Zambezia (1988), XV (ii).AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYA. G. DAVISTHE CENSUS OF 1904 records that there were over 137 000 gum trees{Eucalyptus spp.) in Zimbabwe.1 In the Harare District, which at that timeincluded the Mazowe valley, there were four plantations, each of over 1 000trees; but it is almost certain that, apart from individual trees around Europeanhomesteads, none of these plantations were in the valley, as Nobbs did not refer tothe subject in his detailed description of farming there in 1910.2The Mazowe Valley is almost synonymous with the old Mazoe District, anadministrative area comprising the entire basins of a series of more or less parallelrivers, flowing in a north-easterly direction from their source to their confluencewith the Mazowe river. Commencing a few kilometres north of Harare, the valleyextends for a distance of 130 km varying in width from 16 to 35 km where itstraddles the Mazowe river. Tributaries on the left or north bank include theTatagura, Garamapudzi, Wengi, Tsambe and Mufurudzi rivers. On the right orsouth bank are the Poti and Nyagui rivers, both draining large catchments, withthe latter joined by the Umwindzi river arising close to the Harare city boundary.3The topography of this irregularly shaped area of 7 000 km2 is characterizedby blocks of granite and ranges of steep rugged hills lying between the Mazoweriver and its tributaries. These hills rise in places to 300 m or more above theadjacent valleys. The granite outcrops include Domboshawa in the south,Musorowodoni in the north-east and Kanyoto to the north in Chiweshe, all over1 500 m in altitude. The Iron Mask range extends for 50 km to the south ofBindura, and its core of banded ironstone reappears as a ridge 30 km longsouth-east of Shamva. Five peaks between 1 400 m and 1 639 m high commandspectacular views of the district, including the Mukore and Shashi hills on thenorth side of the river.41 'The Agricultural Census of 1904', Rhodesia AgriculturalJournal (1904-5), II, 154.2 E. A. Nobbs, 'Farms and farming in Rhodesia, Mazoe District', Rhodesia AgriculturalJournal (1910-11), VIII, 41-58.3 Ibid; thirteen maps covering the Mazowe valley area on a scale of 1:50 000 derived fromaerial photographs. Maps held in the Surveyor-General's Office.1631C31631C41631D31730B21730B41730D21731A1BanjiMtepatepaMount DarwinUmvukwesConcessionMount HampdenMuchirakuenda(1965)(1965)(1969)(1969)(1969)(1959)(1969)1731A21731B11731C11731C21731A31731A4Bradley InstituteBushuDomboshawaEwanriggGlendaleBindura(1963)(1969)(1970)(1970)(1970)(1970)4 Nobbs, 'Farms and farming in Rhodesia, Mazoe District'; [Southern Rhodesia], Official YearBook of Southern Rhodesia No. 4 (Salisbury, Central African Statistical Office, 1952), 750.119120 AFFORESTATION IN THE MA2OWE VALLEYThe rainfall declines from an annual average of over 900 mm in the west tounder 700 mm in the east, being associated with the fall in altitude. In contrast,temperatures, evaporation and the length of the dry season increase in the lowerreaches of the valley. There, late in the dry season, the combined effect of lowerrainfall and higher temperatures is strikingly revealed in the almost leafless trees,while specimens of the same species further up the valley are larger and haveproduced a new flush of leaves. This musasa, munondo and mufuti woodland ismore open in the lower altitudes, being partially replaced by thorn trees, and bymopane woodland below 900 m.5Evidence of early occupation'of the valley is provided by Bushman paintingsdating from the Late Stone Age. The remains of iron-smelting works in the highergranite areas and ancient mine workings point to man's continuous occupation ofthe valley during the past 2 000 years. The valley, with its good land, abundantwood, water and shelter in defensible sites, provided the most advantageous placein which to live within an extensive region of the African continent.6Photographs taken at the turn of the century show open, almost treeless,country in and around Harare, maintained deliberately or otherwise by regularannual veld fires during the dry winter months.7 Similar scenes may well havebeen typical of parts of the valley, particularly in the vicinity of vantage points andcaves where the occupants required timber for firewood, stockades androndavels, as well as grazing for their cattle, obtained by burning the veld. Thefirst occupant of Komani farm, on the rim of the valley, is reputed to have sold itowing to the absence of potable water and enough wood to boil a kettle. Incontrast, fine specimens of Brachystegia and Julbernardia were still to be seen inthe 1950s on the Mazoe Citrus Estate, and these would have been near maturityin 1900.The extent of deforestation at that time was almost certainly related to thelocal human and cattle population. Population figures were first recorded in 1901in the administrative district of South Mazowe, whose poorly defined boundarieswould appear to encompass some 300 000 ha.8 There were 25 villages, 8 847inhabitants, 425 cattle, 1 847 goats, 161 sheep, and 3 670 acres (1 845 ha) were5 J. M. Rattray, 'Vegetation types of Southern Rhodesia', Kirkia: Journal of the FederalHerbarium (1961-2), II, 68-93; J. M. Rattray and H. Wild, 'Vegetation map of the Federation ofRhodesia and Nyasaland', ibid., 94-104 (map in end cover pocket); R. C. Hannington (comp.),Mazoe Valley Agricultural Survey (Salisbury, Department] of Conservation and ExtensionPlanning Branch, 1972).6 Thirteen maps in the Surveyor-General's Office Š see fn. 3; D. Clark, 'Early man and theStone Age', in W. V. Brelsford (ed.), Handbook to the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland(Salisbury, Federal Information Dep., 1960), ch. iii, 39.7 In the National Archives of Zimbabwe, Harare.8 British South Africa Company, Government] Gazette, 20 Jan. 1899, Notice 13 of 1899para C.A. G. DAVIS 121under cultivation.9 This implies a population density of only 2,9 persons per km2.Five years earlier, before the Mashona War of Independence and the rinderpestcattle plague of 1896, both human and cattle numbers would undoubtedly havebeen larger than in 1901, with consequent demands on forest cover. The firstforest officer was not appointed until 1920, so posterity has neither a botanicalaccount nor specific evidence of the extent and density of tree cover in the valleyduring the first decade of this century.10 Indeed, his vegetation map of the countrydid not apear until 1931."Further demands on the forest cover were made with the arrival, in 1890, ofEuropean prospectors and miners with their mechanical equipment.12 Thisenabled them to re-open old African workings and commence new ones, whichdemanded ever-increasing supplies of wood, initially from the immediate vicinityof the mines and later from further afield. Felling indigenous timber, irrespective ofwho occupied the land, was permitted under the mining laws, except in theimmediate vicinity of European dwellings.13 Not even rare specimens of trees wereimmune under the Forest and Herbage Preservation Act of 1859 for the'Protection of Trees'.14A measure of the rate at which trees were cleared off the land for cultivationduring the first half of the century is the increasing acreage of crops. Africancropland increased from 5 542 acres (2 242,81 ha) in 1904,15 to 43 300 acres(17 523,26 ha) in 1924,16 to 98 394 acres (39 819,50 ha) in 1938,17 doubling to203 960 acres (82 541,48 ha) in 1946.18 On European farms the acreage rosefrom 2 180 acres (882,23 ha) in 190419to93 478 acres (37 830 ha) in 1924,2°to9 [Southern Rhodesia] Replort of the] C[hief] N[ative] C[ommissioner], Mashonaland, forthe Year Ended 31st March, 1901 (Sess. Pap. 1901), 6.10 H. Weinmann, Agricultural Research and Development in Southern Rhodesia under the Ruleof the British South Africa Company 1890-1923 (Salisbury, Univ. of Rhodesia, Dep. of Agriculture,Occasional Paper 4, 1972), 3.11J. S. Henkel, 'Types of vegetation in Southern Rhodesia', Proceedings and Transactions of theRhodesia Scientific Association (1930-1), XXX, 1-24.12 R. D. Franks, 'Jumbo Mine: A brief history', Rhodesiana (Mar. 1975), XXXII, 36-42.13 Official Year Book of Southern Rhodesia No. 4, 363.14 British South Africa Company, Gov. Gazette, 28 Aug. 1908, Notice 249 of 1908, 'Protectionof Trees'. There was a fine not exceeding £100 under the Forest and Herbage Preservation Act of1859 for cutting down the 'Wild Westena', m'pakwa or m'poea, Bolusanthus speciosus, except forbona fide farming, mining or manufacturing purposes, Rhodesia AgriculturalJournal (1909-10).VII, 998.15 Rep. C. N. C, Mashonaland, for the Year Ended 31st March 1904 (Sess. Pap. A. 17,1904), 7." Rep. C. N. C. [for the Year] 1924 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 7, 1925), 12."Rep. C.N. C. and Secretary for] Native Aff[air]s 1938 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 20, 1939), 12.l*Rep. Seer. NativeAffs, C. N. C, andDir[ectorof]NativeDev[elopment] 1946(Sess. Pap.C.S.R. 48, 1947), 51.19 'The Agricultural Census of 1904', 154.20 A. B. Bell, 'Statistics of crops grown by Europeans in Southern Rhodesia for the season1923-4', Rhodesia Agricultural Journal (1925), XXII, 11 -22.122 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEY133 933 acres (54 201,94 ha) in 1949.21 The last figure did not include fallowland, probably at least twenty per cent of the cleared land, and neither did theŁ1946 figure for African lands. Thus by mid-century the total area of cleared landwas about 361 000 acres (146 094,69 ha). In addition, as shown in the first aerialphotographs taken in the early 1950s, large areas had been cut over for firewood,and to make way for huts and stockades and the activities of the mines.22Gum trees provided a good alternative to the indigenous timber with theirmore rapid growth, versatility and durability. Although their growth rate iscurtailed at altitudes below 1 200 m with less than 76,2 cm of rainfall,23 large oldtrees were to be seen in the valley in the 1950s in the vicinity of Europeanhomesteads. They would have been planted before 1914 when rectangular brickhouses were being built in place of rondavels, and gardens enhanced with theplanting of exotic trees for aesthetic purposes. The planting of gums in the valleyto provide local sources of timber for building and firewood was carried out byboth European farmers and Native Commissioners. Little is known about theearly progress achieved by the former but the reports about plantings in theReserves written by the Native Commissioners themselves and by forestry officersgive detailed information upon which this article is based.24The Reserves, subsequently named Tribal Trust Lands and later CommunalLands, of which there were five in Mazowe, totalled 207 200 ha or approximatelytwo-sevenths of the valley area. There is considerable variation in altitude,topography, soil types, rainfall, temperature, evaporation and vegetation bothwithin and between these lands.25 In the absence of man, all would have carried arelatively dense cover of woodland. The first recorded area to be planted byNative Commissioners on behalf of the government, and enlarged at irregularintervals, was in southern Chiweshe near the Rosa Mine. Reporting in 1931 theNative Commissioner, Mazoe, wrote that 'progress has been made in affore-station schemes and owing to the shortage of timber the result should be muchappreciated by the Africans in Chiweshe in the course of time'.26 In 1932 he wrote21 Southern Rhodesia, Fourth Rep. on the Agricultural and Pastoral Production of EuropeanFarmers 1949-50 (Salisbury, Central African Statistical Office, 1951), 56, Table III.22 Aerial photographs from 1951 onwards, in the Surveyor-General's Office, Harare.23 Southern Rhodesia, The Dev. of the Economic Resources of Southern Rhodesia withParticular Reference to the Role of African Agriculture: Rep. of the Advisory Committee, JohnPhillips, John Hammond, L H. Samuels andR. J. M. Swynnerton (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 28,1962), 287.24 Nat[iona]l Archives, Zimbabwe, Harare], SI563 [Chief Native Commissioner, ReportsChief Native Commissioners and Native Commissioners, Annual Reports 1934-48], N. C., MazoeAnn. Rep., 1934; Ann. Rep., 1942; Ann. Rep., 1947.25 The Agricultural Development Authority, Agro-Economic Survey of the Mazoe Area(Salisbury, Gov. Printer, 1976), Maps of the Reserves (scale 1: 250 000), showing altitude, geology,rainfall, evaporation and dominant vegetation; for population see p. 109, Table 39.» Rep. C. N. C. 1931 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 7, 1932), 5.A. G. DAVIS 123that 'during February some additional four acres (1,61 ha) were planted toEucalyptus'.27 The Native Commissioner was probably prompted to commencethis tree planting by the agriculturist E. D. Alvord who joined the Department ofNative Affairs in 1927 and subsequently placed a demonstrator, Paulos by name,in Chiweshe, in 1933.28In 1934 there were 31 acres (12,54 ha) of eucalyptus and a further 4 acres(1,61 ha) were planted with 5 100 trees that year, making a total of 29 764trees.29 These figures imply a careful recording of a population of 1 275 trees peracre in the four-acre addition and 795 trees per acre in the older stand. Subsequentexperience in the 1970s showed that this density of planting was excessive. On theHenderson Research Station, also in the valley, a population of 646 trees per acre(1 600 trees per ha at a spacing of 2,5 m) produced fine stands of timber undergood management.30There was good rain for crop growth in 1931/2,31 followed by very poorrainfall in 1932/3,32 and drought towards the end of the 1934/5 season,33 and so,presumably, there were casualties among the new plantings as well as among theolder ones. It is not clear from the records whether it was the NativeCommissioner, Mazoe, or Alvord who persevered, planting a further 15 000trees during the 1936/7 season, of which C. Bullock, the Chief NativeCommissioner, doubted 'if more than 5 000 survived'. Nevertheless, furtherpatches of land were prepared and holes dug for many thousands of seedlingswaiting for favourable weather when they could be planted. The work had beenmade possible with part of a grant of £5 880 from the African Trust Fund, ofwhich Bullock was the Chairman, and he was confident that the money was wellspent.34 If further plantings took place between 1937 and 1939 they were notrecorded, and there is no information for 1940. Nevertheless, the surviving treesfrom earlier plantings continued to grow. In 1941 J. S. Wilkins, the Forestry27 Rep. C. N. C. 1932 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 9,1933), 7. Incidentally, the Native Commissioner, ona visit to the Salvation Army Mission in Chiweshe, noted that 'specimens of native carpentry wouldbe no disgrace to any European tradesmen', but unfortunately he did not record the type of woodbeing used, ibid., 9.» Rep. C. N. C. 1927 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 18, 1928), 19, 20.» Natl Arch., SI563, N. C, Mazoe, Ann. Rep., 1934, 6.30 R. E. Evans, 'The management of eucalypt plantations on Henderson Research Station'Zimbabwe Agricultural Journal(1982), LXXIX, 205-10.31 Southern Rhodesia, Ann. Rep. of the Maize Control Board for the Financial Year 1932/33(Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 22, 1934), 1.» Rep. C. N. C. 1933 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 9, 1934), 8.33 Rep. C. N. C. 1935 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 7, 1936), 1.34 Southern Rhodesia, The Native Reserves Trust Ann. Rep. for the Year Ending 31 March1937, 4.124 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYOfficer, reported that 317 poles were sold to Africans for the sum of £7 4s. 3d, andhe 'understood that tree planting was undertaken during the past rainy season in...Chiweshe'.35The details of two reports on Chiweshe in 1942 describing the removal ofindigenous timber and the planting of gum trees merit quotation:This Reserve was last visited in 1938, since when centralisation has been carried out, and inthe Southern portion kraals have moved to permanent sites. The stocking of indigenoustimber on the Southern portion of this Reserve is poor and there appears to be a slightshortage of timber to meet the fuel and timber requirements of the population. Plantationsof Eucalypts established in the past have been cut over and the timber used for buildingpurposes. Further afforestation is necessary and is being carried out in this portion of theReserve. In the Northern portion... which is hilly, the stocking of indigenous timber on thehills is good, but much timber is being removed from the areas of more level ground forcultivation... In... [Chiweshe] about five and a half acres [2,22 ha] were planted during the1941/42 rainy season and an average stocking of about 50 per cent was attained. Total areaof plantations in this District is now about 70 acres [28, 32 ha]... [and] 878 poles [werebought by] Natives [for] £17 &s. 9rf.36The Native Commissioner, Mazoe, also wrote at length:Afforestation has continued during the year but the results were not as good as theprevious year. There are many thousands of gum trees in Chiweshe ready for cutting. Thenew plantations put down in 1941 show an excellent stand. In the year under review9 000 young trees were planted out in plantations and 2 084 were given to individuals.When aligning new villages, a strip is left for tree planting and it is hoped to have belts oftrees in each village. At the present time I have a total of 50 acres [20,23 ha] in variousplantations, but of those planted last year 4 acres [1,61 ha] were a complete failure owingto a drought at the critical time. In the coming year I am replanting these 4 acres, puttingdown a new plantation of 2 acres [0,8 ha] and filling up gaps in eight other acres [3,23 ha]put down in the past two years, and for this purpose I have already pricked out 10 000seedlings into clay pots made in November. Many of these will also be given to individualswho want them. During the year 751 poles have been sold at a nominal price of threepence for a 4 inch [101 mm] butt, and six pence for a pole of over 4 inches to Natives forroofing poles, which is almost twice as many as last year.37The Native Commissioner, Mazoe, added, 'Hitherto most of the work inconnection with reforestation has been done by the Demonstrators, but I havenow been promised a trained Native forester and an urge forward is anticipated'.38If Paulos was still in charge of the work in 1942, he deserved further35 'Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1941', in Reps. Seer. Native Affsand C. N. C. 1941, 1942. 1943. 1944 and 1945 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 10, 1947), 46. J36 'Rep. Sccr. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1942', in ibid., 98, 103, 105.37 Natl Arch., SI563, N. C, Mazoe, Ann. Rep., 1942, 7-8.38 Ibid.A. G. DAVIS 125commendation, for in addition to planting trees he would have been involved inAlvord's agricultural and community demonstration work which commenced in1933.39The whereabouts of the 20 acres (8,1 ha) previously unaccounted for wentunrecorded in 1942. Nor may we postulate the likely place, because otherReserves in the district were 'well wooded', as in Bushu,40 or planting was notadvocated by the Forestry Officer, as was the case in Masembura.41 This seemssurprising because two nurseries had been started from which trees were to bedistributed throughout the Reserves.42A trained African Forest Ranger was stationed in Chiweshe in 1943, and severalvisits were made by Wilkins to inspect the work and 'guide further development';this included a new two-acre (0,8 ha) plantation, replanting in old ones, preparing30 acres (12,14 ha) for additional planting and the distribution of seedlings in theReserve; in 1943, revenue from the sale of 1 332 poles was £37 Is. 9d(approximately 6d per pole).43The advice given to the Assistant Native Commissioner for Bindura in 1942was apparently shortly afterwards overruled, for in the following year a 'largenumber of Eucalypt seedlings were distributed' in Masembura. These, pre-sumably, had been raised in the previous year in the two new nurseries referred toearlier. Also in 1943,20 acres (8,09 ha) of ground in various parts of the Reservehad been prepared and were ready for planting.44The progress of afforestation in the valley during the years 1944 to 1946 wentunrecorded in the Chief Native Commissioner's reports, nor is there anyinformation about it in the National Archives. The 1946/7 season was, accordingto E. H. Beck, the Chief Native Commissioner, 'probably one of the worstdrought years',45 and it is, therefore, the more interesting to note progress in hisreport and in that of the Native Commissioner, Mazoe. Although it was a 'badyear for tree planting', improved planting was achieved by employing a fewfull-time labourers. There was a need to fence the plantations which were beingdamaged by stock, but material was not available for the purpose. Demand forgum poles exceeded supply so it was fortunate that regrowth was good afterfelling.4639 Rep. C. N. C. 1933. 15.40 Natl Arch., S1563 N. C, Mazoe. Ann. Rep.. 1942, 2.41 Ibid., 4.42 Ibid.43 'Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1943', in Reps. Seer. Native Affs andC. N. C. 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944 and 1945, 150, 157."Ibid., 154.45 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C, andDir. Native Dev. 1947(Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 20, 1948), 70.« Natl Arch., SI563, N. C, Mazoe, Ann. Rep., 1947, 5.126 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYIt is not clear who actually supervised the afforestation programme duringthese years, as Wilkins only made visits for inspection. The Native Commissionerwas in the area all the time with a Forest Ranger. Alvord, however, had a total often staff in the district administering his resettlement scheme, as well as cropdemonstration plots, livestock improvement, soil conservation and forestry (withits one demonstrator).47 Possibly the Forest Ranger and Forest Demonstratorwere one and the same person. Be that as it may, it was a creditableaccomplishment to have twenty plantations on 106 acres (42,89 ha), augmentedby four new ones on 18 acres (17,28 ha) established in 1947, together withnursery beds of gums and conifers for planting in 1948. Only 800 trees were felledfor poles in 1947.48The report of the Assistant Native Commissioner for Bindura in 1947 isparticularly informative. He estimated 'that 300 well-grown trees were requiredin the construction of a pole and dagga living hut'. By using sun-dried bricksinstead of poles in the building of 1 135 new huts during the previous five years hecalculated that 340 700 well-grown trees had been saved 'to the greateradvantage of timber resources in the Reserve'. That year only two acres (0,8 ha)had been planted with gum seedlings which were an 'utter failure', owing to'adverse climatic conditions', one acre having been replanted three times, but hewas hopeful that 'future efforts will be more successful'.49 Also in 1947 the newConservator of Forests, A. A. Pardy, on visiting the whole district, noted thatdrought, lack of fencing and termites were the main drawbacks to establishinggood stands. Surprisingly, this was the first occasion in the reports in whichreference was made to termites, which severely attack seedling gums in the loweraltitudes.50By the end of the 1947/8 season there were twenty-eight established gumplantations in Chiweshe covering 126 acres (50,99 ha), their exact whereaboutshaving gone unrecorded. The 2,5 acres (1,01 ha) of conifers was not increasedbecause the Forestry Officer considered that eucalypts were by far the mostsuitable timber for Reserves. Seedlings had been pricked out in pots for planting afurther ten acres (4,04 ha) in the following year.51 It was also a busy year for treefelling with a record output of 1 635 poles.52 In Masembura there were only tenacres (4,04 ha) of established plantations altogether, all showing a poor stand. A"Rep. Seer. NativeAffs, C. N. C, andDir. Native Affs 1947, 73.48 Ibid., 70.49 Natl Arch., SI563, Assistant N. C, Bindura, Ann. Rep., 1947, 3-5.50 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1947, 47.51 Natl Arch., S1563, N. C, Mazoe, Ann. Rep., 1948, 7-8.52 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1948 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 27, 1949), 93A. G. DAVIS127further five acres (2,02 ha) had been ploughed, fenced and prepared for plantinggum seedlings which had been pricked out in pots for the purpose.53 In BushuReserve no afforestation work had been undertaken.54Seven years later, in 1955, the total area of government plantations in thevalley had increased to 201,5 acres (81,54 ha). This included the establishment ofnew plantations in Msana, Bushu and Madziwa. One Forestry Demonstratorcontinued to serve the whole of the 194 acres (78,5) in Chiweshe, so it must bepresumed that there was at least one other person to take care of the trees inMasembura and adjacent Msana and another in the Bushu and MadziwaReserves. In Chiweshe the forestry area included eight acres (3,23 ha) of coniferswhich were a species of pine. An additional 41 acres (16,59 ha) of gums werebeing planted in 1956, making a total of 227 acres (91,86 ha).55Apparently this additional area of gums was not a success, for the plantationwas only 186,3 acres (75,39 ha) in March 1957 when A. J. Barry, the ForestryOfficer, provided the details in his three-page report presented to the AssessmentCommittee appointed under the Native Land Husbandry Act of 1951.56 Asshown in Table I there were five sites, with by far the largest one at Rosa of 143,7acres (58,15 ha), including all the conifers; the other sites were widely distributed.Table IPLANTATIONS IN CHIWESHE IN MARCH 1957SiteBariKanyembaManumanuRosaRuiaShopoTOTALEucalyptusAcres5,64,819,1136,018,42,4186,3(ha)(2,26)(1,94)(7,72)(55,03)(7,44)(0,97)(75,36)ConifersAcresŠŠ7,7ŠŠ7,7(ha)ŠŠ(3,11)ŠŠ(3,11)Position in ChiwesheFar northFar south-eastNot shown on mapsSouth-centralNot shown on mapsCentre east53 Natl Arch., SI563, N. C, Mazoe, Ann. Rep., 1948, 7-8.» Ibid.55 'Ann. Rep. Forestry in Native Reserves... 1956', in Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. andDir.Native Dev. 1956 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 25, 1957), 114.56 A. J. Barry, 'Chiweshe Forestry Report' [Addendum to] 'Minutes to Meeting of AssessmentCommittee, Appointed by the Minister in Terms of Section 4 of the Native Land Husbandry Act forChiweshe Reserve in the Mazoe District', Sept. 1957. Note 35,3 cubic feet = 1 cubic metre.128 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYIn contrast, an undated map of this period shows six plantations, all in thesouthern portion of Chiweshe, including one on the Howard Mission land.57Barry, however, failed to inspect all the plantation sites, but those that he did were'doing well'. The Rosa plantation was subdivided into twenty-one different areas,and the species of gums were rather mixed, the seed having been collected locally.The conifers had not been pruned or thinned, and in some instances had doubleleaders. The growth of the trees was poor and the state of the plantation neglectedwhen seen by the writer in March 1961. Obviously no fertilizer was being usedand there was continued damage by cattle. This reflected indifferent managementand care, although there had been a run of good seasons.Barry provided figures showing the requirements for firewood by the localpopulation and the production of timber in Chiweshe (Table II).Table IIFIREWOOD REQUIREMENTS AND THE PRODUCTIONOF TIMBER IN CHIWESHE (1957)Population 6 380 familiesConsumption of firewood per family 400 cubic feetTotal consumption per annum 2 552 000 cubic feetEstimated indigenous timber area 80 000 acres (32,37 ha)Annual increment of timber 8 cubic feet per acreEstimated annual volume available 640 000 cubic feet per acreAnnual deficiency of indigenous timber 1912 000 cubic feet per acreThe existing gum plantations could beexpected to yield 35 390 cubic feet per acreSource: Barry, 'Chiweshe Forestry Report'.The shortage of timber was serious, the more so as firewood was also beingcarried back to Harare by men who had been visiting their families at theweekend, although Barry failed to mentioned this fact. He noted that the southernsection of Chiweshe was 'sparsely timbered' and the northern part was 'welltimbered'; nevertheless he advised that the plantations should be extended in thelatter. Chiweshe was not considered suitable for large-scale afforestation. Hesuggested small plantations for each village or group of villages, thereby providinglocal firewood, and that schools should be encouraged to establish plantations5857 Map of Chiweshe, undated, no name of publisher, obtained from the Native Commission. \Office, Concession, in 1962.58 Barry, 'Chiweshe Forest Report".A. G. DAVIS 129Subsequently, in the late 1970s, on Henderson Research Station Š which isalso in the valley, and has a similar total, although less erratic, rainfall to ChiwesheŠ good management of gum trees clearly demonstrated how a small area couldprovide for the needs of a large population. This scheme was based upon carefulrecording of production and consumption of wood over a five-year period. There,with a spacing of 2,5 m per tree, regularly fertilized and cut over on a rotation ofseven to ten years, two trees, 12 m tall, provided for the annual needs for poles andfirewood for one person.59 Assuming five persons per family, the requirements ofthe population of Chiweshe in 1957 could have been met from a 43 ha plantation.Even allowing for casualties and fireguards, this figure was less than the 75 ha inexistence in 1957.In Bushu Reserve, afforestation commenced in 1953 after centralization. TheReserve was well timbered, particularly in the southern portion, but much of itwas regrowth, and many of the trees were small in diameter. In 1955 theAssessment Committee noted that this indigenous timber 'should meet the localrequirements for some time to come'. There were seven acres (2,83 ha) of gums,half Eucalyptus rostrata on sand veld near Chidanyika kraal, which within twoyears had 'done exceedingly well'. The balance of E. salinga had, 'apart from asmall percentage of losses, due to white ants, also done well'. A further five acres(2,02 ha) of E. salinga were planted in 1954 when a member of the newly formedForestry Commission visited Bushu. He estimated that the indigenous timberresource was 135 000 cords, based upon five cords per acre in the grazing areaand one in the arable area. This implied that the arable areas were not clear-felledat the time. In 1955 more trees were planted in the vicinity of the communitycentre, with a very suitable site close-by for a nursery, being near the Mukonikonidam. In addition to gums, small areas had been planted with Callitris calcarat,beefwood and jacaranda by way of an experiment. Willow trees had also beenplanted close to several dams, and although they started well, the results weredisappointing. A further increase in the area of gums, recommended by the ForestryOfficer, would, if achieved, have raised the total area to 62 acres (25,09 ha).60However, after 1956, when the area was only 7,5 acres (3,03 ha),61 there areno further references to afforestation projects in the Chief Native Commissioner'sreports for Bushu, although those in Madziwa, in the same district, were59 Evans. "The management of eucalypt plantations on Henderson Research Station'.60 'Native Land Husbandry Act: Assessment Committee Report on Bushu Reserve: ShamvaSub-District 22 July 1955", 2. and [Addendum] 'Report on Bushu Reserve: Shamva Sub-District'. 9,"1,12. A cord is a unit volume of wood measuring 8 ft. long. 4 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep containing 128cu. ft. (3 625m)."' Rep. Seer. Native Affs. ( X. C. und Dir. Native Der. 1956. 114.130 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYrecorded.62 Nor are the plantations to be seen on the maps of that period.Incidentally, some 200 fruit trees were established in a protected area whereerosion was severe. They included mango, pawpaw, banana, guava, avocadopear, mulberry and citrus. Also, bananas were planted below the walls of earthdams where they were well established.63The year when afforestation was begun in Madziwa Reserve is not known,but it was probably in the early 1950s, because it was well timbered even in1957.64 Demonstration centres for crops had been established by Alvord in1933.65 followed by centralization in about 1950.66 The estimated populationdensity was only 42 persons per square mile (16,2 per km2) in the mid-1950s,compared with 101 persons per square mile (39,0 per km2) in Chiweshe and 82persons per square mile (31,2 per km2) in Bushu.67 In Madziwa in 1956 therewere only 15 acres (6,07 ha) of planted trees, an area which was marginallyincreased to 17 acres (6,87 ha) through to 1959.68 Subsequent Chief NativeCommissioners' reports show no increase in area,69 nor, as with Bushu, are theplantations shown on the 1:50 000 scale maps of the Surveyor-General.According to the Minutes of the Assessment Committee in 1957 the plantingswere in more than one unit, so possibly they were too small to be shown on thesemaps.70 The apparent abundance of indigenous trees led the Forestry Officer tobelieve that there was sufficient for the needs of the inhabitants and not torecommend areas for reservation. On both points the Committee agreed. Withina decade, however, when seen by the writer, much of the Reserve was almosttreeless.The year in which afforestation commenced in Msana Reserve, adjacent to62 'Minutes of Meeting of Assessment Committee, Appointed by the Minister in terms ofSection 4 of the Native Land Husbandry Act, for Madziwa Reserve in the Shamva District' 11 Anr1957,3. Ł P Ł63 'Native Land Husbandry Act: Assessment Committee Report on Bushu Reserve ShamvaSub-District', 22 July 1955.64 'Minutes of Meeting of Assessment Committee ... for Madziwa Reserve in the ShamvaDistrict', 11 Apr. 1957,3."Rep. C.N. C. 1933, 15.66 'Minutes of Meeting of Assessment Committee ... for Madziwa Reserve in the ShamvaDistrict', 11 Apr. 1957, 3.67 Population Estimates in Reports of Assessment Committee for Chiweshe (see fn. 56), Bushu(see fn. 60), and Madziwa (see fn. 62).68 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1956, 113-14; Rep Seer NativeAffs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1957 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 11, 1958), 64; Rep. Seer NativeAffs and C. N. C. 1958 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 25, 1959), 88; Rep. Seer. Native Affs andC N r1959 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 18, 1960), 99, 105. ' '69 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1960 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 28, 1961), 83- Reo WrNative Affs and C. N. C. 1961 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R. 28, 1962), 79, 91, 92.70 'Minutes of Meeting of Assessment Committee ... for Madziwa Reserve in the ShamvaDistrict', 11 Apr. 1957, 3. aA.G.DAVIS 131Masembura in the upper reaches of the Valley, is not known. Pardy visited it in1947 and commented upon the adverse conditions affecting the establishment oftrees.71 The poles which were subsequently sold in 1959 were probably from treesplanted in the mid-1940s.72 In 1955 the officially-recorded area was 66 acres(26,7 ha)73 but Barry, on visiting the Reserve in 1956, found approximately 64acres (25,89 ha) distributed as follows:Acres (ha)Damusi 10 (4,04)Nora 4 (1,62)Nyava 30 (12,14)Umvenzi 20 (8,09)The gums were mainly R saligna, the remainder being hybrids of this species.According to Barry, the Reserve was well timbered except in the Mpandirasection, where he, together with the Land Development Officer, recommendedthe planting of ten acres (4,04 ha), which four months later was approved by theAssessment Committee.74Barry calculated that the area of indigenous timber with its annual incrementof eight cu. ft. per acre, could just meet the requirements of the population in1956, consuming 300 cu. ft. per family.75 This figure of 300 cu. ft. (8,49m3)compared with 400 cu. ft. (11,3 m3) in Chiweshe a year later, shows that he hadunderestimated the family's needs for wood.76 Consumption was exceedingproduction and the indigenous forests in the Reserve were beginning to bedestroyed. The main Shamva-Harare road passes the eastern boundary of Msana,and gives ready access for men on weekend visits to their families to take firewoodback to Harare, and this increased the felling of trees. Therefore, although thepopulation in Msana was greater than in Bushu and less than in Chiweshe, being76 persons per square mile (29 persons per km3), there was an ever-increasingdemand for firewood, gathering momentum with the availability of transport interms of bicycles, cars and even lorries.77 In 1960, men came to buy the fruit of the71 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1947, 47-8, 70.72 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. 1959, 105.73 Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1956, 113-14.74 Barry, 'Forestry Report: Msana Native Reserve' [Addendum to] 'Minutes of Meeting ofAssessment Committee, Appointed by the Minister in Terms of Section 4 of the Native LandHusbandry Act for Msana Reserve in the Goromonzi District', 10 Nov. 1956.75 Ibid.76 Barry, 'Chiweshe Forestry Report'.77 Barry, 'Forestry Report: Msana Native Reserve'.132 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYParinaria curatellifolia (muhacha or mobolo plum) at Is. 6d. per bucket andundoubtedly collected some firewood at the same time.78The plantations were not fenced in 1956,79 and were increased to 70 acres(28,32 ha) in 1959.80 A further 6,9 acres (2,79 ha) were planted, increasing thearea to 76,9 acres (31,12 ha) in I960,81 at which it remained through to 1962.82During 1961 the ground between the trees was cleaned and 274 poles were sold.83Six years later only one plantation, near Nyawa Township in Msana, in shown onthe Surveyor-General's map (1731C2) which is dated 1970 and is based uponaerial photographs taken in 1967.In Masembura, to which reference has already been made, plantations wereincreased to 34 acres (13,75 ha) of gums by 1955.84 The area was raised to 40,8acres (16,51 ha) in 1957,85 and to 47,8 acres (19,34 ha) in 1959,86 including 2,9acres (1,17 ha) of softwood conifers in 1958.87 Also in 1958, 40 oz. (1,13 kg) ofhardwood seed (i.e. gums) and 10 oz. (283 g) of softwood seed were sown in thenursery, the 2,9 acres (1,17 ha) of maiden plantation were clean-weeded andthree acres (1,21 ha) of ground were stumped and ploughed for planting.88 Afurther four acres (1,61 ha) of trees were planted in 1960, and 12 oz. (340 g) ofsoftwood seed was sown into the nursery.89 In 1961 more hardwood andsoftwood seed was sown in the nursery, which contained 4 420 seedlings ofwhich 1 234 were pricked out, presumably into small pots.90 Normalmaintenance of existing plantations continued, while in the following year onepine plantation was completely destroyed by fire, thereby reducing the afforestedarea to 48,3 acres (19,54 ha).91 Four of the plantations appear on the Surveyor-General's map (1731A4), which was published in 1970, being based upon aerialphotographs taken in 1966.In the Chief Native Commissioner's reports the figures for the production ofpoles from Masembura and Msana were grouped together. In 1958, 111 poles78 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. I960, 83.79 Barry, 'Forestry Report: Msana Native Reserve'.80 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1959, 99.81 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1960, 83.82 Rep. Seer. Inlern[a[\ Affs and C. N. C. 1962 (Sess. Pap. C.S.R 27. 1963), 21, 86.83 Rep. Seei84 Rep. See,85 Rep. See,86 Rep. Sec87 Rep. Sec,Native Affs and C. N C. 1961, 92.'. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1956. I 13 14.'. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1957. 64.Ł. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1959, 99.-. Native Affs and C. N C. 1958, 81.88 Ibid.. 83-4.89 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. I960, 83.90 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1961. 79.91 Rep. Seer. Intern. Affs and C. N. C. 1962. 21.A. G. DAVIS 133comprising approximately 200 cu. ft. (5,66 m3) were sold, and in 1959, 1 057poles realized £79 5s. 6d92 In 1960, 416 poles sold for £31 5s.,93 while in thefollowing year 330 poles from Masembura plus 274 poles from Msana brought in£21 16s. 6d94In Chiweshe, where Barry had recorded only 186,3 acres (75,39 ha) of gumsin March 1957,95 the Chief Native Commissioner reported a much higher figureof 235 acres (95,10 ha) plus 52 acres (21,04 ha) of new plantings in that year.96 Bythe end of 1959, however, the total area, including 7,7 acres (3,11 ha) of conifers,had fallen to 216,2 acres (87,49 ha).97 The sales of poles in the years 1959-61 areshown in Table III. The marked difference in price suggests that large poles weresold in 1960. The 4 254 poles sold in 1961 were further quantified as 2,986 cu. ft.(84,55 m3), or just under 23 cords.98195919601961SALENumber3 4502 1384 254Table IIIOF POLES 1959-1961Amount£133 is. Sd.£153 19s. 3d.£164 4s. 4d.Pence per pole9,2817,289,26Source: Rep. Seer. Native Affs, 1959, l()5;Rep. Seer. Native Ajjs, I960, Hi, Rep. Seer. NativeAffs. 1961, 92.During that year the area remained at 216,2 acres (87,49 ha), while twelve acres(4,85 ha) of gums were clear felled, being ten years old, and three acres (1,21 ha)were coppiced, restricting two stems to each stump; also the nursery issued 2 120gum and 1 037 Callitris seedlings to farmers.99 There was no planting in 1962.The Surveyor-General's maps of Chiweshe in the 1960s (1730B2, 1731A1)printed in 1969 (compiled by stereoplotter from aerial photographs taken in1966) show three plantations: Rosa, Chenema and Howard. Rosa was the oldestand largest government plantation in the valley, situated on the north bank of the92 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. V. C. 1958. 88.93 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1960. 83.94 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N C. 1961. 92.95 Barry, Chiweshe Forest Report".96 Rep. Seer. Native Affs. C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1957. 64.97 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1959. 99.98 Rep. Seer. Native Affs and C. N. C. 1961. 92.99 Ibid.. 79.91.134 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYMutorandundu river, north of Rosa township. It is not known when the treessouth-east of Chenema were planted. Gums at the Howard Institute would havebeen planted by the Salvation Army whose records in London have beendestroyed.DISCUSSIONAt the end of the short period of three decades government plantations in theReserves in the Valley were as shown in Table IV. Only in three Reserves,Table IVGOVERNMENT PLANTATIONS IN THE MAZOWE VALLEY (1970)Acres {ha)(3,03)(87,49)(6,87)(19,54)(31,12)BushuChiwesheMadziwaMasemburaMsana7,5216,217,048,376,9TOTAL 365,9 (148,05)Chiweshe, Masembura, and Msana, were the plantations large enough in area tobe readily observed on the aerial photographs transcribed on to maps at a scale of1:50 000. Clearly, government afforestation in the Reserves was not a success;indeed it was all but a failure.There would appear to be a number of reasons for this near failure. First andforemost, afforestation in the Reserves in the Mazowe valley commenced shortlyafter the onset of the Great Depression, when funds for development weredrastically curtailed. Severe restrictions continued through the period of theSecond World War (1939-45), so that it was only in the late 1940s that intensiveexpansion could take place.During the initial period the African population was also preoccupied withthe restrictions of the Maize Control Act, the fall in commodity prices and witheven having to barter their crops for goods instead of selling them for cash. Theseevents did not endear the people to the other activities of government. Destructionof its trees appears not to have taken place in so far as the subject did not surface inofficial reports. Trees planted in 1941 around the new villages erected underAlvord's centralization plan could readily be tended and protected by theA. G. DAVIS 135headmen, who were possibly encouraged to do so by his (Alvord's) staff.100 Thiswould appear to have been the case in Rosa Township in Chiweshe, where thepresence of large gums is shown on the map (1731A1) based upon aerialphotographs taken in 1966.The views of chiefs and headmen about planting exotic trees in their Reserveswent unrecorded in official reports until 1955. Then they were reported asconcurring with the opinion expressed by members of the administration. At thesame time there was mounting opposition to the application of the LandHusbandry Act, which restricted the chiefs' power, so that planting trees was aminor matter and accordingly they gave their approval.In terms of husbandry, soils at all the sites were inherently infertile and,therefore, seedling trees should have received an application of fertilizer. This wasnot done because research had not preceded or accompanied planting in the field.Artificial fertilizers, moreover, were relatively expensive and were not appliedeven to cash crops until the 1950s, and then only by some Master Farmers.101Enclosing the plantings with fencing to keep out the cattle and goats was not done,again owing to expense, until late in the period when it was seen only around theRosa site in Chiweshe. It can be inferred from Barry's comments in 1957 thatselected seed was not used. Elimination of white ants was never possible in theabsence of a cheap and reliable insecticide; nests, however, could have been dugout in and around the plantations. All this indicates the scarcity of funds and theabsence of good management.On the administrative side, the Native Commissioner, Mazoe, and the ChiefNative Commissioner appeared to be unaware of the possible services of Dr J. S.Henkel and his forestry department which had a nursery and sivicultureexperiment station in Harare dating from 1912.102 Pardy, Henkel's successor, firstappeared in the reports for 1947. The Native Affairs Department, however, was alaw unto itself and could look to its own staff, led by Alvord, for advice. Hedemonstrated the value of the use of kraal manure with crops but this was notavailable for planting trees. If Alvord had used artificial fertilizer experimentally,he would have recorded the fact, for he was not a man to hide his light under abushel. Later, in the early 1950s, it may have been used, but certainly not outsidethe nurseries. It is unlikely that Alvord and Pardy were unaware of theimportance of using selected seed in the nurseries during the period when varieties100 'Rep. Seer. Native Affs, C. N. C. and Dir. Native Dev. 1941', in Reps. Seer. Native AffsandC. N. C. 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944 and 1945, 35.101 P. Hamilton, 'Population pressure and land use in Chiweshe reserve', Human Problems inCentral Africa: Rhodes-Livingstone Journal (Dec. 1964), XXXVI, 55.102 Weinmann, Agricultural Research and Development in Southern Rhodesia under the Rule ofthe British South Africa Company, 3.136 AFFORESTATION IN THE MAZOWE VALLEYof tobacco, cotton, maize and wheat were the subject of research andexperimental use in agriculture.103Finally, it is important to point out that in the early days all concerned werepioneers in planting exotic trees in the Reserves. It is to their credit that trees wereplanted.PostscriptThe writer held the view that every farm should possess a small plantation fromwhich poles and firewood could be drawn. Accordingly, he obtained the adviceof the Forestry Commission when developing the University College Farm,which was situated above the Mazowe dam, during the period 1956 to 1971.104Selected seedlings of Eucalyptus and Callitris were planted. The latter onsandveld were a failure. The former on poor Tatagura soils were a success underthe care of Philemon Jambeya. By 1979 many trees exceeded 10-11 m in height.Abandonment of the farm by the University prevented the collection of data onyields.103 H. Weinmann, Agricultural Research and Development in Southern Rhodesia 1924 1950(Salisbury, Univ. of Rhodesia, Science Occasional Paper 2. 1975). 19. 51. 63. 85.m A. G. Davis, The University College Farm in the Agriculture of Rhodesia andNyasaland-.AnInaugural Lecture Given in the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (London OxfordUniv. Press, 1966).