Tradition, and Innovation in Shona LiteratureCHAKAIPA'S KARIKOGA GUMIREMISEVEG. P. KahariDepartment of African Languages, University of Rhodesia, Salisbury,Patrick Chakaipa's first novel, KarikogaGumiremiseve, was published in 1958,1 twenty-six years after his birth in Guvamornbe, a villagein the Mhondoro Tribal Trust Land. Like mostAfrican youths, he spent his early years lookingafter the family's livestock. First he lookedafter goats and sheep and kept close to thefemale world: this was a time for folk tales andriddles. Then later he looked after cattle andwent with his father and other adult membersof the community on hunting expeditions; thiswas a time for historical legends and proverbs.The first period is one of fantasy and the secondis the period of reality; or, in other words, oneis the period of the world of animals and ofmake-believe, and the other is the period ofreal human beings, their struggle for existenceand their aspirations.Karikoga Gumiremiseve stems directly fromboth worlds, the world of fantasy and the worldof reality, and thus is a synthesis of romance a.ndreality. We cannot understand or appreciate thisnovel unless we go back to the study of the folktale {runqano; pi. ngano), for Chakaipa's workis clearly based upon one of the many stories inZezuru folk-lore, which is called 'Karikoga':Once upon a time a child was born and hismother died soon after giving birth. On hear-ing about the death of his wife the fatherdied of shock thus leaving the newly bornbaby without parents. These unfortunatecircumstances earned him the name Karikoga,because he was the only child of his deadparents.2 No relations volunteered to foster thechild, but at last an old couple offered to lookafter him and bring him up. The fosterparents did not look after the child as wellas they could have done and so he grew updespised by the other boys of his age group.Because he was tormented, teased and des-pised by the members of his community, hedeveloped special gifts, notably the gifts ofspeaking well, hunting, courage, determin-ation and that of an indomitable will.Courage became part and parcel of hisnature and he excelled in all that he tried todo.There are two types of song which Karikogais made to sing each time he is confronted byproblems, which are basically of two sorts,human problems and those involving animals.Firstly, when confronted by human problemssuch as cruel treatment from fellow playmatesor from his foster parents, Karikoga sings anelegiac song which is half-pathetic and half-comic in tone. It is expressive of the suddenand unexpected death of his parents:47Dai ndina amai,Zuva, Karingewe-e, ndosiya-siya.Vaidya vachindipawoZuva, Karingewe-e, ndosiya-siya.Pasi ndipo panoziva chete,Zuva, Karingewe-e, ndosiya-siya,Vaidya vachiti, 'Mwana'.*If I had a mother,Oh Time, leave me alone.She would offer me food when she ate herself,Oh Time, leave me alone.It's only the gods who know,Oh Time, leave me alone.She would say, 'Here you are my child'.The tone of the complaint is set by: 'If I hada mother (Dai ndina amai)'; and the responseto this statement of sorrow is simply: 'She wouldfeed me'. One is made keenly aware of thestrange relationship between his past andpresent experience. One feels the built-up ten-sion or emotion of Karikoga experiencedthrough his identity with, and separation from,his past self. The old ideas of motherhood, theneed for parental care, and his past experienceDe, de, de, ndopfura.Pfura Karingewe-eNdopfura-pfura.all lend themselves to the expression and com-munication of sincere emotion.Secondly is the animal-hunting song, sung forthe purpose of building up tensions which aremeant to be released on solving the problem,in this case, on making a kill; hence therepetitious use of the verb 'shoot' in what isessentially an action song. 'The union betweenlyric and drama could hardly be closer':3Shoot, shoot, shoot, I shoot.Shoot the lonely KaringeI shoot everywhere.It is by these sorts of songs that Karikoga'scharacter is expressed; indeed in traditionalverse, particular tunes or songs are alwaysassociated with particular persons or actions,and those who have had the opportunity oflistening to these stories will recall the songsthat go with them. This is also borne out by thefact that, more often than not, the charactersof the stories are remembered more than thestories themselves, although the characters andthe songs are inseparable.FORMSongs alone, however, are not sufficient tohold the story together. Zezuru traditionalliterature is a spoken art and its production anddissemination is in the hands of the community;and as it depends for its life and transmissionon memory, it must have form if it is to livelonger than the individual story-teller,sarungano.The rungano has a definite form which formhas enabled it to be passed on from generationto generation: it begins with one of a numberof phrases, which all have the sense of, 'Onceupon a time' and always ends with 'Here iswhere the story-teller died'. The beginning, theend, and, allowing for flexibility, the middlepart of the story also, are prescribed by customand tradition. As a stylistic device, somestory-tellers begin their story with a song. Allngano require an audience, and although activeparticipation is not an absolute necessity, thereis a standard response 'Dzepfunde'.*Obviously the middle part of the story is themost important. It is this part, the central partof the 'spindle', which allows the sarunganoliberty and freedom to tell the story in as artisticand stylistic a way as possible. During hisnarration, the sarungano is allowed to divorcehimself from the rest of the members of hisgroup and to become, or to identify himself as,an individual creative artist. His role assarungano allows him to use his imaginationwhich the group, under other circumstances,usually frustrates. This, with the dance, pottery-making and iron-work, is one of the fewoccasions in traditional Shona society whenoriginality goes unchallenged: otherwise a dis-play of cleverness is generally resented, andtalented people are often believed to be be-witched by jealous witches.*The literal meaning is 'of sorghum', but there seems to be no meaningful translation in this context.48The characteristics of the narrative inChakaipa's Karikoga Gumiremiseve involve theuse of the following features, also characteristicof ngano:i. The -aka- form of the verb (the pasttense) ;4ii. the ndo- form (the exclusive) ;5iii. the use of the verb -ti or its passiveforrn -nzi to precede all forms of theideophone:(a) as particles, e.g., potyo (entering)povo (running away) ;6(b) as derived from verb, e.g., fambe(walking a little), tambe (playing alittle) ;(c) as derived from other parts of speech,e.g., tsvimbo (a stick; noun), andiyo (Cl. 9, that one; demonstra-tive) ;7(d) as sentence constructions, e.g., chit-soka ndibereke (to run away) withthe over-all pitch raised to bring itinto line with the status of the ordi-nary ideophone.iv. the use of similes and metaphors;v. the use of the proverb for the purpose ofstrengthening an argument: andvi. the use of the song for the purpose ofhighlighting the situation and releasingtensions, as already described.FANTASY AND REALITYIt is in this middle part that the two mainelements, fantasy and reality, are developed.Stories told within their traditional frameworkof form and participating audience could becreations of literary genius. Although moststories were told for the ideas and values en-shrined within them, for their interpretation ofpersonal relationships in the world of realityperformed within the world of fantasy, a few,like this one. were told just for the sake oftelling a humorous story. Karikoga is thereforea. story told by the sarungano for the purposeof developing children's imaginations andnothing more. Karikoga has an atmospheresimilar to that of tales which deal with theworld of animals, the world of make-believeand, indeed, the world of improbability. Ittherefore makes the story suitable only to beread by children between the ages of nine andthirteen.In Chakaipa's version, written for the newmedium of print, Karikoga is similarly born inunhappy and unfortunate circumstances. Hehas no parents and he struggles hard to gainrecognition from both his friends and thecommunity in general. He nevertheless dis-tinguishes himself at hunting birds and atfighting just as the traditional Karikoga did.With his spear and bow and arrows, he per-forms remarkable feats of courage and en-durance. He fights a lion single-handed andmarries without roora just to show that thingsare possible where there is the will to succeed.His daring journey to the chief to ask forsoldiers to help him track down his wife who hasbeen captured by the formidable army of theNdebele, and his subsequent journey into theenemy country, are new applications of imagin-ation and fantasy, but still within the literaryconventions of the folktale. The events of thejourney, though boring, also deserve to be men-tioned. The youth with small stature, signifiedby the class 12 prefix ka- , preventing thehuge fellow, signified by the class 21 prefix~2-, from eating s.adza makes humorous read-ing. This isolated incident also shows howpowerful Karikoga was despite his small stature.The story adopts a new tone as the actionchanges to Matabeleland. This is partly due tothe fact that the author does not appear tounderstand the culture of the land. Thedescription of the various escapes is wearisomeand it would be pointless to ask how he receivesthe co-operation of the natives when he doesnot know their language. He is arrested, triedand sentenced: and, again, one would reveal alack of understanding of the literary genre ifone were to ask in what language the trial wasconducted. Furthermore he successfully con-ceals his tribal identity. If all this is not thegreatest weakness of the story, it must be itsstrongest link with the world of fantasy, theworld of African folklore and make-believe.The impossible and the improbable happen infolklore. An army of five thousand strong failsto apprehend Karikoga and his wife who werehiding a few yards away. Karikoga's fight withthe armv at the Munyati river is anotherexample of fantasy. Nevertheless the use of anhistorical people as part of the plot makes theuse of these literary conventions which areacceptable in the world of make-believe, ratherquestionable.49CHARACTERIZATIONIn this novel, therefore, characterization re-quires sympathetic understanding. Chakaipa isdefinitely in two worlds, the world of people andthe world of animals. His genius, of course, isfound in the way he blends the world ofromance and fantasy with the world of reality.This explains why his characters have two typesof action, those which are humanly possible andprobable, and those which are improbable andbelong only to the world of animals and fan-tasy.The relationships of the characters in thenovel are consequently not of one kind becausethey are realistic as well as fantastic. Karikoga'scourage and determination to marry his wifeare praiseworthy and credible but his ability togo deep into enemy territory, and his escape,is from the world of the folk tale. His fight withthe lion and the snake is manly, but his fightwith an army five thousand strong is fantastic.Karikoga's meals on sadza were traditional, buthis eating hyena's meat which is obnoxious tomost Shona peoples, is an attempt at humourwhich misfires.Perhaps what is more interesting in this storyis the fact that the Ndebele characters are realpeople and are well characterized, since thisstory stems from actual accounts of how theNdebele came to pillage and plunder the Shonapeople. This is because the characters in thefirst part of the story come from the world offolklore and those in the second (the Ndebele)from the world of Shona tradition. In thisambiguity lies the essential difference betweenthis novel and his four other novels.8It is therefore wide of the mark to say. asone critic has, that 'the novel has the same dra-Vasati vambogara ikati yauya imwe ika-gosvikorova musasa ndokuhva vapinda m.u-kati. Vanhu rikati rave bararamhanya.Vanotizira kumusuo, vanotizira kwakarekwairi, akati ava manyama amire nerongo.Yakasvikoti VaShambaropa dzvl, ikati zvinoyava kudo, kuvadya, varume nose vakatengevave panze. Kuzoti Karikoga azviona haanakuzomhofunga zvorufu, akasvikoibata mut-sipa ikabva yaregedza VaShambaropa, ika-goti navo tande. Akati zvino ava pamusanapayo. Idoti imurume akabva aramba akaitizenze dzvi, Haana kuziva kuti akaitasva seiakatongoona ava pamusana peshumba.Chakamunetsa kuburuka, Akafunga. kutimatic qualities as Garandichauya'; it is, how-ever, nearer the mark to say that 'the characters[in Garandichauya] are more polished and so-phisticated',9 if by 'polished and sophisticated'he means they are well rounded. For there canbe little resemblance in dramatic qualities be-tween the characters who have two aspects bothrealistic and fantastic as in Karikoga, andcharacters who are rounded, as in Garandichau-ya. For example, all human beings at one timeor another do indulge in self-pity and Karikogaindulges in it because he is truly human. Onthe other hand, his self-pity drives him to featswhich are far beyond those of the ordinary boy.In Karikoga the characters have normal humancourage, intelligence and feelings but have inaddition supernatural powers which spur themon in their attempts to solve their problems.In other words, these characters are both round-ed and flat.Chakaipa's characterization has been en-hanced by his traditional device of giving themnames which throw light on and almost pre-determine, their role. There are four types ofnames in Shona culture, but all the names in thenovel are of the type called Mazita emadunhu-rirwa. They are the nicknames which are givento people after observing their natural incli-nations or idiosvncracies: Karikoga (the onlychild). Marunjeya (the follower), Gwara (thecoward) Shambaropa (the expert hunter),Benyumundiro (the glutton).LANGUAGEAs already pointed out Chakaipa's languagestems directly from the world of the Africanfolktale, the rungano, and the best way ofdemonstrating this point is to quote:Before they sat down to rest, the lionburst open the door and came into theshelter. There was immediate pande-monium. Some ran to the entrance whileothers ran towards the lion. There wascomplete confusion. The lion pounced onShambaropa and was on the point of de-vouring him. The others were already out-side. Karikoga on seeing his danger, put allthought of death away and seized the lionby its neck. It let Shambaropa go andchased after him. It was all for biting himbut he kept on clinging to its mane. He didnot know how he had got on to the lion'sback. All he knew was that he was there.50aburuke akatya kudyiwa, kudaro akarambaangoibata. Shumba yakatiza naye, asi isatiyamhanya chinharnbwe chikuru yakaroverapamuti ikabva yafa. Ndizvo zvakatoponesaKarikoga. Pashure pezvi akaenda kwaivenevamwe vake.Achangosvika akawana varume vose mimanyama amire nehari. VaShambaropa va-kanga vagere ropa richingoerera. Varumevakanga vachichema. Munhu mumwe chetewaasina kuona pavanhu ava ndaVaGwara.Akazoti tarirei mumusasa akavawana vaoma,Akasvikotarira kuti acme chavauraya oka-shay a: vakanga vasina neronda rose, Aka-funga kuti zvimwe varumwa nenyoka asihaana kuona nenyoka yose.Pakasvika Karikoga pamusasa hapanaakamuona nokuti vakanga vachifunga kutiadyiwa. Kunyangwe paakaplnda mumusasahapana akazviziva. Paakazobvunza kutiVaGwara. vafa sei, vanhu ndipo pavakatozo-ziva kuti ndiKarikoga. Vakatora mvurandokunodira VaGwara, vakabva vatangakubzvaira.His problem was to get down. He fearedthat, if he jumped off. he would be eatenup, so he kept on holding on. The lion ranoff with him on its back, but before it hadgone far, it collided with a tree, and died.This is what saved Karikoga. After this hewent to join his companions.On his arrival he found all the men in astate of confusion. Sharnbaropa sat there,bleeding. The men were crying. The onlyperson whom he missed was Gwara (thecoward). He looked into the shelter andfound him there unconscious. He went upclose to see what had killed him but couldfind nothing. He did not have a singlescratch. He thought maybe he had beenbitten by a snake but there was no snake tobe seen within the vicinity.Nobody saw Karikoga when he arrived atthe shelter. They all thought he had beeneaten up by the lion. Even when he cameinside, nobody noticed it. It was only whenhe enquired about Gwara's death that peoplerealised that it was Karikoga. They fetchedwater and poured it over Gwara and hecame to life again,10Here is a narrative description of an adven-ture which is 'more thrilling than credible'.11The bond between reality and fantasy inmutual interaction is created before our eyesand action both realistic and fantastic is thefinal result. The whole passage pictures a manwith the desire and steadfast will to achieve notonly his own survival but also the survival ofhis companions who were in the grip of terror,manyama amire nehari. Tension is built inright from the beginning and reaches its climaxwhen Karikoga is on the back of the lion hold-ing fast onto its mane. Karikoga's embarrass-ment is given and we all wonder how he isgoing to escape or who is going to save himfrom impending disaster. As in traditionalfolklore, we know that something will happento save the hero from death. The lion crashesinto a tree and dies, thus releasing the tensionwhich has been built up over a period. Thisdoes not help people struggling with incredulity.Tt does not give an answer to questions of howor why. The only answer possible lies in theconventions of folklore.There is nothing here corresponding to magi-cal aids which figure in so many folk tales.What is related is frankly implausible and un-acceptable precisely because the author hasmade his tale so realistic. The author takesrefuge here in humour in order to deflectattention from the difficulties into which thetwo-sided nature of the story and his over-emphasis of the realistic at this point have ledhim. The clauses within the sentences areshort and choppy, each clause conveying anaction. Note the third sentence in particular.Ideophones have been used to make the actionvivid and graphic. It will also be noticed thatas the action is directly perceptible indirectallusions are avoided, and there are very fewsimiles or metaphors.51Description of a Fight with Sticks,Rimwe zuva Karikoga abva kunodzorambudzi, achangotanga kuundura shiri dzake,mumwe mukomana mukuru kwazvo waka-bvuta shiri dzake. Mukoviana uyu, waka-bvuta shiri dzaKarikoga, wakanga anenhumbu inenge yataguta-padare. Man'a rnu-makumbo waiti ihamba, maziso ainge ezizi,nzeve zvichinge zvigwaku. Kuzoti, kuma-kumbo hapana chatingataure, raifambarichingoti peya peya. Asi waiti ukariti mu-kurwa wairiona ratsvukisa meso seragarwanengozi. Hapana waimboti bufu kwariri;ndiro raive zimambo rekumbudzi. Para-kaona Karikoga ainc shiri rakatanga kuvha-raradza meso. Rakangobvuta shiri dzaKari-koga risina kumbotaura naye."Ko, mukoma uri. kutorerei shiri dzangu?Hauzive here kuti ndidzo dzandinoponanadzo?"Asati apedza muromo uyu wakabva ainzitsvirnbo nepakati pemusoro iyo. RoparaKarikoga rikati raviruka, akagodziti dzakekacha, iro ropa richingoerera ndokuhvazvatarirana. Nerhinguva chisina kufanirakakuruva. kakati komona, tsvimbo dzikatidzorira. Karikoga kaiti kakatema kopfuga-ma, kakatema komira. Benyumundiro raitirikaiema rozunza musoro seriri kurwanemunhu mukuru. Karikoga. kakati huyatiende.Vamwe va.komana vakati vangohata, miro-tno hava.na kv.gona kurandutsira. Vakatyakuti vangazare ropa 710ku.fi must izvoyo Kari-koga akanga aipirwa. Fungal mikwcshwa ye-vakomana hapana wakati ndonorandutsira,vose vakamirira kure kunyangwe avo vaichi-mbomurova. Vakatya kuti vangazare ropa.Pakarwiwa rnusi iwoyo zvokuti dai paivenevakadzi mpururu waidai wakarira kanavaidai vakachema.Kuzoti zvino nzornbe mbiri dzanetsanadzakatarisana sehandira mbiri dzemombe.Karikoga waiti akaritarira iro Benyumundiromeso aibva azara ropa. Benyumundiro akatiakateme, Karikoga kakabva kati virikiti, kaka-bva kamuti nepano pabvi ga akabva ati pasiOne day when Karikoga had come fromreturning his goats, a very big boy snatchedfrom him the bird which he was plucking.The boy who snatched Karikoga's bird hadan enormous stomach which looked like thatof a soft-bodied cricket (tagutapadare;literally 'we have had sufficient food at thedare'). From the chaps all over his feet youwould have thought he was a tortoise, hehad huge eyes like an owl and ears like aladle. The less we say about his legs thebetter because they were bandy. But whenit came to fighting he fought like the devil.No one dared to pick a quarrel with him.He was the herd boys' king. When he sawKarikoga with his birds he assumed a threat-ening look. He snatched Karikoga's birdwithout saying a word to him.'Tell me, brother, why do you take mybirds? Don't you know that they are whatI live on?'Before he had finished saying this, a stickdescended on his head. Boiling with angerand bleeding profusely, he grabbed his sticksand challenged the big boy to a fight. With-in a short space of time the dust swirled upas a fight with sticks ensued. Karikoga woulddeliver his blows and kneel; then deliveranother and stand. Benyumundiro woulddeliver a blow and shake his head as if hewere fighting with a grown man. KarikogaŁwelcomed this engagement.The other boys who were unable to stopthe fight stood there in amazement. Theywere afraid of being themselves covered withblood seeing that Karikoga was taking nononsense that day. Just think, the hugefellows were unable to stop the fight. Theystood afar off, including those who used tobeat him in the past. They were afraid tobe covered with blood. There was such afight on that day that, if women had beenpresent, they would have applauded orwould have wept.Now, after the two trek-oxen had worneach other out, they faced each other liketwo bulls. Each time Karikoga looked atBenyumundiro, his eyes would turn red withanger. Benyumundiro tried to deliver ablow whereupon Karikoga dodged and land-ed a blow on Benyumundiro's knee and hefell to the ground. Karikoga delivered a52bi. Kakagomuti iyo hi mumusoro roparikabva raerera semvura. Kakagomupamhi-dza, kakagomupamhidza akabva ati tasa.Vamwe vakafunga kuti waja.Kuzoti vamwe vazviona vakati tsvitnbokacha vakagoti nave memete. Kakomanakakati hendei narwo. Kakomana kakagotimhanye mhanye apo mbi sekambada. Vanhuvakati voita semanhanga kupunzika. Vo-ngoti auya ari pad, auya ari past; vakati vosevakwana nadzo mbonje. Kukati zvino kwa-sara mumwe chete, paye pooti Karikogaamuteme gomana rikabva rati virikiti, rika-gomuti gutni rakadya vaviri. Ridoti rimuro-vere past, Karikoga akati kunyepa ndokubvazvaita mawiramombe. Zvikagokweshana aripopast, gomana rikati radura. "Chindiregera,mukuru wangu, handichazozviita. Handi-chazofa ndakarwa newe narinhi wose, wandi-kurira." Karikoga ndokubva amurega.blow on Benyumundiro's head and his bloodflowed down like water. He delivered asecond blow and then another and Benyum-undiro was knocked flat on the ground. Somethought that he was dead.As the onlookers saw this, they grabbedtheir sticks and went for Karikoga. He wasprepared for them. The little Karikoga ranhither and thither and stood in a challengingmanner like a leopard. The others began tofall down like pumpkins. Each one who ad-vanced towards him was knocked down andall were covered with bruises.At last only one boy remained. Karikogatried to strike him but he dodged the blowand started to wrestle with him. The boystruggled hard to throw Karikoga onto theground but Karikoga resisted and they bothfell down together. They struggled hardand the boy conceded defeat, saying, 'Pleaselet me go, you have defeated me. I willnever fight you again, you have beaten me.'Karikoga then let him go.12This description naturally falls into twoparts. The first part begins in traditional style,'Rimive zuva (one day)', thus giving the readerthe right feeling. Karikoga's stature is con-trasted with Benyumundiro's huge body. Oneimmediately thinks the small boy is going tohave the worst of it from the huge and greedyBenyumundiro. But one finds oneself wrong onreading the actual account. The quarrel hasbeen picked and our imagination is aroused.The second part of the passage is the actualbout. We see and hear the sound made by thefighting sticks. We see the marks and bloodflowing from the wounds. The small boy isfighting beyond expectation: 'He would deliverhis blows as he knelt and deliver another andstand'. There is nothing else but motion whichis described by the use of special words, theideophones. The sentences though long arefull of clauses each describing an action:'Vongoti auya ari pasi, auya ari pan; Š vosevakawana mbonje'.The picture thus drawn before us is one ofa mingling of joy and sorrow and from thisis born an emotion which brings one into theworld of folklore fantasy, at once sharper andeven more intense than in the first part. Therhythm produced by the sticks as they fall ontheir targets, seems to rise and fall like theflails at the threshing floor. Sometimes therhythm is strong and flaming with hate. At lasta time comes for peace and the best must cometo an end; in all, a fine piece of writing.CONCLUSIONThus it can be seen that Chakaipa's realachievement and contribution to nascentShona literature is that he is the first writer touse the plot of an old rungano and so to giveit a new form and dimension. His genius liesin an ability to synthesise reality with fantasy:the reality of a world of historical legends ofthe Ndebele raids into Mashonoland, thefantasy of traditional folk-tale characters. Theresult of this fusion is a new rungano.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSI am grateful for the help and advice of Professor G. Fortune and Dr. N. Austin.53REFERENCESCHAKAIPA, P, F. 1958 Karikoga Gumiremisve, Cape Town, Longmans. All page references in thisarticle, however, are to the Third Impression which was published with corrections in 1963 by Longmanin Salisbury.There is another version of the story known as 'Pimbirimano' in which the boy was not born normallybut through his mother's shin-bone tnu-pimbiri; pimbiri could also be an ideophone which means 'suddenappearance'). Also, he was born with a horn in his hand which enabled him to devise plans (mano) onthe spur of the moment. The mother in this version survived, but did not like the child and sought todispose of him. The significant difference of the two versions is that^ Karikoga symbolises the way in whichman can acquire qualities in response to his environment whilstare inborn.Pimbiramano stands for gifts whichSCHAPERA, I. ed. The Bantu-speaking Tribes of3. LESTRADE, G. P. 1946 Traditional Literature. In:South Africa. Cape Town, Maskew Miller, p. 295.4. See, for example, Karikoga Gumiremiseve. p.l. 1.2.5. See, for example, IBID., p.l, 1.10.6. See, for example, IBID., p.7, 1.35.7. See, for example, IBID., p.7, 1.35-36.8. CHAKAIPA, P. F. 1961 Pfumo Reropa. Cape Town, Longmans.[1961] Rudo Ibofu. Gwelo, Catholic Mission Press.1963 Garandichauya. Salisbury, Longman.1967 Dzasukwa Mwana Š asina Š Hembe. Salisbury, Longman.9. KROG, E. W. ed. 1966 African Literature in Rhodesia. Gwelo, Mambo Press, p. 103.10. Karikoga Gumiremiseve, p.22.11. FORTUNE, G. 1969 75 Years of Writing in Shona. Zambezia, l(i), 66.12. Karikoga Gumiremiseve, pp. 7-8.THE iHODESIAN JOUiNAlOFECONOMICSThe Rhodesian Journal of Economics, published quarterly, was established inAugust, 1967, to publish articles, papers and addresses relating to the RhodesianEconomy or to problems of economic development typical of a country like Rhodesiaor its neighbours. In the 23 editions published so far the Journal has covered a widespectrum of topics mainly concerning the Rhodesian Economy, though contributionsrelating to South Africa, Malawi, Australia, Zambia and Botswana have alsoappeared.Subscription Rate, including postage, for subscribers in Rhodesia is Rh.$4,00 perannum. There is an additional charge of 20 cents per copy (Rhodesian currency)to subscribers abroad for postage. Past copies Rh.$l,00 per issue (plus 20 centspostage for subscriber outside Rhodesia).Orders and Enquiries to: The Secretary, Rhodesian Journal of Economics, Depart-ment of Economics, University of Rhodesia, P.O. Box M.P. 167, Mount Pleasant,Salisbury, Rhodesia.For copies on an Exchange basis write to: The Librarian (Publications Department),University of Rhodesia, P. O. Box M.P. 167, Mount Pleasant, Salisbury, Rhodesia.54