheritance. The second threat is carefully brought in by the playwright to explainwhy the two brothers now feel so much more bitterness than before, because thedenial of their inheritance touches on their very livelihood. Because of this theyare ready to accept advice from Nkala, a relation through marriage. Nkala isaware of the importance of the inheritance to these brothers; therefore, tostimulate confrontation between the two houses he urges the brothers to resistMphunzo should he try to take the cattle left in their care on their father's death.The reader is made to feel that this confrontation is imminent.It is Luphondo and Phehlane who reveal the customs of these people as theyelaborate their problem and explain why they feel they have not been given fairtreatment. The treatment of this house brings out some of the issues that the play isconcerned with. Arranged marriages were accepted in the past and family secretswere treasured by everybody; but owing to modern influences and conflicts it isbecoming increasingly difficult to continue the system as it was practised.Luphondo and Phehlane can easily condemn Mphunzo for allegedly revealingthe secrets surrounding Luphondo's birth and yet they boast that they themselvesknow the story very well. The writer is trying to show conflict between the desireto maintain the traditional status quo and the modern influence that tends to makepeople individualistic in their approach to problems instead of taking collectiveresponsibility. Nkala's approach is even worse than that of Luphondo andPhehlane: as an old member of this community he knows all the channels that thetwo brothers could use to solve this problem of inheritance but instead he urges89them to confront Mphunzo, choosing a course that is bound to create moreproblems than it solves. He seems to have personal conflicts with Mphunzo andthinks that the only way to have his revenge is to encourage a confrontationbetween the two houses.Luphondo and Phehlane are, therefore, being deliberately pushed off course bythe people who should be playing a constructive role in advising them. Even theiraunt, Lomkhono, does not urge them to seek audience with their uncle,Mandlempisi, in order to understand what he is doing; instead, she encouragesthem to fight Mphuezo. This encouragement, however, helps to keep the tensionhigh and maintain the suspense of the play to the end because one is lookingforward to the confrontation between the two houses.The house of Mphunzo and Machibini: This house is a manifestation of moderntrends, the modern generation that attaches no importance to its customs andtraditions. Unlike Luphondo and Phehlane, Mphunzo and Machibini do not seeany value in holding to their customs. It therefore comes as no surprise to find thatMphunzo shows total ignorance and lack of concern about his position. He doesnot seem to know that custom denies him the heirship which his dead father hasjust restored to him.It is crystal clear that this apparent ignorance of their situation does not arisefrom the failure of society to impart that knowledge, but largely from their ownpersonalities; they show total disregard for their own traditions. This is whyMachibini can afford to say (p. 15) that the idea of following tribal custom isoutdated. This behaviour of Mphunzo and his sisiter threatens the stability of theirfamily and community as a whole. Mphunzo's new role makes him a veryimportant member of both his family and community. As principal heir he is thespiritual leader of the family who establishes a link between the living members ofhis family and the dead, the ancestral spirits; but Mphunzo and Machibini are notinterested in this aspect of heirship. They are concerned only with its material side.This portrayal helps to turn the reader against Mphunzo's house.The quarrels that follow between Machibini and her aunt, Lomkhono, and thatbetween Mphunzo and his uncle's wife, MaSithole, reveal the character traits ofthese two. The quarrel with his uncle's wife is unfortunate because it widens theconflict between him and his uncle, Ma/idlempisi. Mphunzo badly needsMandlempisi's support because Mandlempisi is the only person in the family whois obliged to proclaim him heir of Mhlolo's estate; sadly, Mphunzo is not aware ofthis because of his ignorance of his tradition. He even ignores some of the crucialthings of his society that demand*that he should co-operate with others but insteadhe says:Mina ngingumkhombo odla wodwa ŠKangiphili ngegazi labanye samkhaza.I am an umkhombo bird that eats by itself.I do not live on the blood of others like a tick (p. 55).This is what makes this a condemned house: it does not value any of the tribe'scustoms and traditions.Mandlempisi, as guardian and mediator; Mandlempisi was given the difficult taskof executing his brother's will Š a will in conflict with the tribal laws. But theproblem is not at all insurmountable. It is clear from what Luphondo says about90his birth that his mother had failed to honour the tradition of her people. She haddivulged the secrets of the family. It was probably because of this that Mhlolomust have felt that what he had regarded as a top-level secret had becomecommon knowledge. It was, therefore, humiliating to Mhlolo to think thatLuphondo would become the head of the family after his death because he thenconsidered that the world knew that Luphondo was not his son. Mhlolo's decisionwas delivered at a time when he would not experience the embarrassment himselfand where it would be impossible to reverse the decision because the Ndebeleculture stresses that one should not act against the wishes of a dying man.However, what Sigogo is showing here is the disparity between conformity totradition, which gives stability and security to the community, and the pursuit ofpersonal interest, which runs contrary to tradition, destabilizes the communityand causes much anxiety and uncertainty.Mhiolo had the whole of tribal tradition open to him which he couldlegitimately have used to solve the problem created by his dishonest wife whohad, no doubt, divulged family secrets.3 After all, according to Haba Nkomo whois about 95 years old and is an expert in Ndebele customary law:A man was allowed to disinherit his heir but had to do it according to public expectation.The most common act was for the heir to be given his share of inheritance by the fatherbefore he died. This was normally done in public and the community knew that it meantthat the son had been deprived of his status as the principal heir.Rather than follow this course Mhlolo had chosen the easier way out trying torectify a wrong decision with another wrong decision. The result is chaos.Mandlempisi's actions as he executes his brother's will echo those of hisbrother. He wants to follow his community's traditions in running his affairsbecause he realizes that the stability of the community rests upon doing thingswhich follow well-tried rules. But he fails to use any of the channels that are opento him to solve this complicated matter that his brother has placed in his hands.Sigogo emphasizes this desire of Mandlempisi by revealing Mandlempisi'sattitude towards those who show no concern for customs. He condemnsMnkandla, a local tribesman, for exchanging his cart for Mphunzo's cattlebecause those cattle belong to the deceased, Mhlolo, and the traditional ceremonyhas not yet been performed. Mnkandla knows the tribal customs very well and isexpected to observe them; as Mandlempisi says:UMnkandla laye uyabe eyindoda emhi,Nxa kuzakuthi engumuntu omdalaOyazi kakuhle imikhuba yesintu,Athengisele umfana inqola yakheNgenkomo azaziyo ukuthi kazikalungiswa,Mnkandla Š since he is an old man who knows the customs of thecommunity Š would be a bad man indeed if he should sell his cart to theyoung man in exchange for the cattle which he knows very well have not yetbeen cleansed since the death of their former owner (p. 37).Following tradition is a mark of being committed to the community. Here3 The decision that Mhlolo had made falls outside the action of the play and is simply referred toby the characters in the course of the play.9!Mandlempisi emphasizes two important facts: that the elders of the communityshould be expert in tribal customs and laws and that they should also be seen to becustodians of those customs by setting an example in following them.Mandlempisi is naturally greatly perturbed when other people go against thetribal customs; as he stresses it looking at the terms of his brother's will:Khathesi umhlaba wonke uyangisola,Ungisola usithi ngiyisigxangu sendodo;Uthi uMphunzo ulahlwa ngumdabuko.Now the whole community blames me; it says Iam an irresponsible man; it says tradition hasdenied Mphunzo Ms right (p. 37).Here again the emphasis is still on the community. The individual must conducthis affairs in accordance with the rules laid down by the community from timeimmemorial. Only these rales can hold the community together and promise asecure future for the generations to come. This is precisely what both Mhlolo andMandlempisi are failing to do.Throughout the play Mandlempisi displays this same weakness in dealing withhis brother's will. He even fails to see the importance of conducting umbuyisoaccording to tradition. It was important that this ceremony should be conductedin an atmosphere of peace and harmony in order that the spirit of the dead man beenticed to enter the home and look over the family'. Mandlempisi conforms hereto the Aristotelian type of tragic hero who 'is neither a paragon of virtue andjustice nor undergoes the change to misfortune through any real badness orwickedness but because of some mistake of great weight and consequence'.4While it is easy for Mandlempisi to condemn his brother for acting againsttradition, it is not so easy for him to recognize his own shortcomings. He simplydoes not realize that he has at his disposal all the traditional tools for correctingthis complicated issue. In the end, however, Mandlempisi finds that the approachthat he is making is creating enemies everywhere. Since the community is notwith him in solving the problem, it is clear that the result could not be other thandisastrous, because, as Mkhulumi, Mandlempisi's uncle, puts it:Ngoba laye uyisigxangu sendoda, Nkala,Kakwazi ukuthi inyathi ibuzwa kwabaphambili,Lokuthi indoda yindoda ngamadoda.It is because he is an unable man, Nkala. Hedoesn't know that if you do not know how tohandle a problem you should ask the elders;furthermore, he doesn't know that a man is a manbecause of the other men around him (p. 78).Whilst this portrayal of Mandlempisi is well done by the author, Sigogo falterstowards the end when he again exonerates Mandlempisi from the weakness thathe has displayed throughout the play. Towards the end, Mandlempisi repudiatesthe accusation that he did not consult other members of the family:4 Aristotle, Poetics, transl. with an introduction and notes by G.F, Else (Ann Arbor, Univ. ofMichigan, 1967), 38.92NKALA: Izinto zonke lezi zikhathaza kangakaNgoba kulobugxangu obunengi kakhuluPhakathi kwale indaba yakoNdlovu.All these things give us so much troublebecause there are many people at fault in thisaffair of Mhlolo.MANDLEMPISI; Kodwa phela akusicala lamuntu, Nkala,Njengoba ngaka ngakunyenyezela;Lowe malumami ngakutshela.But then, it is nobody's fault, Nkala, since Ionce disclosed it to you. I told you also, uncle.MKHULUMI: Kodwa ngahle ngakusola kakhuluLokho kwenza kukamnewenu -Ukutyhi kuthi ngoba yena esetshonaKube yikhona ebhoboza isifuba esingako!But I told you there and then that I was totallyagainst your brother's decision Š that it wasbecause he realized that he was dying that hedivulged such secrets (pp. 107-8).The writer does not make Nkala and Mkhulumi challenge the way in whichMandlempisi handled the affair; instead they concentrate on Mhlolo's actions.Challenging Mandlempisi would, in my opinion, have been more effective inbringing out the subject matter of the play and this would have helped to make thetheme clearer. In the end, therefore, 'the excitement and animation which is oftengained from the very way a story is told, which may result in a contrast betweenthe fictional world created and that of everyday reality'5 is lost.Before leaving this matter it is important to bring in two other characters whoexhibit the same weaknesses as those of Mandlempisi, but on a lower level; theseare Nkala and Lomkhono.Nkala, like other elders in the community, is well versed in the customs of hispeople. He reveals this when he explains to Luphondo and Phehlane how thesystem of heirship works. In his explanations he reveals his keenness in upholdingthese customs. He accordingly hates Mphunzo and calls him a dog becauseMphunzo has acted against community traditions in many ways. Although Nkaladisplays this knowledge and determination to uphold the customs his advice toLuphondo and Phehlane does not serve to perpetuate what he strongly believes inŠ the maintenance of customs. He advises them to confront Mphunzo and fightto the death, rather than to find means of approaching their uijcle, Mandlempisi,and solve the problem in a way that would restore harmony between the twohouses. His 'advice' ensures the destruction of Mphunzo which, in its turn, willbring bitterness, and possibly also the wrath of the spirits, on Luphondo's house.After all, tradition did provide a forum for settling disputes amicably. It is thiscontrast between what Nkala does and what he claims to do that makes hisportrayal fascinating, and helps to bring out the theme of the play.5 R. Taylor, Understanding the Elements of Literature (London, Macrnillan, 1981), 793Lomkhono, the aunt of the three sons, for her part is aware of the imminentconflict between the two houses but takes a very long time to talk to Mandlempisiabout it. When at last MandSempisi tells her the story she offers no advice; nordoes she later go around with her information to advise Luphondo and Phehlane.Lomkhono's obligations lie with Luphondo and Phehlane. Like Nkala, she wantsthe confrontation to occur because that is the only thing that would 'cut Mphunzodown to size', and so she fails to play her traditional role meaningfully.By juxtaposing the fictional world created by the writer with reality, the readercan perceive what the portrayal of the family elders is intended to project. Theirchief weakness lies in omitting to do what their society expects. It is this sin ofomission that leads them to embroilment in Mphunzo's murder. Thus, whenMandlempisi murders Mphunzo he brings the wrath of the dead and of the livingupon all those who are present: Nkala, Mkhulumi and Lomkhono. They pay fortheir failures.THEMEThe attitude of the writer explains the theme of the play. All the characters exceptMphunzo and his sister, emphasize the importance of following the proceduresthat have been laid down by society. Luphondo and Phehlane discuss this (p. 23),surprised that their uncle supports Mphunzo's claim. The critical reader is left inno doubt as to the writer's intentions: to show that these people not only are wellversed in their customs but also wish to perpetuate them. What those who are in aposition to make sure custom is observed do reveals the theme of the play.Sigogo is portraying the desire to maintain the status quo as the only way toensure stability and security in society. It is for this reason that the community isshocked when they see Mphunzo proclaimed heir of Mhlolo's estate rather thanLuphondo. The desire to maintain the status quo is expressed by every elder in thecommunity. Even Dumaza, Mphunzo's uncle on the mother's side, whom somemembers of the community accuse of being responsible for misleading Mphunzo,is shocked to hear Mphunzo deride his customs; and he warns him (p. 15) that hewill meet disaster if he behaves that way. This idea is openly opposed only byMphunzo and his sister who feel that a time of change has come when customsmay be discarded. However, running parallel to this theme is that of man's failureto realize his desires, caused probably by his inherent selfishness. Selfishnessmakes him fail to do that which will ensure that the good aspects of his society aremaintained unchanged.Mnkandla, a local elder who is alleged to have negotiated the sale of his cart toMphunzo in exchange for Mphunzo's cattle, no doubt knows that it is againsttribal customs to negotiate the sale of Mphunzo's cattle before umbuyiso has beenperformed, but nontheless he negotiates with Mphunzo and makes the agreementcontrary to the laws of his society. It can only be said that in doing this Mnkandlais urged by his own personal desires. He is afraid he might be outwitted by otherswanting Mphunzo's cattle. The result is the erosion of his society's customs.Nkala wants Mandlempisi to run Mhlolo's affairs according to tradition, butsimultaneously fails to advise Luphondo and Phehlane to act in a way that ensuresthat things will be done according to custom; instead he urges them to armthemselves (p. 31). This serves only to work against the customary peacefuldetermination of heirdom: if Luphondo and Phehlane win in this way it meansthat force has won over custom. Nkala advocates this because he sees it as the only94means of bringing about confrontation between Luphondo and Mphunzo. Hewants Luphondo and Phehlane to discipline Mphunzo on his behalf. Throughoutthe play he defends the actions of Luphondo and Phehlane whenever they arebeing questioned by other elders, but without putting forward a positive plan ofhis own on how the problem should be settled. Whenever events occur as he haspredicted simply because Luphondo and Phehlane are following his advice hefeels himself a hero, without realizing how his own selfish interests are destroyinghis society.The 'falling apart' (to use Chinua Achebe's phrase) of Mhlolo's estaterepresents the collapse of the customs of the community and not merelyMandlempisi's failures Š as the elders seem to suggest when they lay the blamefor their problems on him. This they do because it is always easier to lay the blameon someone else Š which is part of the message that the writer is trying to putacross.Finally, Mandlempisi fails also in much the same way as do Lomkhono, Nkala,and even Mkhulumi. He fails by not subduing his personal interests so as to dealeffectively with a difficult situation. He fails to hide his prejudice for Luphondo'shouse. As a mediator of this difficult situation he ought to have taken a neutralposition and to have used the traditional tools at his disposal to settle the matterwhich would ensure the maintenance of the status quo. He not only fails to do thisbut also ends up murdering Mphunzo and then unintentionally boasting that thiswas what Mphunzo wanted. What clearly transpires, therefore, is that it is easy forhim to condemn his brother for his decision and Mphunzo for his behaviour, butvery difficult indeed for him himself to follow a course of action that would ensurethat the 'right thing* is done. He fails to set an example to the younger generationon how disputes are settled; and in the same way the entire community fails withhim. Machibini is. indeed, rude to her aunt, but does she deserve such brutaltreatment from her? How does this help her acquire the right attitude towards hersociety? What about the children she is going to bring up?The theme is indeed a tragic one not only because the play ends in theunexpected murder of Mphunzo Š by his uncle who was supposed to be hisprotector Š but also because the community has failed, in every respect, tomaintain the status quo. The stability and security of the community as a whole isat stake. The changed times {Khathesisekuyisilungu) that Machibini spoke of areindeed sweeping the community into an uncertain future Š a future the nature ofwhich the elders doubt and fear, but lack the wisdom to prevent. I would perhapsbe misrepresenting Sigogo if I ended the discussion of his theme on this sad note,for there is still hope for the future Š such as the interest shown by Luphondo andPhehlane in their customs and traditions. With Mphunzo dead and their ownhands unstained, they can now take the heirship of Mhlolo's estate unchallenged.Their personalities ensure for the society that they at least will uphold theinstitution of heirship.LANGUAGEIt is fitting that this article should end with an examination of Sigogo's languagebecause it contributes a great deal to making the play a success. Throughout theplay, Sigogo tries to make his characters reflect their rural background throughtheir use of language and the images that they use. Their language is usuallycharacterized by proverbs and figurative speech which is used to sum up95situations which would otherwise need lengthy descriptions. At the verybeginning of the play Luphondo refers to the conflict between him and Mphunzoin the following way:ithumha letiyanaElamila mhla ubaba engcwatshwa selibhohka.That boil which began to grow on the day ourfather was buried is now beginning to burst (p. 5).The analogy is very effective. It. makes the reader comprehend the nastmess of theconflict. Later on in the same scene Nkala sums up Mphunzo's actions as follows:UMphunzo yinja...Mphunzo is a dog...(p. 10).Again this evokes in the reader the rural images: dogs are not capable of showingthe respect that is associated with human beings and this is what Mphunzo isdoing.Phehlane, too, uses such rural expressions that help create the intendedatmosphere. When they meet Nkala at night, after realizing that Nkala is drunk,Phehlane's words help create a jovial mood which makes Nkaia feel relaxed intheir company. He asks:Lamhla inkunziIbilutshaya ngaphi uhatshi Lsulhi kangaka nje?Where did the bull find such lovely pasturestoday, since he appears to have a full stomach?(p. 1(3).The expression is not only appropriate but is typical of people well versed in theirculture. The imagery that he has used helps to place the play in its true setting andcreates an atmosphere that will be an aid to the understanding of the theme.Even when the characters inject some humour in their speech it is derived fromtheir rural background; for example, Mandlempisi compares his sister's actionswhen she takes a piece of Machibini's ear out of her pocket to taking out asnuff-box from a pocket. However, a distinction is noticeable when Mphunzocomes in: his images no longer reflect that ruralism but represent a move towardsthe changed times. When he tells his uncle that he is holding on firmly, hecompares his grip to that of a cart's spanner:Sengimhambe sasipanela senqola.I am holding on tightly like a cart's spanner (p. 19).This use of language which incorporates the proverbs and idioms and makes useof rural imagery is part of the ways of speaking of the elders of this community.When Lomkhono realizes that Luphondo and Phehlane seem not to pay heed toher warnings about Mphunzo's actions she makes the situation look graver than itis by likening Mphunzo to a ravenous jackal (p. 36) Š which makes her views ofMphunzo's actions and intentions absolutely clear.Mandlempisi, like the other elders, uses language punctuated by proverbs,which he uses very appropriately to convey a vivid picture of the situation. When96he refuses to discuss with Mphunzo whether he would agree to discuss the matterat a place other than Mphunzo's home, he uses a simple but effective expressionthat carries the intended connotations:Kangithandi ukwenza njaioNgoba angamila ilunda elikhulu...I don't want to do that, he could feel very importanL..(p. 87).Only bulls have big humps and in a traditional cattle kraal there was always onebull which was expected to assert his authority over all the other beasts in thekraal. This is what Mandlempisi is conveying here. Earlier in the play he had usedanother very powerful expression describing the seeming quietness of Luphondoand Phehlane over the impending conflict between them and Mphunzo:Ilitshe limi ngoluthi madoda...The stone is balancing on a stick, gentlemen...[i.e. the situation calls for scrutiny] (p. 48).These examples demonstrate Sigogo's sensitivity in his choice of language. Theexpressions that he uses bring out the rural atmosphere of the play through the useof rural images and rural humour. All these combine to project the theme of theplay. Thus the desire to maintain the good aspects of traditional life isincorporated both in the actions of the people and in their expressions.CONCLUSIONThus, although the play has some shortcomings it has unity and a sound themewhich opens the eyes of the reader to wealth of past experience and understandingof man -and his society. The play does not offer ready solutions but makes thereader aware of the nature of society and awakens the reader's consciousness indealing with it.University of ZimbabweT.M. NDLOVU