Zambezia (1994), XXI (i).THE ROLE OF FOLK-TALE IN NDEBELE LITERATURE:THE CASE FOR INHLAMVUZASENGODLWENIT. MATSHAKAY1LE-NDLOVUDepartment of African Languages and Literature,University of ZimbabweAbstractThe influence of folk-tales in Ndebele narratives is much greater than mostcritics of Ndebele literature acknowledge. To those who are familiar withNdebele literature, the influence is not hard to see when one examines theplots and actions of the main characters in the narratives. The folk-tale ofChakijana and the Cannibals, for example, is made use of by Amos Mzilethiin his novel Uyokhula Umfana while N. S. Sigogo's Gudlindlu Mntanamiexhibits well-known themes of an innocent victim which feature in manyNdebele folk-tales. It is important, therefore, that any analysis of thesenarratives should assess the extent to which the narrative may be betterunderstood by examining the theme or plot of the folk-tale around which it isbuilt. If this is not done, it may result in having a limited view of the narrativethat is being analysed.IT is MY contention that the novel Inhlamvu ZaseNgodlweni by E. M. Ndlovuhas not been accorded its full potential as a political protest because thecritics of this work fail to realize that the novel attacks the colonial regime.Albert S. Gerard, for example, views this novel as an educational novel,placing it in the same category as Amos Mzilethi's Uyokhula Umfana andLassie Ndondo's Qhapela Ingane: Gerard says this about these novels:A peculiar variety of the educational novel is the parallel lives story, which seemsto be proper to the Ndebele novel perhaps in imitation of Zulu models. The patternis based on the contrast between two characters. One is brought up in an uprightfamily, becomes a bright student and later a prosperous and respected member ofthe community with a strong interest in church affairs: the other is the very pictureof evil: he grows more and more unruly, becomes addicted to such disreputableoccupations as card playing, keeps bad company and turns to heavy drinking untilhe becomes a full grown criminal who ultimately falls into the hands of the police.1Gerard Š and even some Ndebele readers Š fail to realize thatNdlovu models Mzondiwa, one of his central characters, on a folk-tale1 A. S. Gerard, African Language Literatures: An Introduction to the Literary History of Sub-Saharan Africa (London, Longman, 1981), 238.4344 THE ROLE OF FOLK-TALE IN NDEBELE LITERATUREfigure. The model folk-tale character is presented as a fool or clown, but acareful analysis of what the character does reveals that he is much morethan what the outside appearance gives: he is an intelligent character. It isalso important to realize that in an educational novel the central charactergoes through a learning process. By the end of the novel the experiencesof the central character enable that character to reform his ways. This iswhat happens to the central characters in the other two novels UyokhulaUmfana and Qhapela Ingane but not in Inhlamvu ZaseNgodlweni. In Ndlovu'snovel the central character, Mzondiwa, is not subjected to an educationalprocess and consequently he does not emerge as a reformed character atthe end of the novel. Instead he emerges even more determined thanbefore to continue his fight against the colonial regime.Ndlovu could not, however, allow the fight against the colonial regime tobe done openly because the time this novel was written (1950s) the colonialregime had a tight grip over the Black people. Any writing that seemed toundermine the authority of the regime would not be published and itsauthor would be in danger of being harassed. It is for this reason that Ndlovucreates a character whom no one will suspect can be politically conscious.When that character commits acts of violence, not many people are able tolink them with political consciousness. One has to read between the linesand try to understand the actions of this character from all possibilities ofcreation. There is no doubt in my mind that Ndlovu has used a roundaboutmethod of protest in order to avoid being discovered by the authorities. Thisfits in very well with what Gerard describes as the weapon of the powerless,a subdued irony and a symbolic obliqueness, which the reader will perceivebut which the critic will be wary of discussing openly.It must be emphasized that, in the case of Inhlamvu ZaseNgodlweni, itis not every reader who is able to perceive the political protest made bythe writer, hence the conflicting oral comments made by the readers ofthis narrative. This article therefore seeks to assist the reader of this novelto see deeper into it than meets the eye.In creating Mzondiwa, a character who appears to be a fool or a clownand yet displays a lot of intelligence, Ndlovu appears to have taken his cuefrom the Ndebele folk-tale entitled 'Qalani'. The portrayal of Mzondiwa inmany ways resembles that of Qalani who is the central character of thefolk-tale of the same name.The tale of Qalani is the story of an unusual boy who speaks while heis in his mother's womb. When he is born he rushes to the cattle kraalwhere his father is skinning a beast. He pleads with his father to be givenhis share of the meat. On receiving his share, he leaves home withoutinforming anyone where he is going.On his journey he meets a variety of people who ask for favours fromhim and he obliges. The people who ask for favours do so because theyT. MATSHAKAYILE-NDLOVU 45regard him to be a fool from whom they can get whatever they want. Forexample, they ask him to share his meat with them and also to use histools. But after these people have benefited from the use of Qalani'sproperty, he demands that they compensate him. They try to find excusesfor not doing so, but Qalani is adamant and in the end they find that theyhave no choice but to compensate him.At the end of his journey Qalani possesses a big ox that he is herdingin the veld. He meets an old man; the two of them decide to pass timetogether and Qalani offers to slaughter his ox for their meal. But beforethey can roast their meat they are attacked by the Zimus (legendarycannibals that have a strong appetite for human flesh). The old man iskilled and eaten by the Zimus while Qalani escapes into hiding. WhileQalani is in hiding he warns the Zimus that he would revenge the death ofthe old man. The Zimus hear his voice but are unable to discover exactlywhere he is hiding. In this way Qalani survives the attack of the Zimus.A few years later, after the killing of the old man by the Zimus, Qalanidecides to brew some beer and he invites all the Zimus to the beer party.All the Zimus come and have a nice time. At sunset Qalani persuades theZimus to move into his big hut where he has already lit a fire and they allgladly move into the hut. While they all sit there drinking and enjoyingtheir conversation, Qalani sneaks out and secretly closes the door andsets the hut on fire. All the Zimus are killed in the fire.The following day Qalani went to the homes of the Zimus and tookaway all their livestock and returned to his family. Qalani was received likea hero at his village.It is important to point out the relationship between the Zimus andQalani's society in the folk-tale world. The Zimus were a menace to thatsociety: lone children were always in danger of being eaten up by them.The elimination of so many Zimus at one go was therefore a great serviceto that society. Qalani's contribution to his society must be seen in thislight. When Qalani returns to his village as a hero his society begins toreassess him. They begin to realize that he is not the fool they thought hewas and they begin to realize his intelligence and foresight.The portrayal of Mzondiwa in Inhlamvu ZaseNgodlweni resembles thatof Qalani in many ways. Mzondiwa, like Qalani, runs away from home andappears not to be clear about his destination. Mzondiwa, however, is notas fantastic as Qalani because by absconding from home to a mining townof Nungwa he is doing what was common to the boys of his period, i.e. the1950s. But Mzondiwa, like Qalani, is perceived as a fool by those who meethim. It is for this reason that the mine captain takes him to the pastor'shouse where he hopes he will be rehabilitated and reformed. The pastor'swife also describes him as a mad man. When Nkanyiso, a boy fromMzondiwa's village, learns that Mzondiwa is staying at the pastor's house46 THE ROLE OF FOLK-TALE IN NDEBELE LITERATUREhe feels sorry for the pastor's family for the problems they are going toexperience in accommodating this crazy boy.Mzondiwa's craziness is confirmed the following Sunday when hegoes to church with the pastor's family. When Mzondiwa sees the pastorbaptizing children he thinks the pastor is washing the children. He cannotcontain his emotions so he shouts in surprise at the mothers of thosechildren who cannot wash their own children until the pastor does it ontheir behalf. This behaviour of Mzondiwa makes everyone in the miningtown conclude that Mzondiwa is not normal and that anything he does orsays should not be taken seriously. This gives Mzondiwa license to do andsay anything that he wants and it is under this license that profoundstatements and actions are made by Mzondiwa.Firstly, Mzondiwa tells Nkanyiso, who is a staunch Christian, that thepastor and his wife are hypocrites because what they preach is not whatthey practise. Mzondiwa makes this assessment after spending a week withthe pastor's family. Nkanyiso does not believe what Mzondiwa says, buttowards the end of the novel Nkanyiso discovers that the pastor is indeed ahypocrite because he preaches against beer drinking and yet he drinks inprivate; he preaches against consulting traditional healers yet he goes thereby night. When Nkanyiso makes this discovery, he is so heartbroken that heleaves the church at Nungwa and returns to his village.By portraying the situation in this way, the writer, in my view, isimplying that even if people think that Mzondiwa is a fool, Mzondiwa has amuch better insight into things than those who regard themselves asnormal people.Secondly, Mzondiwa is involved in many fights during his stay at themining town of Nungwa. However, his fights are directed mostly againstthose who work for the colonial regime. He fights them because he seesinjustice in the system they are working for. As readers of this novel wearrive at this conclusion by examining the comments that are made bysome of the characters after Mzondiwa has been involved in the fights.Mathebe, the pastor's wife, was quick to make a comment after hearingthat Mzondiwa was involved in a fight with Mphini:Many people are pleased to learn that Mphini was beaten up by Mzondiwa. Theysay Mphini is a proud man and a friend of the police. It is indeed proper that peopleshould hate a person who is a friend of the police because people hate the police.However, people hate the police because they do not know that their function is tofight crime only. (p. 49 Š author's translation)It is important to notice how the people view the police. They seethem as agents of oppression. The police have failed to gain the support ofthe people. Mathebe, however, as a wife of the pastor, must not be seen tobe against the police, hence the rider of the last sentence. But the damagehas already been done because she has already said, 'it is indeed properT. MATSHAKAYILE-NDLOVU 47that . . .' These comments therefore, demonstrate that Mzondiwa is notjust fighting individuals but fighting a system.A few months after the fight between Mzondiwa and Mphini, Mzondiwais again involved in the assault of a detective named Dick. He fights Dickbecause Dick has arrested Nkanyiso, Mzondiwa's friend, because Nkanyisohad bought goods from the black market. Nkanyiso did it out of ignorance,so he tells the pastor's wife. The pastor's wife tells Nkanyiso that this is away of life for most Black people because black markets offer them somerelief from the system that oppresses every Black person.The pastor's wife is thus aware that the Black people are oppressedby the colonial system, although she may not necessarily agree withmeasures of redressing the injustice. Furthermore, the statement vindicatesMzondiwa's actions of fighting those that prop up the oppressive system.In this way it is safe to argue that Mzondiwa is politically conscious.Thirdly, Mzondiwa and his associates are involved in robbing a Whitebusinessman who operates a beer garden for Black employees in themining town. They waylay him at a month-end after he had just collectedthe day's takings. They take all the money but leave him unharmed. Therobbers are never found and the money is never recovered.The existence of a beer garden in the Black township must be seen inthe light of the situation prevailing in the country. The only form ofentertainment provided for Black workers is beer. This beer not only takesaway their meagre salaries but keeps their minds drugged so that theycannot have time to think about their problems. The beer garden, therefore,is there to exploit the Black workers. The attack on its proprietor is anattack on the whole system that exploits the people.In all these situations Mzondiwa is involved, but the authorities viewthese acts as acts of thuggery and nothing else. Mzondiwa, whom theyregard as a fool, cannot have the foresight to fight the system; this isimplied in their reaction to what he does. They feel that Mzondiwa is notintelligent enough to see beyond the surface level of things. In this wayMzondiwa's actions are perceived in the same way as those of Qalani inthe folk-tale. He is not seen as being a threat to the system. This explainswhy, even when he is arrested, he gets away with a light punishment.The failure of the state to punish Mzondiwa severely gives Mzondiwaan opportunity to continue perpetrating acts of violence. He thus emergesas a hero who is cunning and is able to outwit the sophisticated colonialsystem. In this way Mzondiwa gives hope to those who are fighting againstthe colonial regime. Mzondiwa's successes encourage them and they havefirm hope that the colonial system can be challenged because Mzondiwahas succeeded in eliminating some of the agents of the colonial regime.After examining all the activities in which Mzondiwa is involved, aclear pattern begins to emerge. Mzondiwa does not just kill anyone but48 THE ROLE OF FOLK-TALE IN NDEBELE LITERATUREselects his victims according to their involvement with the colonial regime.It is reasonable to conclude, from what has happened, that his aims are tobring about the downfall of the colonial regime by destroying all thosewho prop it up. The authorities at Nungwa only begin to realize this at a timewhen Mzondiwa has already hatched new plots. He sneaks out of Nungwaand out of the country before the law-enforcement agents apprehend him.Like the legendary Qalani in the folk-tale, the authorities hear about thewhereabouts of Mzondiwa but are unable to catch him. As Mzondiwa fleesthe country, some of his colleagues are killed in the skirmishes with thesupporters of the regime. Mzondiwa survives the hazardous journey andreaches his destination, Johannesburg, in South Africa.In presenting Mzondiwa in this manner, Ndlovu is careful not toappear to be openly advocating the downfall of the colonial regime. It isfor this reason that he allows Mzondiwa to wear the mantle of a criminalwho is sought after by law-enforcement agents. But the fact that Mzondiwais allowed to outwit them in spite of his rural background, and the fact thathe is uneducated, should be an indication that the writer does not regardhim as a criminal.Mzondiwa escapes to South Africa, following the route taken by mostof the young men of his period who went there in search of greenerpastures. Here again Mzondiwa will be viewed in the same way as thoseother young people who jumped the borders into South Africa, and thushis political consciousness is minimized. But a critical reader will be ableto notice differences in his actions.Firstly, since Mzondiwa has spent all his time at Nungwa fighting theagents of the colonial regime, it is unlikely that he will change from thisstance. Secondly, before leaving for South Africa, Mzondiwa visits hisparents at Ngodlweni where he leaves his clothes and instructs them tokeep them for him until he returns from South Africa. This could implythat he is not going to work in South Africa Š otherwise why would he beso concerned about these old clothes. Thirdly, during the period whenthis novel was published, the 1950s, South Africa had taken the lead infighting for political freedom for the Black people. It is reasonable toassume that those who were engaged in similar activities to those ofMzondiwa would want to go to South Africa to acquire new tactics.Mzondiwa is, one assumes, on a learning mission; when he returns, as hehas promised his parents, he will be better equipped to topple the regime.It is on the basis of the above argument that I view the portrayal ofMzondiwa as being parallel to that of the folk-tale character, Qalani. Thereader, once the presentation is seen in this light, is being invited to seethe actions of Mzondiwa in terms of those of the legendary Qalani.Mzondiwa will return to rid his society of the menace of colonial oppressionjust as Qalani rid his society of the menace of the Zimus Š the legendarycannibals that had insatiable appetite for human flesh.T. MATSHAKAYILE-NDLOVU 49The element of protest is thus achieved through Mzondiwa's failure toreform when he is placed at the local pastor's house where he was expectedto be rehabilitated. The implications of the rehabilitation were that hewould have been taught to accept authority and not question those inpositions of power. This view comes out through what the pastor's wifesays when she explains why Mzondiwa has been sent to their house. Shesays that he has been sent there in the hope that he will be reformed,because a boy of similar character who had been sent to the pastor'shouse before Mzondiwa was working then and his White employer was fullof praise for him.Mzondiwa's failure to reform should be viewed as his refusal to submitto an unjust system. The writer does not punish him for this course ofaction but provides him with plots that enable him to outwit thesophisticated colonial system. This, in my view, is a clear indication ofwhere the writer's sympathies lie. The writer is not putting Mzondiwathrough an educational process; instead, he wants him to continue withhis original mission to the end. When the novel closes there is great hopethat Mzondiwa will return in full force to smash the colonial regime. He,like Qalani in the folk-tale, will hatch new plots to outmanoeuvre the agentsof the colonial regime.The reader of this novel is invited to view the actions of Mzondiwa inline with those of the folk-tale character by the constant reference to folk-tales that is made in the narrative. Mzondiwa refers to the sermon inchurch as inganekwane, something that is incredible. Other characters,too, refer to incredible events or situations as folk-tale. This, however, isnot to say folk-tales are inferior stories but that their stories are not to betaken at their surface level. Clearly the story of Mzondiwa is to be viewedfrom a similar point of view.Readers who fail to see similarities between Mzondiwa and the folk-tale character Qalani often dismiss Mzondiwa as a thug or a crazy character.They end up blaming his parents for their failure to embrace modernEuropean education and they conclude that Mzondiwa's problemsoriginated from his parents' failures. They fail to realize Mzondiwa'spotential in ridding his society of colonial oppression as alreadydemonstrated by his fights against those who support the colonial regime.This view about Mzondiwa's role is supported by the outcome ofNkanyiso's endeavours. Nkanyiso has adopted European education andaspires to their way of life. He has become a staunch Christian and stronglybelieves in the uprightness of the church leadership. However, at the end ofhis stay at Nungwa, Nkanyiso has lost faith in the colonial regime because ofthe way the Black people are treated by the colonial police.When he is arrested for buying goods from the black market he isbeaten up by the police even before being proved guilty. He discovers thatthe authorities do not talk to Black people nicely, nor do they listen to50 THE BOLE OF FOLK-TALE IN NDEBELE LITERATUREwhat Black people say. But when a White person speaks, his word is law.The narrator says:When Nkanyiso's employer was told about Nkanyiso's crime he dismissed it out-right and argued that if Nkanyiso had indeed bought stolen shoes he had done soout of ignorance. He then insisted that Nkanyiso should be set free. ConsequentlyNkanyiso was set free.This kind of treatment of Black people by the colonial authoritiesmade Nkanyiso change his attitude towards the regime. He began torefuse to co-operate with the police.Although Nkanyiso was now lukewarm towards the colonial regime hecontinued to embrace the White man's religion, Christianity. When he wasdisappointed by the hypocrisy of the church leadership he broke awayfrom the orthodox church and formed his own church which was freefrom hypocrisy. His church was prosperous during his life-time and had ahuge following, but after Nkanyiso's death it also crumbled. It is reasonable,therefore, to conclude that Nkanyiso's endeavours come to a dead end.The writer does not perceive this character as having a future, unlikeMzondiwa who is expected to return to Ngodlweni and continue thestruggle.The portrayal of these two central characters, Mzondiwa and Nkanyiso,forces me to conclude that Mzondiwa should not be viewed as a thug butas a hero. He will return like the legendary folk-tale character. It isreasonable to conclude by crediting E. M. Ndlovu with a foresight thatpredicted the events of the Zimbabwean war of liberation. The politicallymotivated Blacks were going to sneak out of Rhodesia into the neighbouringstates where they acquired weapons and new skills to fight the colonialregime. This was already happening in the 1950s, though on a very smallscale, and, like Mzondiwa, they promised to return and did so in the 1970s.It was not easy for most readers at that time to see this possibility, but thecareful protection of Mzondiwa by the writer makes this view possible.Literary works referred to in the textA. MZILETHI, Uyokhula Umfana (Pietermaritzburg, Shuter and Shooter, inassociation with the Southern Rhodesia Literature Bureau, 1958).E. M. NDLOVU, Inhlamvu ZaseNgodlweni (Pietermaritzburg, Shuter andShooter, in association with the Southern Rhodesia Literature Bureau,1959).L. NDONDO, Qhapela Ingane (Pietermaritzburg, Shuter and Shooter, inassociation with the Southern Rhodesia Literature Bureau, 1961).N. S. SiGOGO, Gudlindlu Mntanami (Gwelo, Mambo Press, in associationwith the Southern Rhodesia Literature Bureau, 1967).