Zambezia (1996), XXIII (ii).ALTERNATIVE DELIVERY SYSTEMS JN HIGHEREDUCATION AND THE SEARCH FOR QUALITYTHROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONT. J. NHUNDUActing Director, University College of Distance Education, University ofZimbabweAbstractThe potential of distance education is widely acknowledged. The samecannot be said about its quality. It is because of misgivings on the quality ofdistance education that this article attempts to gnswer critics of higherdistance education by exploring its potential in delivering quality programmes.In this attempt, the article compiles a compendium of major factors whichinfluence the quality of distance education programmes and demonstrateshow these can contribute: to the quality and effeffineness of higher distanceeducation. The evidence presented in this aftfffeshpws that distance educationis as good as, and in several respects, bettgffhan pojiventional instructionaldelivery systems, It is the author's argument ffiat higher distance education isnot only now in competition with co/jp^ffpnai higher education, but enjoysa competitive edge over the lattef. ffte ffrt/pfe, therefore, recommends thathigher distance education should dep,elgp a culture of quality educationwhich reflects its unique delivery system.' jFurfhepnore, distance educationshould strengthen those of its features fvhich enhance its competitiveness inthe delivery of higher education.INTRODUCTIONQUANTITATIVE EXPANSION AT primary and secondary school levels in mostdeveloping countries has not only resulted in inevitable decline in thequality of education because of larger classes, advent of large numbers ofuntrained and less qualified teachers, inadequate supply of teaching andlearning resources and poor infrastructure, but has also led to mountingpressure for university places. Most universities have, in turn, respondedby increasing their enrolments without proportionate increase in fundingneeded to sustain quality university education. What this means is thaton-campus university education has not only remained expensive, but it isof poor standard while it still fails to meet the demand for universityplaces. .As a result many countries are now increasingly turning to distanceeducation to alleviate demand for university education and help meet thequest for this type of education by those unable to secure universityplaces.181182 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONMany countries that introduce higher distance education normally doso because they perceive its effect as only that of increasing access toeducation at lower cost per student compared to similar on-campus face-to-face programmes. What these countries may not be aware of is thatthey are also getting as good if not better education per unit cost thancomparable conventional programmes. The role of higher distanceeducation in the provision of university education has grown significantlyover the last 20 years. Higher distance education is no longer a secondbest system; it is gradually proving to be a viable and credible highereducation delivery system that, in effect, is in competition with conventionaluniversity systems.It is against this background of the increasing importance of higherdistance education that this article examines it with a view to identifyingvariables that assist in improving and strengthening its quality andcredibility. Sceptics of higher distance education, especially facultymembers and senior administrators in conventional universities, continueto make an issue of the quality of distance education programmes. It isbecause of such misgivings that this article makes a case for universitydistance education by exploring its potential in the provision and deliveryof quality distance programmes.This article develops a compendium of major features of distanceeducation for use in assessing and improving the quality and effectivenessof higher distance education delivery systems. The article begins by definingdistance education in order to provide a context within which subsequentdialogue will be understood. Secondly, the author will give an overview ofsome generic distance education features which both distinguish it fromconventional education and influence the provision of quality higherdistance education. Most of these features will go into the analyticalcompendium for assessing the quality and effectiveness of distanceeducation. Suggestions for the improvement of higher distance educationwill be discussed in the penultimate section. In conclusion the author willargue that higher distance education is as good as, and in several respects,can be better than conventional university education. It is also the author'scontention that university distance education is now in competition withconventional university education which has, hitherto, enjoyed themonopoly in the provision of higher education. The article further suggeststhat higher distance education must necessarily develop its own cultureof quality education and strive to strengthen those features which enhanceits competitiveness in the delivery of higher education.DEFINITION OF DISTANCE EDUCATIONWhat distance education is and is not has been the subject of considerabledebate because of its recency in the literature (Holmberg, 1983) and alsoT. J. NHUNDU 183because of the challenge it is increasingly offering to traditional forms ofuniversity education. Several plausible attempts have been made to definedistance education, notably those by Keegan (1980), Moore (1977), Peters(1973) and Rumble (1983). Their contributions led to the conceptualisationof distance education as a technologically-based form of independentstudy involving directed and controlled self-instruction by the learner,and in which the learner does not receive continuous, immediatesupervision from the teacher because the two are separated from eachother by time and space.OVERVIEW OF FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF DISTANCEEDUCATIONFactors that generally affect the quality of distance education fall intothree distinct classes, namely; student characteristics, didacticcharacteristics and the nature of distance education itself. Factors thatfall under student characteristics are generally concerned with andattributable to the unique characteristics of distance education students.Typically, distance education students have very diverse characteristics,unlike the more homogeneous composition of conventional educationstudents. Students who enter distance education programmes are of diverseage, academic and professional qualifications as well as social and civiccommitments and economic status. This is because distance educationsystems have very flexible admission requirements which promote accessto university level studies.Didactic characteristics of distance education include high dependenceon technology, highly interactive and self-instructional nature of learningmaterials, correspondence study and tuition and student support systems.Finally, the quality of distance education programmes also depends onfactors that are to do with the nature of distance education itself. Theseinclude temporal and spatial separation of the teacher and the learner(which, in turn, results in lack of immediate feedback from the teacher anddiminished opportunities for socialisation), the openness of distanceeducation programmes (including entry requirements, entry points,assessment system, etc.) and acceptability of or attitudes towards distanceeducation. These and other characteristics of distance education bothdistinguish it and influence the quality of distance education programmes.ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF HIGHER DISTANCE EDUCATIONThe criteria for the appraisal of the quality of distance education can bedeveloped from a synthesis of the literature. The attempt made in thisarticle to compile factors that go into the analytical compendium is by no184 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONmeans exhaustive of all possible factors that can help illuminate thedebate on the potential contribution of university distance education toquality of higher education. The author selected only those factors thatwere common to both distance and conventional delivery systems and/orhad the greatest potential in improving the quality of university distanceeducation programmes. The deliberate selection of quality indicators thatare common to both systems is esential to sustain valid comparativeanalyses between the two systems while, on the other hand, quality factorsunique to distance education illustrate the latent capacity for qualitativeimprovement of distance education programmes. The evaluative criteriaused in this article is derived mainly from those suggested by Gooler(1979), Keegan and Rumble (1982) and Rumble (1986). These includeaccess, equity, learner outcomes, instructional methods, instructionalmaterials and dropout rates. To these the author has added theeffectiveness of the management process since sound management andmanagement leadership is important for effective and efficient deliveryand provision of quality distance education programmes. Also added tothe list is the integrity of student assessment procedures.Access and equityIn assessing the quality and effectiveness of higher distance educationprogrammes the issue of access and equity becomes preeminent. This isbecause the most commonly acceptable and least contentious rationalefor introducing distance education is its potential for increasing access tohigher education especially for disadvantaged sections of society. Reasonsgiven by some people on why they choose the distance education optionfurther underscore both the access and equity rationale for distanceeducation. For example, some people choose distance education becausethey may feel psychologically and geographically distant from conventionalinstitutions or they find conventional systems in conflict with their work,leisure, civic and social commitments (Verduin and Clark, 1991, 103). Forthese people and others, who were excluded from conventional systemsfor reasons beyond their control, access to and participation in universityeducation has only become possible through distance learning.Accordingly, when assessing the effectiveness of distance education froman access and equity perspective, one should seek answers to questionssuch as 'How many students?', 'What is their composition?' Hence, oneshould not be satisfied with the overall enrolment figures, but shouldprobe further and find out the extent to which distance education systemsare meeting social and individual needs of adult learners and disadvantagedgroups such as women.In terms of the effectiveness of higher distance education in increasingoverall access to education, its potential has been most impressive inT. J. NHUNDU 185developing nations. A 1990 UNESCO report cites several success stories,especially in Asia. For example, the STOU of Thailand started in 1980 withan intake of 82 000 students which doubled to 150 000 by 1990. In India,Indira Gandhi National Open University's 0GNOU) postgraduate enrolmentincreased from 4 500 in 1987 to 30 000 two years later. The experience ofthe University of Zimbabwe's Centre for Distance Education (UZCDE)parallels that of Indonesia's Terbuka University which was forced to register60 000 students instead of 25 000 because of pressure to accommodate270 000 applicants. UZCDE was forced to start with 688 students instead of200 because of the need to accommodate over 13 000 applicants. One yearlater, the enrolment had more than quadrupled to 3 066 students. In SouthAfrica the single largest university is University of South Africa (UNISA)which is a correspondence university. According to SAIDE (1995, 4), in1993 UNISA's enrolment of 122 586 students constituted 38% of all universityenrolments in that country.Distance education programmes are also widely acknowledged fortheir potential to reach out to the disadvantaged sections of societythereby increasing equity. Unlike conventional university systems, higherdistance education has high female participation rates and also caters foradults of a wide age range who have generally missed the opportunity toenter conventional universities. For example, 30% of students enrolledwith UZCDE's pioneering BEd (Educational Administration, Planning andPolicy Studies) programme were female compared with 20% for theUniversity of Zimbabwe's conventional programmes. In 1996,54% of FourthIntake students on the same programme were female. This comparesfavourably with 1993 figures for UNISA where 50,9% of registered studentswere female. Age-wise, the youngest student in the first cohort of theUZCDE programme was 23 years and the oldest 64 years.In 1990 UNESCO reported that only 30% of students enrolled atThailand's STOU and India's IGNOU came from Bangkok and Delhi whilethe remaining 70% came from rural and outlying areas. For Zimbabwe'sUZCDE, those coming from outside the two main cities of Harare andBulawayo (that is, from rural and outlying areas) constituted 78%. Distanceeducation systems have wider geographical coverage which allows themto reach students in the remotest parts of the country. This is madepossible due to a highly decentralised instructional delivery system whichbrings university education nearer to the learners. In this connection, theUZCDE established 10 regional learning centres throughout the countryand is in the process of setting up 55 district learning centres. Libraryfacilities are being established in each of the 10 regional centres, whiledistrict learning centres will act as resource centres from where tutorialswill be conducted by field tutors.186 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONUnlike UNISA where all academic matters are carried out and controlledby the central campus, the central office of UZCDE develops programmes,produces learning materials, monitors and controls academic matters,leaving programme delivery to regional and district learning centres. Thisarrangement further enhances the quality of programmes by bringingcloser to the learners student support services such as guidance andcounselling, provision of tuition, and face-to-face interaction.The 'open-door' policy of systems of higher distance education makesit possible for even students registered in conventional universityprogrammes to register for distance education courses or programmes.There are many conventional university students who take credit transfercourses with distance learning institutions especially in developedcountries. This trend denotes the acceptance of the equivalence in thequality of distance education programmes. In Canada, more than 65% ofAthabasca University students take credit transfer courses for conventionalprogrammes, while nearly all students enrolled with Simon FraserUniversity's Centre for Distance Education are registered forconventional programmes with Simon Fraser and other universities inBritish Columbia.Learner outcomesIn distance education, the question of access and equity is closely relatedto the issue of learner outcomes because learner outcomes are concernedwith what happens to students after their enrolment. How well they performand how many of them achieve their goals are issues that address learneroutcomes. Student achievement, in turn, depends on the nature and qualityof the instructional methods used in the delivery of distance learningprogrammes.Instructional methods commonly used in distance learning includecooperative learning, audiotutorials, problem-based learning, masterylearning, guided self-study, correspondence teaching, computer-aidedinstruction, videodiscs, telecourse and resource-based teachingŠto nameonly a few. All these approaches have the same objectives. The majorobjective is that they seek to shift the focus of instruction from teaching tolearning. Accordingly, these approaches place themselves in the role ofthe learner in order to effectively analyse learning materials and identifyinherent learning difficulties. Thereafter sequences of learning experiencesare specially constructed so that learners can work through them,independently or in groups. The learning sequences are presentedinteractively so that learners can participate actively in their own learningand take control of it, but still have access to a tutor when they need help.According to SAIDE (1995,49), conventional universities are beginningto see the value of distance learning approaches and some have alreadyT.J. NHUNDU 187started exploring possibilities of using guided self-study approaches forresidential students. Where guided self-study materials are used inconventional universities, the role of lectures as the dominant means ofproviding instruction is diminished. Students take fewer lectures as theyassume greater control over their learning in much the same way asdistance education learners.In assessing the quality of higher distance education programmes bylearner outcomes, this article focuses on three major skills areas, namely:cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills. However, other areas can bereadily added to the list. These may include individual, instructional andinstitutional variables because these strongly influence learner outcomesin distance education (Chacon-Duque, 1985, 7).Cognitive skillsThis section presents evidence on the effectiveness of higher distanceeducation instructional methods in contributing to cognitive achievementof learners compared with conventional on-campus classroom instruction.It is important to determine the extent to which self-instructional methodscontribute to student academic performance in distance learning systemscompared to traditional face-to-face methods. Self-instructional methodswhich will be considered in this section include audiotutorials, masterylearning, correspondence study and tuition, computers, videodiscs andtelecourses.Verduin and Clark (1991,89) define audiotutorials as 'an instructionalmethod in which audio cassette, print, and visual media are combined inself-instructional units'. Research on the effectiveness of audiotutorialsshows that they are generally more effective in contributing to thedevelopment of student cognitive skills than conventional classroommethods. This is the conclusion reached by Kulik, Kulik and Cohen (1979)and Willett, Yamashita and Anderson (1983) following meta-analyses offindings from comparative studies on the effectiveness of conventionaland audiotutorial instructional methods using college and K-12 studentsdrawn from several United States educational institutions. Both analysesfound the same effect size1 of 0,17 indicating that the scores of theEffect size is defined by Cohen (1977) as a ratio which expresses the degree to which thedistribution of scores in the experimental and control groups do not overlap, or the extentto which the null hypothesis (i.e. there is no effect) is wrong. It tells the researcher theextent to which the differences in the performance between two groups cannot be explainedby the variability of scores in the two treatments. Thus, an effect size of 0,17 represents ashift in the average distribution of scores of the audiotutorial group 0,17 standarddistribution rightward from the average distribution of scores of the group comprising ofconventional classroom learners. Effect sizes are often expressed in percentiles or lettergrades.188 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONaudiotutorial rose to 57th percentile compared with the conventionalclassroom group which scored at 50th percentile.In distance education another instructional approach which producessuperior cognitive attainment compared to conventional classroominstruction is mastery learning. This is predominantly a print-basedindividualised instructional method characterised by immediate feedback,remediation and repeated testing. According to Kulik, Jaska and Kulik(1978), the strength of mastery learning programmes, notably Keller'sPersonalized System of Instruction (PSI), lies in frequent quizzes, immediatefeedback, adequate reviews and the requirement that the learner shouldmaster before progressing. Subsequent meta-analyses of severalcomparative studies conducted by Guskey and Gates (1985), Kulik (1983),Kulik and Kulik (1987) and Willett, Yamashita and Anderson (1983)confirmed the superiority of mastery learning over conventional classroominstruction. These studies produced high effect sizes among K-12 andcollege students, further indicating higher academic achievement for theexperimental group using mastery learning over the control group. Asimilar finding was later reported by Verduin and Clark (1991, 90-91) whoalso found that print-based mastery learning systems produce the greatestcomparative cognitive gains of all instructional systems.Meanwhile, findings of a study by Pierre and Olsen (1991) on theeffectiveness of another instructional method used in distance learning,correspondence study, revealed that this learning method appealed toboth distance education and traditional students alike. Taking their cuefrom Leverenz's (1979) assertion that the best measure of studentsatisfaction with distance education was their willingness to take up anothercorrespondence course, Pierre and Olsen found that 96% of students intheir sample had taken some correspondence courses before. The studyalso found that feedback variables, communication variables, turnaroundtime, contact variables, experiential learning and the nature of coursematerial were important predictors of student satisfaction withcorrespondence study. Another important variable associated with studentsatisfaction with correspondence study was the self-pacing nature ofdistance education study materials. Accordingly, distance educationsystems routinely train tutors on principles and practices of effectivecorrespondence tuition so that they are better able to seek and utiliseinstructional and learning opportunities available through students' tutor-marked assignments (TMAs). Unlike conventional classroom instruction,correspondence study demands special skills from tutors if they are toengage students in meaningful discourse through their assignments.Much of the literature on television instruction shows that telecourselearning produces equal or superior cognitive outcomes compared withconventional instructional methods (Chu and Schramm, 1975); Ellis andT. J. NHUNDU 189Mathis (1985); Moore and Thompson (1990); Mount and Walters (1985);Purdy (1978); Whittington (1987); and Zigerell, (1984). Following anextensive review of literature on the effectiveness of television-basedinstruction compared with conventional classroom instruction, Zigerellconcurred with Chu and Schramm that there was no significant differencein cognitive outcomes between distance education and classroom studentstaking equivalent courses. Where differences were observed, these werein favour of television-based instruction. Similar findings were also reportedby Moore and Thompson who found that telecourse learning in highereducation, military and business was as effective as conventional classroominstruction. This finding seems to indicate that telecourse learning is aseffective as conventional traditional classroom instruction when usedwith adult learners because of the predominance of adult learners in theseenterprises.The above literature has primarily concerned itself with comparativestudies on the effectiveness of instructional methods in conventionalclassroom and distance education on cognitive achievement of studentsin examinations and student assignments. However, little research hasbeen carried out to assess the perceptions of students on the effectivenessof these two instructional delivery systems. This was addressed in arecent study by Egan, Welch, Page and Sebastian (1992) who found thatdistant learners rated the effectiveness of conventional delivery systemshigher than telecourse instructional systems contrary to a preponderanceof studies which found that telecourse produced equal or superiorachievement. While the perceptions of students were largely subjectiveand at variance with comparison studies which used direct performancescores, the reasons cited in favour of conventional classroom instructionshould, nevertheless, help distance educators and instructional designersin their efforts to improve the effectiveness of self-instructional methodsin distance learning. According to Egan et al. (1992, 53), the strength ofconventional classroom instruction was attributed to several factors whichincludeinstructional 'intimacy' associated with face-to-face aspect of theconventional delivery system... Specifically, such factors as accessibilityto the instructor, immediacy of feedback, and the ability of the instructorto monitor student behavior (verbal and non-verbal) during sessioninteractions.Comparative studies on the effectiveness of computer versusconventional classroom lectures generally agree on the superiority ofcomputers. Niemiec and Walberg (1987) who carried out an extensiveliterature search including three major reviews and 13 meta-analyses ofcomputer-assisted instruction (CAT), concluded that CAI raised student190 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONexamination scores from 50th percentile to 66th percentile with an effectsize of 0,42. Similar findings were reported by Kulik, Kulik and Schwalb(1985) who also reported an effect size of 0,42 for computer-basedinstruction (CBI). Another acknowledged strength of computers is thatthey make great savings on student time. According to Kulik, Kulik andSchwalb, students save an average of 30% on time needed for instruction.This means that students will have more time to revise and acquiremastery or embark on new work. Meanwhile, Verduin and Clark (1991)have reported that videodiscs yield similar cognitive outcomes and enjoythe same advantages as computers compared to classroom teaching.Affective skillsThe development of affective skills through distance education has receivedthe most criticism because of the claim that socialisation and affectivegrowth cannot take place at a distance. This argument is succinctlysummarised by Keegan and Rumble (1982, 233).Most criticism of distance education focuses on its effectiveness inthe affective domain, which is concerned with values, attitudes and beliefsthat are 'caught' rather than 'taught'. Many people argue that they canonly be 'caught' in a social context, and that this element is not providedin distance teaching systems.However, the introduction of communication technology in distanceeducation has made possible the development of affective skills in distancelearners. For example, television has clearly demonstrated the efficacyand affectiveness of distance education media in the affective domain.Television has graphically brought to the comfort of our homes thegruesome killings in Rwanda, Bosnia, Mozambique and Somalia or thedevastating famine of Ethiopia and Afghanistan. These scenes have hadstrong appeal to the viewers' emotions, perhaps stronger than those'caught' up in these tragedies. Similarly, television commercials haveresulted in changes in consumer habits and attitudes, while violent movieshave influenced some people to commit crime.Although the distance learner may have more limited opportunitiesfor student-student interaction than on-campus students, the former isalso exposed to other socialising forces which are unavailable to thelatter. This is because socialisation forces are both internal and externalto the institution. Hence residential students tend to experience moreinternal socialising forces than distance learners. Students in higherdistance education, on the other hand, are exposed more to off-campussocialisation forces such as the family, job, social and civic life, andexperiential life. In addition, students in higher distance education alsodevelop important life skills of strong affective dimensions which aredifficult to inculcate in on-campus students. These skills are neither jobT. J. NHUNDU 191related nor intrinsically academic in nature. According to Valiga (1982),students in higher distance education develop the ability to workindependently, persist at difficult tasks, manage time, and the ability todeal with competing social demands. These skills are integral to distanceeducation in its aim to produce self-directed learners. In addition, periodicface-to-face student-student and student-tutor encounters also help fosteraffective skills in distance education students. Tutorial time for UZCDEcourses is equivalent to one-third of the contact time allocated to thesame courses offered conventionally. It is during these periodic tutorials(weekend schools), as well as during residential and revision sessions,that UZCDE students engage in intense student-student and student-tutorinteractions and, for brief periods, situate themselves in social contextstypical of residential students.Psychomotor skillsTechnology has also made it possible to teach psychomotor skills andpractical subjects at a distance. The introduction of videos, videodiscs,televisions, do-it-yourself books, kits and periodic travel to conventionalinstitutions have resulted in effective development of psychomotor skills.In fact some of these technologies have resulted in superior cognitiveperformance over conventional instruction in areas such as college anduniversity physics, biology and chemistry laboratory work (Stevens, 1984;Smith, Jones and Waugh, 1986; and Bunderson etal., 1984).Quality assurance in distance learningUntil recently the setting up of quality assurance systems and practiceshas been a major concern of profit-making enterprises, almost to theexclusion of most human service organisations such as educationalinstitutions. But with the filtering of quality assurance into education, thepractice has received greater consideration in distance teaching systemsthan in conventional education because of the complex, industrialisedand highly technological nature of distance learning systems. The highlydecentralised and industrialised operations of distance education systems,together with the fact that distance learning materials are open to publicscrutiny, combine to create greater need for setting up reliable systemsthat make the parts of the distance education system work to producehigh standards and win client confidence.Cognisant of their complexities, distance teaching systems set upquality assurance systems to monitor and ensure that all units produceproducts and services of pre-specified quality. The activities of severalseemingly disparate units require monitoring and harmonisation so thatpre-specified products and services are produced by the distance education192 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONsystem. Accordingly, quality control systems are routinely instituted inthe development and production of learning materials, student assessment,delivery of instruction and management processes, to name a few.Quality learning materialsSince instructional materials in the form of study guides or modules arethe equivalent of lectures in conventional universities, quality controlmeasures used in their design, development and production should beconsidered against parallel measures used by lecturers in the preparationof lectures and lecture notes in conventional universities. Unfortunatelylecture notes are, by and large, personal, not open to public scrutiny, andhave no known and readily monitored quality control measures.Measures taken in the preparation of distance learning materials ensurethat high quality products are made available to learners. Learning materialsare produced by either in-house or consultant writers. In either case,quality is the hallmark. Where learning materials are written in-house, asis commonly practised at the Open University, United Kingdom (OUUK),the materials are produced by teams of writers instead of one writer. Thisrequirement promotes quality products through collaborative work ofseveral experts who negotiate and harmonise their expertise in a givendiscipline. Quality control processes are in-built in team work becauseteam members vet each other's contribution for academic soundness,relevance, pedagogic and andragogic value and other quality indicators.The quality of such collaborative team work is usually superior to anylecture notes prepared by one content expert in conventional systems.In cases where learning materials are produced by external consultants,these are often recruited from among the best professors in conventionaluniversities. There is financial incentive for them to produce qualitymaterials, unlike conventional lecturers, who do not receive additionalemoluments for producing lecture notes. The curriculum is produced bysome of the best subject experts while the materials are written followingdistance learning principles and guidelines provided by specialistinstructional designers. Particular attention is taken in the design andproduction of learning materials because the quality of the educationalprocess in distance education depends largely on the quality of learningmaterials.To ensure that high quality instructional materials are produced byits consultant writers, UZCDE has developed rigorous quality controlmeasures. Consultant writers are selected on the basis of the quality oftheir draft course outlines submitted in response to advertisements callingfor course writers. The selected writers are required to attend aninstructional designing workshop where they receive training on how towrite for distance learners. The contracts for consultant writers specifyT. J. NHUNDU 193work schedules to be adhered to and stipulated fee payment modalitiesupon acceptance of the final draft module. Draft modules are edited byinstructional designers and reviewed by content experts who vet thematerials for relevance, suitability, academic soundness and quality beforethe modules are accepted. These processes are meant to ensure that thefinal product is of high pedagogic and academic quality.The quality of distance learning materials can be judged using severalindicators. They can be judged intuitively, that is, whether or not they'feel right'. Secondly, they can be judged informally on the basis of theiradoption for use by other institutions or students within conventionalinstitutions. A more formalised way suggested by Rumble (1986, 208)requires the system toobtain feedback from those using the materials, both students and tutors,and on the utility of the materials and the difficulties which theyencountered in using them. Routine feedback can obtain a great deal ofinformation on, for example, the amount of time that students spent onthe elements of the course, whether or not they are on schedule orbehind schedule on paced courses, and on what they felt about thematerial. Tutors may report on any difficulties which students have inunderstanding the material.An examination of the perceptions of distance education students o.what constitutes quality in distance education materials shows thastudents preferences are in complete agreement with the underlininprinciples and guidelines used by instructional designers when preparingdistance study materials. According to Viljoen, Holt and Petzall (1991,12)distance education students on a Deakin University MBA programmereported that good in-text questions, accompanied as far as possible bysuggested answers, materially enhances the quality of study guides. Suchquestions and answers enable students to test their understanding of thematerials and serve as a substitute, to some extent, for the relative lack offace4:o-face contact with lecturers.According to Holmberg (1985), when distance education studentsinteract with learning materials, they are engaged in simulated dialoguewith their lecturers, hence quality distance education materials should bethought-provoking and challenging. The materials should be well writtenand easy to read. Well designed distance education learning materialsshould promote creative thinking and critical analysis rather than inhibitit. According to Viljoen, Holt and Petzall (1991, 13),Students not only value interaction with appropriately designed learningmaterials, but they also value the way in which the learning materialsstimulate opportunities for further interaction outside the text itself (i.e.interaction with the workplace, the study group, and in residentialschools, as well as ongoing interaction with teaching staff).194 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONIt is important periodically to evaluate the perceptions of studentsand teaching staff on learning materials in order that quality materials areproduced. UZCDE has a research and evaluation unit as an integral part ofthe quality assurance system. This unit routinely evaluates learningmaterials as suggested by Rumble (1986).Quality and integrity of student assessmentThe separation of the learner from the lecturer, in time and space, whichcharacterise distance education, calls for the design and implementationof sound assessment systems in order to guarantee the validity, reliability,credibility and quality of the assessment processes. In this respect,important decisions will have to be made concerning the purposes,structure, nature and quality of the assessment system. For example, itwill be decided whether student assessment will comprise of continuousassessment of assignments, whether assignments should take the form ofprojects, group or individual work, or some combination of these formsand whether they should be marked by tutors or computers. The role ofassignments also has to be clarified. Should completion of assignmentsact as a pre-requisite for a student to sit end-of-course examinations orshould assignments' marks contribute towards the final mark for theprogramme? Should assignments serve a pedagogic or assessment function,or both? Similarly, is student assessment going to take the form of finalexaminations only and, if so, what type of examinations will they be: essay,multiple choice, true-false, etc? Whatever system is adopted, measuresshould be taken to secure quality assessments that are valid, reliable,secure and credible.Under conventional systems some fallacies exist concerning processessurrounding the assessment system. For example, conventional systemsassume that when a lecturer has sufficient subject content, he or shenecessarily has the right skills to mark students assignments and provideuseful feedback of instructional value without further training. Similarly,many conventional universities do not provide lecturers with training inteaching methods for the same reason. Furthermore, assignment andexamination marking is generally left to the individual lecturer'scompetency and professionalism, while little or no moderation orstandardisation of the assessment process is routinely practised. As aresult, the reliability of the assessment procedures may be highlyquestionable.In contrast, distance learning systems often depend on stringentmeasures which secure the quality of the assessment system. Assessmentpractices employed at UZCDE illustrate the rigour in the measures takento protect the integrity of student assessments. The assessment systemused is continuous assessment which comprises of TMAs and end-of-course examinations. Subject coordinators draw examination questionsT. J. NHUNDU 195from a pool of questions generated by course writers and field tutors. Aboard of examiners, which includes subject coordinators and other facultymembers, convenes to moderate the examination questions sampled bysubject coordinators. The moderated examination questions are thensent to an external examiner for final moderation. These measures ensurethat high quality examination questions are produced without sacrificingthe security and integrity of the process.Students at UZCDE sit their examinations in regional centres fromwhere examination answer scripts are taken to the National Centre. Teamleaders collect them for distribution to markers. Team leaders are speciallytrained and usually experienced markers, who lead and moderate thework of their team members. All markers, upon recruitment, attend astandardisation and marking workshop where they receive training tobring their inter-marker reliability to acceptable levels. Marked scripts aresubsequently sampled for moderation by an external examiner before theresults are scrutinised by the board of examiners, after which they aretabled before several committees for further scrutiny pending the releaseof the results. Similarly, 10% of all tutor-marked assignments are sent tothe National Centre for moderation and generation of tutor profiles. Dataobtained from these profiles provide information on which decisions ontutor training, retention, etc. are based.Management processIn distance education the teaching and learning processes are invariablyseparated in time and space. This necessitates sound management toaccomplish effective student learning under conditions of virtual isolation.Because the success of learner-centred distance education programmesdepends, to a large measure, on the effectiveness of loosely coupled andhighly decentralised structures, activities and operations, the role of theteacher may be no more important than the management processes thatunderpin the educational process. Accordingly, the institution plays acrucial role in facilitating student learning by instituting soundadministration and management of all the activities that enhance learningat a distance. For example, the processing of TMAs is more complex andtakes longer compared to what obtains in conventional on-carnpusprogrammes. Depending on the quality of the administrative andmanagement infrastructure of the distance education system, assignmenttopics may easily not reach the student, and if they do, they may get to thestudent late. On the other hand, the student may not receive feedback onthe assignments or may get it late when it is of no pedagogic value to thelearner.Similarly, the processing of examinations, including drafting ofquestions, provision of examinations in regional centres and other host196 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONinstitutions which may even be in different time zones, the marking exerciseand related processes, require sound management practices to coordinatethese interdependent activities and safeguard the quality and integrity ofthe assessment function. It is because of such threats and challenges tothe assessment process that UNESCO (1990, 52) recommends thatinstitutions of distance education should function as a cohesive entity'unlike most conventional universities where the phrase "participatorydemocracy of decision-making" is often a euphemism for 'loosely controlledanarchy". Management of distance learning requires strategic planningwhich is characterised by in-built quality assurance structures, cooperation,consultation and commitment of all personnel as the hallmarks of themanagement process. Because distance education is a complex andinterdependent system, it requires a visionary leadership which operateson principles of team work.Distance education administration should be efficient and sensitive ifit is successfully to:i) organise the thousands of students studying in different locationsand separated from their lecturers by time and space,ii) coordinate the timely preparation of learning materials,iii) deliver promptly learning materials to scattered populations,iv) provide students with timely feedback,v) recruit and train the right calibre of staff,vi) develop communication systems, information services andadministrative procedures, andvii) provide regional, district and tutorial services.Dropout ratesIf student outcomes and completion rates are used as performanceindicators in distance education systems in the same way they are used inconventional systems, the quality of distance learning systems comparesvery unfavourably. Attempts have, therefore, been made to isolate factorsthat influence dropping out in higher distance institutions. Several recentstudies including those by Holmberg (1989); Kember (1989); Billings (1988);Herrmann (1988); Chacon-Duque (1987) and Garrison (1987) cited byVerduin and Clark (1991) have identified some of the major factors whichinfluence student dropout in higher distance education systems. Theseinclude course difficulty, level of learner motivation, persistence, agreementbetween personal interests and course or programme structure, openadmission policies and large-scale expansion. According to Chacon-Duque(1987), perceived learner difficulty, level of learner motivation andpersistence were important predictors of student dropout fromPennsylvania State University's Independent Learning courses, whileT. J. NHUNDU 197Holmberg (1989) reported that older, mature and better qualified studentshad strong motivation necessary to succeed at a distance.What does research inform us on open door policy vis-a-vis dropoutrates? A UNESCO report in 1990 on Developments in Distance Education inAsia cites open entry policies as contributing to dropouts in higher distanceeducation. According to the report, 'open doors generally imply admittingstudents with less than "normal" entry qualifications or if they have them,they may have been obtained many years before'. The result is that manymay find it difficult to cope with course demands. Similarly, large-scaleexpanding systems may stand to lose more students since student supportservices will be overstretched and may not reach out to every student. Asa result, students will be left with feelings of isolation, neglect andfrustration. Students in distance education require more support duringthe first year because this period represents the greatest obstaclepsychologically and academically.Unfortunately, making comparisons of dropout rates betweenconventional and distance education systems is often misleading becauseof the flexible nature of higher distance education. For example, underhigher distance education, some students may register but decide todelay joining the programme for various reasons or they may postponetaking an exam because they feel they are not yet ready. In some casesstudents may register for one semester and not the next, or may belong toconventional universities where they eventually graduate although theyregister for several credit transfers through distance education. Therefore,it is often spurious to compare dropout rates between distance educationand conventional universities because statistics may be imprecise sincewhat constitutes dropout under distance education is debatable.Improving the quality of distance educationThe issue of quality in distance education should be seen as an integralpart of the academic process as well as a competitive weapon thatdetermines the credibility and acceptance of distance education as acompeting delivery system for higher education. The search for quality indistance education has resulted in a compendium of major qualityindicators which include learner outcomes, instructional materials, dropoutrates, access and equity, management process, integrity of studentassessment and effectiveness. Whilst this list is not exhaustive, it providesan important initial framework for focussing distance educators' attemptsto improve the quality of distance education. Other factors which shouldbe considered include staff recruitment and training, and evaluation andresearch on distance education programmes and processes.Evidence presented in this article concerning the effectiveness ofdistance education instructional methods show that students in distance198 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONeducation can produce the same, or even better, results compared withtheir counterparts in conventional systems. This favourable attainmenton the part of distance learners is attributable to the efficacy of distanceeducation instructional media such as audiotutorial, telecourses, masterylearning, computers, correspondence study and tuition. While some ofthese technologies are readily available to distance education learners,some are out of the reach of many. For example, the effectiveness oftelevision and video instruction is limited because not all learners canafford these instructional tools, especially in developing countries. Similarly,computer-assisted instruction, videodiscs and other computer relatedinstructional approaches, which are readily available to learners in affluentsocieties where prices are significantly low, remain out of reach of mostlearners in developing countries. In addition, poor infrastructure, such aslack of electricity and poor telecommunication systems, may continue todeny many rural learners access to these new instructional technologiesfor a long time.In view of these constraints, systems of distance education shouldexplore ways of increasing student access to modern technologies so thatlearners are not excluded from the benefits of these multi-mediainstructional approaches. For example, the Open University (UnitedKingdom) negotiated a discount facility with some major manufacturersso that many students could afford computers. Similarly, distance educationinstitutions in developing countries, such as UZCDE, can equip regionaland district study centres with computer laboratories and television andvideo rooms so that their students can also benefit from these instructionaltechnologies. These centres can be manned so that live programmes thatare readily viewed by urban distance education learners can be recordedfrom rural study centres for student viewing at convenient times. If thesetechnologies, including computers and videodiscs, are made available instudy centres, it is possible to carry out interactive audio and videoIteleconferencing with students across the whole country.Many distance education programmes depend on print-basedinstructional materials as the major teaching-learning resource for students.Constraints imposed on distance education students who study in isolationhave led to the development of theories and principles of distanceeducation which now guide instructional designers to produce highlyinteractive, student-centred and user-friendly learning materials. Thecontent, structure and presentation of distance education courses arespecially designed to guide, encourage and motivate learners. Hence,although course writers routinely receive training on how to write fordistance learners, they should continue to collaborate with instructionaldesigners, illustrators and graphic artists so that the resultant learningT. J. NHUNDU 199quality of the study materials will be greatly enhanced if it is subjected toa content reviewing process. Finally, the study materials should be regularlyevaluated by both students and tutors and updated periodically to keepup with the growth of new knowledge.The problem of student dropout is closely associated with the issue ofopen access and rapid expansion. Thus, the wider the door swings open,the greater the number of students with less than 'normal' entryqualifications who enter the system, and the more varied the entryqualifications for students entering the same programme. This leads togreater demand for individualised student support services especiallyduring the first year of study. The problem of diverse entry qualificationsfor the same programme is made worse if there is large-scale expansion ofthe programme. Accordingly, the strategy should involve controlled opendoors and expansion, relative homogeneity of entry requirements and asound student support system. In addition, opportunities for formalstudent-tutor and student-student interaction should be improved. A studyby Viljoen, Holt and Petzall (1991) revealed that students valued residentialschools from a social perspective because of the social bond and groupidentity it creates among learners. Initiatives by the UZCDE to provideweekend schools for students in addition to residential sessions is arecognition of student need for social cohesion and group identity.Furthermore, UZCDE also introduced student study groups, T-shirts, blazersand other paraphernalia which promote group identity and societalrecognition of distance education learners and systems. Finally, the trainingof field tutors for tuition (both correspondence and face-to-face) andstudent assessments are essential for the improvement of the quality ofdistance education programmes.SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONThis article has explored the potential of distance education in providingquality education at university level. Using evaluation criteria built from acompendium developed from the literature on comparison studies,evidence has been presented which show that higher distance educationsystems can produce quality programmes which stand up to publicscrutiny. The article concedes that the role of higher distance educationin increasing access to education for the disadvantaged sections of societyis widely acknowledged. What has been at issue from critics of distanceeducation is its potential to provide quality education comparable to thatprovided through conventional classroom instruction. However, this articlehas demonstrated that the performance of higher distance educationinstructional methods can be as good as, and sometimes superior to,conventional teaching methods. In addition, the performance effectiveness200 THE SEARCH FOR QUALITY THROUGH DISTANCE EDUCATIONof delivery systems of higher distance education has the potential toimprove in a number of ways. Such areas for improvement have beenidentified and suggestions for improvement offered.In conclusion, the author asserts that the quality of higher distanceeducation programmes is determined by the quality of its delivery andstudent support systems and instructional resources such as tutors, printand electronic-based learning materials. The evidence presented in thisarticle on the main factors that influence the quality of distance educationprogrammes suggest that over the last two decades higher distanceeducation has gained a competitive edge over conventional universitydelivery systems. Part of this advantage comes from the fact that distanceeducation is by nature a technology-based system which uses electronicmedia in delivering instruction. The advantages of electronic media includespeed, increased access, equity and enhanced student performance. Theuse of instructional technology results in comparable, if not superior,student cognitive outcomes when compared with conventional traditionalclassroom instruction. Another source of advantage lies in the traininggiven to tutors in the areas of tutor-counselling, provision of instructionand student assessment.Higher distance education should maintain this competitive advantageover conventional university education and further develop a culture ofquality education as a competitive tool. Trends in higher education seemto suggest that distance education is no longer an alternative deliverysystem to conventional higher education but a partner, albeit a competingone, in the provision of higher education. By routinely accepting transfercredits for courses taken through distance education, conventionaluniversities have come to accept higher distance education on equalfooting.The potential for higher distance education in the coming decadesuggests that it is going to be a major delivery system for higher education.Conventional university education which has hitherto monopolised theprovision of higher education is increasingly being called upon to accountfor its costly operations as higher distance education gradually receives alarge share of public funding at the expense of conventional universities.To the monopolist, competition is a significant threat because it bringswith it measures that hitherto used to receive little or no attention such asefficiency and effectiveness. Thus, higher distance education should striveto consolidate its gains through improved quality, efficiency, effectivenessand enhanced credibility.ReferencesBILLINGS, D. H. 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