Zambezia (1998), XXV (i).MORE THAN ONE PARAMOUNT CHIEF IN ONECHIEFTAINCY? THE GENDER OF MAINTAININGWORLDSCARIN VUFHUIZEN AND LOCADIA MAKORA1Department of Sociology, University of ZimbabweAbstractA chieftaincy usually has one paramount chief. This article explores the factthat one of the Ndau-Shona chieftaincies in Chipinge district in Zimbabwe,the Mutema chieftaincy, has more than one paramount chief, namely one ofthe government and one or two of the ancestors. This phenomenon hasseveral reasons. One reason is the power struggle among the royals. Anotherreason is that spirit mediums, chiefs and government officials use, manipulateand transform rules, values, norms and ideas and thereby shape practice.They do so in order to maintain their own worlds, which became intertwined,and from which they derive their authority, enabling them to wield power. Itis the woman spirit medium of the chieftaincy who emerges as a power-broker and mediator between the different worlds of chiefs and government.Thereby, she assists both government officials and chiefs in maintaining theirworlds.INTRODUCTIONTHIS ARTICLE IS based on field research2 in the Mutema chieftaincy ofChipinge District (see Appendix 1). We explore the fact that the chieftaincyhas more than one paramount chief, namely one of the government andone or two of the ancestors. Usually one person carries out both religiousand governmental duties in a chieftaincy. Bourdillon (1987, 117-118)referred to one chieftaincy where these duties were divided between twochiefs in the 1930s, but pointed out that this was no longer acceptable tocandidates in the 1970s. In every chieftaincy, there is a hierarchy. At thetop of the Mutema chieftaincy are paramount chiefs who look after thewhole chieftaincy area (nyika). Below them are seven area headmen, fiveof whom have the special title, madumburanzou, and are involved in theappointment of paramount chiefs. Finally, there are 37 village heads, who1 Carin Vijfhuizen is a Visiting Lecturer in the Department of Sociology, University of Zimbabweand registered as a PhD researcher at Wageningen Agricultural University in the Netherlands.Locadia Makora is a Manyika Shona, and lived among the Ndau people. We would like tothank Professor Michael Bourdillon for his valuable comments, support and editing of thetext, and Vupenyu Dzingirai for his valuable comments.2 This research among the Ndau-Shona in Manesa village took place from July 1994 to August1996.596Q THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDS(owner of the tax book), or kraalhead (a term introduced by the colonialhas five sections. First we compare different lists ofHd» and show that such arenractices norms, values and ideas of members of the royal families,concerningTheir selection of a paramount chief. In the third section, weshow Zt leaders want to adhere to these rules of selection, but alsomanToulate the rules to a certain extent. On the other hand, it seems thatSSSSctab u- °"e selection Criteri°n and that,Tge- F°Urth' Texplore the enthroning ceremony of the paramount of the government,which took place on 19 July 1996 in Ngaone v.l age of the MutemaChieftaincy. In the last section we look more closely at the intertwinedworlds of government officials and chiefs.CONSTRUCTED LISTS OF PARAMOUNT CHIEFSDifferent social actors have compiled varying lists with names of paramountchiefs of the Mutema chieftaincy. In Appendix I, we have depicted five listswhich we obtained from Meredith who was an administrator (190o); RennieC1973) who was a scholar; the District Administrator (DA) who representedthe government in Chipinge District (1996); Semwayo Mwaneseni whorepresented the royals of the Mutema chieftaincy (1995); and the spiritmedium of Makopa (1996). .... .. .If we compare the lists, we see that they are almost similar up to the13th chief, Munodani. Only Meredith depicted variations for the fourth,fifth and sixth chiefs. However, after Munodani there are two crucialdifferences. The first difference is that only the Semwayo mentions Muzuruas the 14th paramount chief. The Semwayo said that he trusted this listbecause he obtained it from a very old man who used to know everything.He argued that only the spirit medium of Makopa could indicate whetherMuzuru was a paramount chief or not. That spirit medium was experienced.Makopa was the 10th paramount chief and is at present the mostimportant royal ancestral spirit (mudzimu) of the Mutema chieftaincy.Makopa has a medium, who from time to time becomes possessed by thespirit and speaks with the voice of the spirit. Because of their links withancient chiefs, one of the tasks of such a spirit medium is to nominate aparamount of the house whose turn it is to rule. The medium (svikird) ofMakopa is a woman, approximately 58 years old. She is a niece (muzukuni)of the paramount chief. Everybody calls her Makopa' and 'father is you'(Baba ndiwe). She explained that the spirit came to her after her fatherhad passed away. He had the spirit before her. She said:C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 61I was very young. I was kumuka [literally: to wake up, i.e. possessed witha spirit] before I married. I started to 'wake up' when there was Mwatuma.She saw the following five chiefs being enthroned: Mwatuma, Gadzai,Mwadzongonya, Mwanema and the present Siwonani. She said that Zaruracame after Munodani had passed away, and did not mention Muzuru. Sheexplained that Zarura Mukowa was the first to work in pairs of paramountchiefs: he worked with Mwatuma.This leads to the second difference within the five lists: only themedium of Makopa indicated that there are two or three paramount chiefsat one time Š one who is responsible for government duties and one ortwo who are responsible for religious duties such as worshipping theancestors.This shows us that lists with names of paramount chiefs areconstructions of different social actors who could have specific interests.For example, the spirit medium has an interest in maintaining the ancestralworld from which she and certain royals derive their authority. Theinterests of government could be that they have an educated representativeof the chieftaincy to work with. Interests and rules are often intertwined.CHIEFS' RULES FOR SELECTING A PARAMOUNT CHIEFThe ruling family of the chieftaincy is organised according to houses.There are four ruling houses at present, namely Zarura, Mwatuma, Gadzaiand Mwadzongonya. A paramount chief will be chosen from each house inturn. For example the previous chief of the government, Freddy Mwanema,was of Zarura house and therefore the present government chief is fromMwatuma house. We shall examine the phenomenon of a royal house,taking Zarura house as an example, because its members live in Manesavillage, where the research was conducted.3Late Chief Zarura had many wives and in total 15 sons. Three of thesedid not have sons. The remaining 12 had 54 sons in total. Their familiesrepresent 12 of the 15 current houses of Zarura house at present. If it wasZarura's turn to rule, these 12 houses would participate in the selection ofa paramount chief, who is usually the eldest male.4 But this is not alwaysthe case as many disputes arise about succession.5Thus time and date of birth need to be carefully monitored. Apartfrom age, the nominated chief has to comply with rules and requirementswhich are outlined below. Such information needs to be carefully recorded,3 In January and February 1996, Gumiso Makono, a student of the University of Zimbabwe,participated in the research and looked more closely into this chiefs house.4 However, in Masvingo in 1996 the daughters from the house whose turn it was to rule werealso considered and a young woman was chosen by the government to become a chief.5 Such disputes elsewhere are explored by Weinrich (1971, 106-166).THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSWhen a baby is born you have to inform all family members within ahouse You have to do that fast. When another baby is born later, but isReported earlier, the real first born can be the last born. The hrst reported,is the first born.Wives of the chiefly family establish channels for marriage, birth,umbilical cord and teeth.* Those are some of the criteria for select.ng aparamount chief^ ^ ^ mamfumbere meaning v h shota hyena'. A son of a chiefs house will approach his vatete (father s sisterto inform her that he is married. The vatete will in orm her brother aboutMs son's marriage, using metaphors: She will te him that his son haskufurabere, meaning that he was brave enough to kill a hyena. The marriagechannel is continued by the wives of the families, who take the bride fromhomestead to homestead,7 where they also expla.n some of the issuesabout making love. They also repeat that the bride should live well withothers and respect her vatete and parents.The second channel is to inform the different families in a chieflyhouse that a woman gave birth. If the child was born with the legs first(breech) no channel is carried out. Such a child is called sunama, andsuch sons are excluded from selection to the paramouncy. The birthchannel is started by the grandmother (ambuya), who usually acts as themidwife. When a woman visits a homestead to inform the family about abirth, she indicates by metaphor whether it is a boy or girl.A third channel is carried out when the umbilical cord (chmzoif) ofthe baby falls off. The midwife takes the cord and shaves the hair from thebaby's head. Cord and hair are put in a hole with some ashes on top.The fourth channel is for the coming out of the teeth. If the upperteeth of the child come out first, that child is not supposed to be selectedto be a paramount chief. The whole family is supposed to take medicine,because it is believed that such teeth can kill them. An older wife of a chief6 People who are not related to chiefs also inform their family members about birth, marriage,teeth and umbilical cord, but in a less systematic way than is the case for chiefs. In chiefs'families the information reaches all the homesteads within a house in a few days.7 We once joined in a matafurobere by going from homestead to homestead and were twiceinvolved in a birth murandu in 1995.8 Chinzou literally means a trunk. The umbilical cord holds and feeds the baby in the womband that resembles an elephant trunk.C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 63explained that long ago, before the colonial era, such children were drownedin the river.Even if a baby boy is born in a normal way, the umbilical cord fell offnicely and the teeth came out well, a son does not qualify automaticallyfor the nomination of a paramount chief. In addition to this, he shouldhave lived without accidents, boils, operations or any misconduct. Thechief's sons are not allowed to be stitched in any way, otherwise theycannot be nominated as a paramount chief. Consequently, each house inthe Mutema genealogy, representing different families in smaller houses,controls carefully the nominated paramount chief of tomorrow. Below wewill see that from these rules power struggles emerge. Beach (1994, 242)argues that to understand the reasoning behind the construction of thegenealogy, we need to understand the dynamics of Shona politics. Herecognises two conflicting tendencies: the tendency of fathers to pass onpower to their sons and the tendency of brothers of rulers to seek the titlewhen the ruler dies. These can lead to a third tendency of an uneasy'rotation' of power between the houses. This is what we are going to see inthe next section. But we will see that the uneasy rotation is not onlycaused by the royals who represent different houses; it is also caused bygovernment officials who have their own ideas about who should benominated as a paramount chief.MORE THAN ONE PARAMOUNT EMERGES FROM THE USE OFDIFFERENT IDEAS AND RULES IN TWO WORLDSIn this section we will see how government officials diverge from the royalselection rules. We will also show how royals themselves use those rulesand thereby reproduce and transform social practices. The medium ofMakopa explained9 why chief Zarura Mukowa introduced the pairing ofparamount chiefs as follows:Zarura said I want to work with the government and then my young'brother' Mwatuma will work with the ancestors (vadzimu), because 1was bitten by a crocodile. When you are bitten by a crocodile, you willnot worship the ancestors (kudira ndiro).10 Zarura was given a badge ofoffice. Then Zarura went to his young 'brother' Mwatuma. He said tohim: 'please worship the ancestors for me and for our chieftaincy(umambdy.9 We visited the medium of Makopa several times in Ngaone (see Vijfhuizen. forthcoming)and also spent a night at her place during the weekend of 19 August 1996 The informationin this section is mainly derived from taped interviews during that weekend.10 Kudira (Ndau-Shona) or kupira (Standard Shona) means to worship. Ndiro' means woodenplate'. When people worship, they put a wooden plate in front of them and after worshippingthey will take the plate home and keep it at a special place. This wooden plate is holy andwill not be mixed with the other plates in the homestead.THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSb4Thus although this son of Zarura, Mukowa, did not qualify to becomea oaramount chief, he was chosen by the government because he was theeCToncf Zarura house, whose turn it was to rule. Makopa explainedthafZarura was the first paramount chief who brought the governmentbadge of office to the Mutema area. She said it looked like a half moon witha hare's picture on it. Zarura did not want to lose this opportunity, and soL chose Mwatuma, a 'brother' from the next house to be the paramountof the ancestors. Or perhaps he did not want to perform both duties, as isnormally the case. Bourdillon (1987, 118-119) explains that 'on the oneSand the chief is the traditional "father" and speaks to the spiritualpowers and on the other hand, the chief is a government employee . Th.snormally applies to the Mutema chieftaincy: after Zarura, Chiefs Mwatumaand Gadzai were both ruling alone. Mwadzongonya seemed to have ruledtoeether with Chamwakaona. When Chamwakaona passed away, Mwapingatook over and later Mwadzongonya was alone (see the fifth list in Table 1,APPTht'n Zarura's house had its turn again to rule the Mutema chieftaincy.Freddy Mwanema was the eldest son in this house. However, the royalsand medium of Makopa said that he did not qualify for selection becausehe was once injured. They chose Semwayo Mwaneseni from Zarura'shouse as the chief of the government and Julius Mapipana from Mwatumahouse as the chief of the ancestors.The government said that the people of the chieftaincy did not choosewell, because they had taken the youngest son, while the eldest son wasthere. The medium of Makopa recalled:Then Freddy Mwanema came to me in a car and said: Chief Makopa I wasbitten by a crocodile. I was stitched. But this chieftaincy is not going tobypass me, because my father was also bitten by a crocodile and heworked with Mwatuma. So that is what I am going to do. I am an elder toMapipana and Semwayo Mwaneseni. Let those two worship the ancestors.After Freddy Mwanema had passed away in 1992, the spirit mediumand royals again chose their paramount chief. At the end of 1994, JuliusMapipana was chosen by the medium of Makopa. The medium said that hehad swallowed the stone of the paramount chief, meaning that he hadcomplied with all the rules for selection. The medium explained that theychoose a paramount chief according to the laws (mitemo) of the chieftaincyand that the ancestors do not consider education. However, the governmentchose Siwonani as paramount chief, because he was the eldest son ofMwatuma house. Siwonani was also educated abroad. Then the governmentapproached the medium of Makopa early in 1995 to discuss the nominationof the chief. During a seance in April 1995 in Manesa village, the Makopachose Siwonani as the paramount of the Mutema chieftaincy. Most probablyshe changed her choice because: Siwonani was the eldest and chosen byC. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 65the government; he was an educated person; and she had experiencedseveral times before that the government does not take into account thechiefs' selection rules.We could argue that if Siwonani became the paramount of thegovernment, Mapipana could be the paramount of the ancestors. However,that seemed to be a problem. The medium of Makopa explained that thetwo are from the same house, Mwatuma, and are therefore not allowed torule together. The existing rule is that there can be more than oneparamount, but they ought to be from different houses, namely, thathouse which has its turn to rule and the house which follows it. Themedium of Makopa explained that in the present case the paramount chiefof the ancestors is supposed to be Godfrey Munhukwaye, the eldest sonfrom Gadzai's house. She did not, however, see it as her task to settle thisconflict. She tried to have the name of the paramount of the ancestorsannounced during the enthroning ceremony in July 1996 (see below), butnobody wanted to make the decision. In August 1996, she explained:The government has finished. They have installed their chief. We want toknow who is going to work with Siwonani. It is not possible for Mapipana,because they are both children from one house. The vazvare (eldestsons of the Mutema family) and madumburanzou (headmen) came to me,so that I can ask Makopa. But Makopa said, 'No. You eldest Mutema sonsand headmen, go and arrange it on your own. Otherwise you will say it isMakopa who makes everything go wrong. Go and inform Makopa laterabout the person you have chosen to work with Siwonani.'Also the woman medium of the royal spirit of Mwatuma, who lives inMutema village, said that Siwonani and Mapipana cannot rule togetherbecause they are from one house. It seems to be difficult for the eldestMutema sons and headmen to make a decision. We asked why Siwonanicannot be the only paramount chief of the chieftaincy and carry out bothreligious and government duties. The medium of Makopa and her husbandsaid that Siwonani will not agree to worship the ancestors on the groundsthat he is an educated person. Siwonani chose to work with the government.But the medium and her husband were of the opinion that Siwonanishould choose the person with whom he wants to work. They explainedthat after the enthroning ceremony, Siwonani had said at a private beerdrink, 'Please continue to honour Mapipana for the ancestor side, becauseMapipana was also throned by Makopa.' After hearing this, the medium ofMwatuma asserted again that Mapipana cannot be honoured becauseSiwonani and Mapipana are from the same house. Although Makoparepeated her demand that someone should be chosen, Mapipana andSemwayo continue to act as the paramount chiefs of the ancestors.11" During the installation of a headman in Mutema village which we attended in August 1996,Mapipana was present and he was honoured and recognised as a paramount chief.66 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSTHE ENTHRONEMENT OF THE PARAMOUNT CHIEF OF THEGOVERNMENTEnthronement ceremonies of paramount chiefs of the government areorganised by the government and royals. The installation ceremony ofSiwonani Josisi (or Joseph) Philimon Mutema took place on 19 July 1996 inNgaone village, situated high in the mountains not far away from thedistrict capital Chipinge. Ngaone has been the residence of the Mutemaparamount chiefs, but nowadays the chiefs of the government, likeSiwonani, live in Harare. The chief of the ancestors, Julius Mapipana, andthe medium of Makopa, live in Ngaone. Semwayo Mwaneseni lives inManesa village. The medium lives with her husband, two of her four sonsand a nephew. Julies Mapipana lives with five wives in an ordinaryhomestead. Unlike the chiefly homesteads of the past, it is not surroundedby walls. Old stone walls (rusvingo) can be found in Ngaone. The chiefsused to erect these for defence due to power struggles in the chieftaincyand struggles with paramounts from other chieftaincies. Chiefs were alwaysfighting for wealth (upfumi), taking land, cattle, wives, and young men tobe slaves.On the day of the enthronement it rained and it was cloudy, making itextremely cold high in the mountains. It was difficult for the guests todrive over the steep slippery road to reach Ngaone. Important guestsarrived. Some of them were: Ndabaningi Sithole who is the leader of ZANU(Ndonga), the only opposition party (with two of the 150 parliamentaryseats) in the ZANU (PF) government; the Deputy Minister of LocalGovernment, Rural and Urban Development; the Chairman of the Chiefs'Council, that represents all chiefs in Zimbabwe; the paramount chief ofMusikavanhu chieftaincy; other government officials; important Mutemaroyals, area headmen and village heads; 13 most important spirit mediumsof the Mutema chieftaincy, including the medium of Makopa. Other peoplepresent included school children, teachers, health workers, police officers,agricultural staff and women and men from the villages. The ceremonywas organised at Ngaone secondary school. The place where beer wasbrewed and meat was prepared, called musasa, was 300 metres away fromthe school.The important people of the chieftaincy gathered and started to drinkbeer before the enthroning ceremony started around 12.30 in the afternoon.The majority of the guests sat on chairs in a tent. Other people gatheredaround the tent in a circle, leaving space in the middle where performancescould be held and where the spirit mediums sat down.The master of ceremonies opened the session by saying that Mutemapeople should clap their hands according to the Mutema culture. Afterclapping hands a prayer followed:C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L MAKORA 67Oh God, we are gathering here because we have an important ceremony(jnudiro) in our place Mutema. God, lead our ceremony well and let usdismiss in peace.Then the 13 mediums of the Mutema chieftaincy, of whom ten werewomen and three were men,12 walked into the circle and sat down on thegrass. All mediums had wrapped themselves in black clothes. The medium,Makopa, talked during the ceremony, followed by the woman medium ofMwandeka.Children from Chichichi primary school entered the ground. Theydanced and sang songs. They sang 'our chieftaincy should unite together'and 'people of Zimbabwe I love you all, but witches I will chase them awayfrom the country'. After that, the master of ceremonies introduced theimportant guests to the people.Then the Chairman of the Chiefs' Council of Zimbabwe gave his speech.After he had greeted all the different people, he referred to the powerstruggles among the Mutema royals. He berated them for taking the matterto the High Court in Harare, pointing out that the chief was the chief of thepeople and should be chosen by the people. He also commented that hewas looking forward to chief Mutema bringing development to the areaand helping his people to prosper in peace.While the Chairman of the Chiefs' Council was talking, the medium ofMakopa became possessed. She said:There is nothing I can say to you all, you chiefs. From the beginning youwere there. In times of good and bad things. Give us your speech, so thatwe can also hear you. Proceed with your speech. There is nothing bad.The Chairman of the Chiefs' Council then introduced the DeputyMinister of Local Government, who gave his speech. After greetingeverybody, Deputy Minister agreed with the Chairman of the Chiefs'Council, saying:Our personal behaviour comes from the chieftaincy and all other thingswe always see and hear from time to time. The previous speaker, theChairman of the Chiefs' Council said that the work of a chief is veryimportant. It is the work of seeing if his people are living well and if thepeople have enough food. Do people have enough water and do theyhave good soil? And many other things is the work of a chief. Who is thechief? The Chairman of the Chiefs' Council said that some chiefs want togo with the chieftaincy to the High Court to be given the chieftaincy,arguing that he should be the one who is supposed to be a paramountchief. Was that the behaviour of our elders, which they used to do long12 Thus among the Ndau-Shona it are mainly women who are the spirit mediums of the royalancestral spirits of the chieftaincy. Among the Karanga (see Weinrich, 1971) and Korekore(see Bourdillon. 1987; and Lan. 1985) the spirit mediums of royal ancestral spirits aremainly men.68 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSago (pusi chigare)? The Chairman of the Chiefs' Council said 'No'. Ourchieftaincy in our culture is given through the dzinza (patrilineage). Achief of Mutema cannot be throned by people who do not live withinMutema. The patrilineage of Mutema is of Mutema and of Musikavanhuis of Musikavanhu. Those people from that dzinza are the very peoplewho will get the chieftaincy.We might notice that recourse to the High Court challenge the decision-making of government officials. The Deputy Minister went on to explainthat Papami Shiriyedenga created the Mutema chieftaincy some two tothree hundred years ago and listed 17 chiefs who followed him (omittingthe seventh chief in the government list, Nyazviro Mutsasike) . Accordingto the Deputy Minister, Siwonani is the eighteenth paramount chief, thenumber that was mentioned in the newspapers which reported theenthronement. However, the government list of the District Administratorin Chipinge (Appendix I) shows Siwonani to be the nineteenth chief.The Deputy Minister explained that Siwonani took over from FreddyMwanema who passed away on 20 March 1992. From the way he depictedSiwonani's history, it also emerges that government officials associateeducation of a paramount chief with the development of a chieftaincy:Siwonani was born on 26 March 1929 and was a teacher. He also went tothe University.13 He learned a lot and taught in many different schools.He travelled to different countries and went to be educated in the USA.He had high positions at work. He was once a deputy headmaster andalso a headmaster. He retired in 1989. The way he travelled to differentcountries made his knowledge grow high. The education he has shouldbe an important thing in this area of Mutema. The education is going tohelp those who want to use it. People of Mutema, it shows that you arelucky to have a leader who is going to build up the Mutema area. Whatwe government want is that the chiefs should unite with the governmentand with the Council and with their people. We want your leadership.Chiefs to begin here with the people. Then to the Council and also to goas far as the government. Siwonani Mutema is being approved and beingthroned by the President, his excellency Robert Gabriel Mugabe on thetwelfth of October, 1995. He was led by the Act which is responsible forinstalling the chiefs and which is called Chiefs and Headmen's Act. ThisAct was established in 1982. That the President of the country is involvedin the enthronement of chiefs shows that this is important.Then the Deputy Minister came back to the point of selecting aparamount chief, apparently denying that the chieftaincy had chosendifferently from the government. He condemned again the practice ofgoing to the High Court and argued that it is the Mutema people themselveswho choose their paramount chief and not the government:u Siwonani holds a Bachelor of Arts degree.C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 69I am happy to see that you Mutema people chose Josisi Philimon SivvonaniMutema, when there were also others who were wanting this position. Iam very sorry that my Ministry is now very much involved in these casesof installing chiefs. If the chief is about to be throned, the President willnominate the person. It does not mean that the President is choosingthat chief. You, the people of that chief, you are the ones who havechosen the chief.He complained about bickering over the chiefship through the HighCourt or by pressurising his ministry, and continued:We are not adding another paramount chief when we are in Harare. Weonly want our country to remain in unity. If we follow what you peoplesay, for example you will come and say I was a paramount chief, then Isee that we will end up having a lot of chiefs here in the country, withouthaving people to rule. Everybody will say I am or I was a paramountchief. It cannot be a country which has more chiefs than the people theyare going to lead.The medium of Makopa interfered by thanking him for what he hadexplained, but the Deputy Minister wanted to continue his speech. He saidthat the people should unite together so that the country will not separate.He then moved into some policy issues. He argued that the childrenshould also use the country and therefore soil and water should beconserved. 'There is no Chipinge without water, soil and animals', he said.The chiefs and headmen were warned that deforestation is not allowed.People may not sell sites for building houses, because in the rural communalareas there are no places to be sold: council, kraalheads and chiefs haveto settle these matters. He said sites should not be given to foreigners whoare people from outside the respective area: chiefs should first considerthe people from their own area. He emphasized that those who shiftbetween areas need a transfer letter from the Council or chief where therespective family was staying and the letter should include a reason whythe family wants to move. Then he talked about conserving water bybuilding dams and warned that cultivating on river banks is not allowed.The Deputy Minister then referred to a new law. He explained that theChiefs and Headmen Act of 1982 will be replaced by The Chiefs and AlliedTraditional Leaders Act. With this change in policy formulation, thegovernment aims to improve the collaboration between councillors andchiefs and to improve the status of chiefs by paying them for their ruling intheir village courts.Listen people, we are going to give chiefs the powers which were takenaway from them in 1980, when the government came to rule. As youknow, during the war a lot of things happened, so the government firstwanted to investigate those things and wanted to know what was goingon. Those powers, we are going to give them back to the chiefs. We wantchiefs to rule and lead their people well. If there are cases which rise in70 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSyour areas, you chiefs are given powers to rule and to fine the people, asyou used to do from the beginning. You will be helped by the RuralDistrict Council. The Council will give the chiefs, headmen and thekraalheads the tax books . . . Each and every kraal head is going to havehis own court to rule and lead. The courts of the kraalheads will be theVillage Assemblies where people can discuss the developments theywant, like dams, boreholes or paddocks for domestic animals. Thoserequests go to the Ward Assembly where there is a headman who willdiscuss with his kraalheads. Another court is of councillors and will becalled Ward Development Committee. All the chiefs should know that inthe Council are also our chiefs who are there to represent the rights ofchiefs and also represent the rights of all people. The truth is that thegovernment is going to give a lot of powers to the chiefs.Then the Deputy Minister listed 'development' activities in the Mutemachieftaincy after independence:When the powers were in the hands of us [the government], we saw theroad from Birchenough Bridge to Chipinge having tar. Then the Ngaoneroad was constructed. At the moment, in Mutema area, people of theDistrict Development Fund (DDF) construct roads and small bridges.This was done through my Ministry. We are requesting the people fromthis area to help us with their labour in making roads so that the workcan be speeded up. In terms of education, 20 schools were built in thisMutema area since 1980. In total there are now 26 primary schools and 9secondary schools. In terms of health, before independence peopletravelled to the hospital in Chipinge. But now the government has builtfive hospitals in this rural area: Ngaone, Mutema, Checheche, Musaniand Tanganda. Plan International is helping us very well. They now wantto make an irrigation scheme in Ngaone. Let us hope they keep theirpromises. Irrigation schemes will make our country Zimbabwe verygreen. I know that the children of Zimbabwe have cultivating spirits(mashave ekurima). PTC (telephones) and ZESA (electricity) should alsocome to insert their wires.He now said that the enthronement was about to take place. Heargued that paramount chief Siwonani should rule his people well:Elders are always saying the power of the fish is in the water. You cannothave powers to rule if you ill-treat your people. If a fish lacks water itwon't have power, or it won't survive. That is also what will happenwhen the chief lacks people. Your leading and ruling won't be seen bythe people.He wished that the relationships of the chief with the people, thegovernment and all other organisations would continue for a very longtime. Then he announced the installment of Siwonani:We are now going to install chief Siwonani Josisi Philimon Mutema. I amasking Chief Siwonani to come in front of the people, so that we canenthrone him and give him the things which will show that from nowC. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 71onwards he is a chief. This chief we are enthroning today is the 18thchief in the Mutema chieftaincy. I am holding here your person Siwonani.I am enthroning him. This chieftaincy you have given to him. You as theparents of Siwonani. It is our habit, or culture of the government tocongratulate with money as a present. We are congratulating chief Mutemawhile we are representing the government with an amount of Z$300.People applauded whilst Siwonani was being dressed in the cloak, thewhite pith helmet, badge, and given the stick. The medium of Makopa said:Wait until the one who is dressing the chief has finished, so that you canlisten very carefully to what is being said. After that you can cheer up. Doyou understand me, children?The master of ceremonies thanked the government. He said that itwas now time for everybody to give Siwonani some gifts, showing him thatthe people are happy that he is enthroned and that they accept him astheir paramount chief. He explained that people should move in a singlefile to offer their gifts. When people started to drop their cash gifts in aplate, he said that it was now time for the spirit mediums to talk.The medium of Makopa immediately referred to the selection of chiefs.She indicated that three times the chieftaincy and government had chosendifferent chiefs. These three times were now when the government officerschose Siwonani, while the spirit medium and chiefs chose Mapipana;when the government officers chose Freddy Mwanema, whereas the spiritmedium and royals chose Semwayo Mwaneseni and Julius Mapipana; andwhen the government chose Zarura Mukowa, and Zarura chose Mwatumafor the ancestors.She explained:We don't want to hear any complains. There is nobody here who doesn'tknow Siwonani. His name was being written in books long ago. You haveheard what the government has said. Please honour this child, all of you.It might confuse the people who are gathering here, saying what is goingon again? There is a paramount who is enthroned, but there was anotherone who was enthroned at first. What is happening now? The governmentthroned Mwanema and the ancestors throned Mwaneseni and Mapipana.It was started long back, by Zarura Mukowa. It was like this. ZaruraMukowa was the one who was for the government. For the ancestors, itwas Mwatumepfukwa (or Mwatuma). When they died, these children, allof them, the headmen took the child Mwaneseni in the house of Zarura.In the house of Mwatumepfukwa they took the child Muchapipana (orMapipana), knowing that these children were the ones who were followingand who were fit to be in the chieftaincy. Even long back, that was beingdone. But Mwanema came alone with a government chief's badge, whichis shaped like half a moon. He said to me, 'Please hear me Chief Makopa.The children who are going to worship the ancestors are Mwaneseni andMapipana and I will work with the government.' I, Makopa, have nowfinished. I am going to stay well with others.72 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSThus the medium complies with the decision of the government tochoose Siwonani and says that everybody should accept his nomination,because everybody knows him. That may also refer to the fact that therewas local support for the nomination of Siwonani and that he was notmerely a government appointee. However, the medium emphasizes thenomination of a paramount chief of the ancestors and she justifies this byreferring to historical practices. The way she acts and argues here showsthat she is a mediator between government and chieftaincy worlds, and inthis role, represents the interests of both worlds.The master of ceremonies did not react to what the medium had saidand announced that the chiefs and others who are related to the chief'sfamily, could come to bring their gifts. But Makopa continued because shewanted to know who the paramount chief of the ancestors would be:I want to ask the government if the children whom I was given byMwanema, are the ones who have to worship the ancestors or not. Idon't want to hear a lot of complains when you are leaving us here. Iwant to know if the children who worship, are going to be selected whenyou the government are here today.She aimed to have it announced during this meeting whether Mapipanaand Mwaneseni were going to be the chiefs of the ancestors again duringthe time of Siwonani, or if another person should be the chief of theancestors. The master of ceremonies said to the government, 'Makopa,the chief, is asking you the government to answer the question.' TheDeputy Minister answered:We government, we are here to throne Siwonani only. If there isworshipping, it would be held another day. Not today.The medium of Makopa became annoyed and responded:If you talk like that, you have left me in a pot full of very hot soup. Youdid not scoop me out. You came to me saying, please Chief Makopa wewant to finish this debate, so that I can tell it to all people who gather onthat day when we throne Chief Siwonani.The master of ceremonies interfered. He told the spirit mediums thatthe government had just said that they are here to throne Siwonani only.They are not here to solve the case of worshipping ancestors. That shouldbe organised another day.The medium of Makopa responded:I know that you (referring to the government) are always cheating meand seeing me like a baby. When the baby is injured you will say, 'Pleasekeep quite I will buy a car for you.' Stop cheating me. I know that whenyou go, you won't come back here again. I don't want private things. 1,Makopa, I want that all people know more about the chieftaincy inpublic, because I was having these three paramount chiefs (ushe utatu)C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 73in the regime of Mwanema. They were sending Mwanema to me, in orderto work with him and to go to the children who will worship. ZaruraMukowa sent Mwatumepfukwa to worship the ancestors. So, 1, Makopa,want all the things to be clear to everybody in public, so that otherchildren will know what is going on. I want all other children tc knowthat this Zarura was the one who brought that type of a badge. The samebadge came today. I want the government to help me with what wasthere long ago, and is still there today. It was done by Zarura Mukowa,that the children who worship are these ones, and for the government isthat one. I want all other children to hear it today when they are alllistening. I don't want to hear one who will say it was the fault of that one.Here, the medium of Makopa clearly aims to maintain the ancestorworld from which the spirit mediums and chiefs derive their authority.The medium of Mwandeka said:Did you understand that point of Makopa? Makopa did not say, 'Do notblame the field when you do not work on it.' You come with Mwanesabeing Mwanenga. Leave them like that if they don't want to listen to you.Don't get angry Makopa. They are the ones who know better than you.Mwanedeka's point is that the government (the field) should not beblamed, because it is not their duty to choose the paramount chief of theancestors. The people of the chieftaincy (headmen and eldest sons) shouldchoose themselves. The government, then, repeated again that the choiceof a chief for worshipping would be held another day. Makopa becameangry and said, 'Please what did you say?', looking into the directionwhere the words came from. 'Why can't you speak up, so that I can hearyou again?' Then the master of ceremonies clapped his hands saying,'Please Chief Makopa forgive them, they are children'. Makopa responded:Eee, don't make the country very bad by saying they are children, theyare children. This is just what I am saying. The government has to say allthese things when everyone is here with his or her own ears. If thegovernment is going to say that you are going to worship the way youwere doing it when Mwanema was there, then some people will not knowwho was worshipping with Mwanema. They don't know that their brotherMwanema was doing this. Don't always say people are still children,when they are driving the country in a wrong direction. It is only me, anda few other people who know that Mwanema once came to me saying,'Chief Makopa, I am working with the government. But there are childrenwho are left here for the worshipping.' They should not stop the work ofworshipping. I don't want to explain again about the Mutema family.The medium emphasizes again that the activities related to theancestors need to be recognised and maintained. The Deputy Ministerresponded:Makopa please, it is not the case for which we government are here. Ithink that I had said it in the beginning. Those who came from Harare to74 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSthis place, came to witness the enthroning of Siwonani Mutema. If thereis a case you want to solve, it can be solved another day when thegovernment is there. If you call us, we will come. For today, let us finishthe enthronement of Siwonani.Thus this government official makes some concession to the wishes ofthe woman spirit medium.After this, the master of ceremonies asked Chiefs Chivhunze andChikwanda and others to present their gifts. When people were offeringtheir gifts, Paramount Chief Musikavanhu gave a speech in which heagrees with the government officials that the paramount of the ancestorsshould be chosen by the people of the chieftaincy themselves duringanother session.We receive this paramount chief while we are representing the chieftaincyof Musikavanhu. We came together with Shiriyedenga and 1 rememberthe miracles we came with. You came here, to witness that the chieftaincywhich you have, will never perish. All the names of the chieftaincy arewritten down. This is a big history, which you have made by enthroningyour child Siwonani. A lot you have heard here what was said by theDeputy Minister. He said a paramount chief comes from the dzinza(patrilineage) and not from the government. I am requesting from youchiefs, through the help of our big medium Makopa whom we are having,that you are going to unite about worshipping the ancestors. When weknow there is a meeting, we can finalise this case. It is not a problem ofthe government. It is our problem. We are supposed to sit down to solvethis problem.Then Chief Musikavanhu supported the government's choice ofSiwonani, pointing to his leadership of the whole region through histeaching, and criticised the attempt to use lawyers in competition for thechiefship. He criticised the practice of consulting lawyers over thechieftaincy. He looked forward to working in cooperation with the newchief for the development of the country.The medium of Makopa kept up the dispute:Let us all cheer what Musikavanhu has said. But I think the governmentshould also announce the people who are supposed to worship theancestors in the chieftaincy, when all the people are here. That is mymain aim. There are also other government officials who don't know thesequence. You come to me, asking all these four houses. Do you rememberthis Mlambo [the clan name of Chief Musikavanhu].After Musikavanhu's acknowledgement, she continued:Remember that you will tell them what the chief said. I am not going tolet you know about these, because I see that my country is going to betaken. Don't forget all these names of my children.Musikavanhu responded:C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 75According to what you have said, we will sit down next time with all theheadmen to discuss this issue of worshipping the ancestors.Thus although the senior medium of the chieftaincy did not manage tohave the chief of the ancestors announced during this session, she managedto have government officials and chiefs agreeing with each other that achief of the ancestors would be nominated.The master of ceremonies continued with the gifts and the DeputyMinister also received a gift. Makopa said:Your discussion turns to be very long now. 1 am going. I am the one whois dying and who is struggling to get my children united. Mwandeka letus go home now, we are being called.Mwandeka stood up and started to sing a song. All mediums stood upand started to dance. The people, especially those outside the tent, enjoyedthe spectacle and also started to dance and sing. Siwonani had removedhis cloak and pith helmet, when people were bringing their gifts. He didnot give a speech and silently disappeared from the scene, without peopleknowing it. The enthroning ceremony ended with dancing and singing ofthe possessed mediums.THE WORLDS OF GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS AND CHIEFSIn this concluding section we explore the intertwining worlds of governmentofficials and chiefs. The representatives of both worlds use and transformcertain rules, norms, values and ideas in practice and thereby shapepractice and establish social change. These processes are referred to asdiscourses (see also Arce et al, 1994; Long and van der Ploeg, 1994; andVijfhuizen, forthcoming). Both government officials and chiefs try tomaintain their domains of activities from which they derive authority andare able to wield power. The spirit medium emerges as a mediator,spokeswoman and power broker between both worlds. Below, we willexplore four major points which emerged from this article: the return ofpower to the chiefs; the selection of a paramount chief of the government;the selection of a paramount chief of the ancestors; and the woman spiritmedium as a power broker.Return of power to the chiefsAt first the colonial government did not take the chiefs seriously, but thatchanged when the officials understood the importance of chiefs at locallevel. Gluckman (1949, 94) argues:The headman is a key official, is usuallly unpaid, in that administration.He has to report death, illness, strangers; has to see that his villagerskeep the village clean, hoe paths, use latrines, follow agricultural andveterinary regulations, pay tax, etc.76THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSMitchell (1949,99) pointed out that the Administration had recognisedthe more important village headmen and had entrusted to them certainduties. . .The chiefs were belittled again by the present government whenZimbabwe became independent in 1980. However, that changed throughthe years and more particularly in 1996 when government officials saidthat the powers will be given back to the chiefs. To some extent, this is anattempt at manipulation. Power is not invested in a position, but needs tobe wielded. Villarreal (1994) explored the wielding and yielding of power,arguing that power is fluid and cannot be owned, but is embedded insocial relations. Wielding refers to 'holding and using' and yielding refersto 'allowing the pressure'. Thus power cannot simply be given back to thechiefs The fact is that chiefs are needed in government's administrativeissues and plans such as the grain loan scheme, resettlement of people,the arbitration in conflicts, the organisation of cheap labour fordevelopments in the area like the construction of roads and the building ofschools and hospitals. The government's councillors also participate inthe organisation of these issues, but usually the chiefs are included becausethey are also recruited into government and the area is regarded astheirs14.The selection of a paramount chief of the governmentDuring the enthronement ceremony, government officials emphasize thatthe Mutema people themselves should choose their chief and that nobodyelse can do this. In practice, however, the officials chose Siwonani asparamount chief, because he is the eldest son of the relevant house. Theyacknowledged his education and ruling capabilities, and related thesehuman capacities to the 'development' in Mutema area. Thus, Siwonaniseemed to be more a government appointment than a people's chief.Who, then, are the people of the chieftaincy? In contradiction to theperspectives of the government officials, it was never the case that all thepeople of the chieftaincy were involved in the election of a paramountchief. This was the duty of certain headmen, elder sons of the chieflyfamily and spirit mediums. Also today, mediums and headmen select theirparamount chiefs by using their own selection criteria. They choseMwaneseni and Mapipana, while the government officials chose Mwanema.Then they chose Mapipana, while the government officials chose Siwonani.Thus government officials did not acknowledge and implement thosenominations by spirit mediums and chiefs, who use rules that could beperceived as the people's rules. The chiefs with spirit mediums regard14 In the Ph.D thesis (Vi)fhuizen, forthcoming) some power struggles between chiefs andcouncillors are explored.C. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 77themselves as the people responsible for choosing their paramount chief,and see that their decision-making has been disregarded by governmentofficials and therefore they went to the high court. Such steps werecriticised by government officials, because it challenged their decision-making. Government officials used age as the selection criterion andsuspected the royals of manipulating their own rules, because they didnot choose the eldest in the house that was to rule.Women and men in the Mutema chieftaincy know that there aredifferent mambo (paramount chiefs), i.e somebody in Harare fordevelopment issues and somebody in the chieftaincy for worshipping theancestors. During the installation ceremony, the spirit medium of Makopaargued that people should accept Siwonani as government chief becauseeverybody could know him. Despite that request, the nomination processof a paramount chief in Mutema chieftaincy gives a dualistic impression:the government chooses one paramount chief and the authorities in thechieftaincy also choose a paramount chief. Since the worlds of governmentand chiefs are intertwined, we may assume that there was also cooperationand accommodation, in the sense of local support. But nomination ofchiefs has always caused power struggles. Although government officialscan settle these conflicts and choose a chief, people and their leaders maynot regard him as the chief of their choice.Weinrich (1971) explores this phenomenon in Gutu District, looking atthe power struggles concerning the selection of a chief. She argues (1971,122) that it is usually an outsider who can solve those internal conflicts. Inone case she discusses, it was the District Commissioner who chose theparamount chief, but the people did not understand his decision, becausethe nominated chief was from a house which had recently ruled. Manychiefs were therefore absent during the installation ceremony (141-150).Weinrich argues that the nominated chief was regarded as a governmentchief and not a chief of the people. In her book, she does not refer to thephenomenon of more than one paramount in one chieftaincy. In the casesshe presents, the chiefs combined both government and religious dutiesand some succeeded better than others did (Weinrich, 1971, 76-106).The selection of a paramount chief of the ancestorsThe royals and the medium of Makopa had to yield power concerning theselection of the paramount chief of the government. But there was still theposition of the chief of the ancestors, who should be nominated amongthose royals who live in the Mutema chieftaincy, because he has to worshipthe ancestors regularly. During the enthronement ceremony, the mediumdemanded to know if the two who had previously been responsible forworshipping the ancestors were going to continue with Siwonani. She hadalready twice nominated them to be paramount chiefs and wanted public78 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSgovernment approval for them, which would also mean a recognition ofthe spirit mediums and chiefs' world. However, the government officialswere of the opinion that the nomination of the paramount chief of theancestors was a case of the spirit mediums and the local leaders. Theyshould nominate the paramount of the ancestors during another session.Thus the government officials recognised the issue, but did not want to beinvolved in the nomination of a paramount of the ancestors. Representativesof the chiefs' world, like medium Mwandeka and paramount chiefMusikavanhu, agreed with this government position.The woman spirit medium as power brokerIn certain instances, such as the selection of a chief, government officialsapproach the spirit medium of the chieftaincy. This could be a strategicaction. If the spirit medium complies with the decisions of the government,then chiefs and people are more likely to accept these decisions as well(see also Holleman, 1974, 48). Thus, in this case it is the medium whoemerges as a representative of the chiefs and people and a mediatorbetween the government officials and chiefs. It is this woman who is alsoimportant in ruling the chieftaincy, whether possessed or not (seeVijfhuizen, forthcoming). She maintains the world of the chiefs by criticisingthe government and by arguing that the government should help 'withwhat was there long ago, is still there today'. Therefore she repeatedlydemanded that a paramount chief of the ancestors needed to be nominated.She also maintained the government's world by approving the paramountchief of the government and other governmental decisions, and bycriticising government officials. While she supported government officials,they did not support her request to nominate the chiefs of the ancestorsduring the enthronement ceremony of Siwonani. The Deputy Minister saidthat the government does not want to add chiefs to the one in Harare andthat they do not want to have many paramount chiefs. However, hecontradicted himself when he conceded that the chief of the ancestorsshould be nominated during another session.The medium emerged as a spokeswoman of the chieftaincy,representing the interests of the chiefs. She is a mediator and power-broker between the different worlds of government and chiefs. In the firstinstance it may appear that she is not a very effective power broker. Sheyields power in case of the selection of the government paramount ChiefSiwonani and in case of the selection of the paramount of the ancestorsduring the enthronement ceremony of Siwonani. However, we could alsoperceive her as an effective mediator between the two worlds, becauseshe manages to get both government officials and chiefs to agree thatthere should be a chief of the ancestors, although he was not nominated atthe moment she preferred. One may still argue that she is not effectiveC. VIJFHUIZEN AND L. MAKORA 79against the government. But she appears to be a very strategic actor,knowing very well that it is better not to be against the government. Shecomplies with decisions of government officials and so maintains thegovernment world. On the other hand she maintains the world of chiefsand spirit mediums by establishing that there should be a paramountchief of the ancestors. The medium represents the interests of both spiritmediums and chiefs by maintaining the ancestors' world. If governmentofficials recognise and comply with this, they recognise the authority ofchiefs and spirit mediums.ReferencesARCE, A. VILLARREAL, M. DE VRIES, P. (1994) 'The social construction of ruraldevelopment: Discourses, practices and power', in Booth (ed.)Rethinking Social Development (Longman Group Limited).BARNES, J. A. (1949) 'The Fort Jameson Ngoni', in Journal of the InternationalInstitute, XIX, (ii), 100-106.BEACH, D. N. (1994) A Zimbabwean Past (Gweru, Mambo Press).BOURDILLON, M. F. C. (1987) The Shona Peoples (Gweru, Mambo Press).GLUCKMAN, M. (1949) 'Introduction', in Journal of the International Institute,XIX, (ii), 89-94.HOLLEMAN, J. F. (1974) Issues in African Law (The Hague, Mouton & Co).LAN, D. (1985) Guns and Rain: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe(Harare, Zimbabwe Publishing House).LONG, N. AND J. D. VAN DER PLOEG (1994) 'Heterogeneity, actor and structure:Towards a reconstitution of the concept of structure', in Booth (ed.)Rethinking Social Development (Longman Group Limited).MAKONO, G. (1996) 'We Do More Than Just Cooking Sadza and BearingChildren for the Madzimambo (Chiefs)', A Case Study of Women in theRoyal Family, Mutema Chieftaincy' (Unpubl.), 1-12.MEREDITH, L. C. (1976) 'Melsetter district, history of native tribes andchiefs: Information supplied for the South African Native AffairsCommission, 1903', NADA, XI, (iii), 338-344.MITCHELL, J. C. (1949) 'The Yao of Southern Nyasaland', in Journal of theInternational Institute, XIX, (ii), 94-100.RENNIE, J. K. (1973) 'Christianity, Colonialism and the Origins of NationalismAmong the Ndau of Southern Rhodesia: 1890-1935' (PhD thesis,Evanstan Illinois, Northwestern University).VILLARREAL, M. (1994) 'Wielding and Yielding: Power, Subordination andGender Identity in the Context of a Mexican Development Project'(PhD thesis, Wageningen, The Netherlands).VIJFHUIZEN, C. (1997) 'Rainmaking, political conflicts and gender images: Acase from Mutema chieftaincy in Zimbabwe', Zambezia, XXIV, (i), 31-49.Š. (1998, forthcoming) 'Gender Identities and Social Practices, Beliefsand Power Between and Among Ndau-Shona Women and Men in a80 THE GENDER OF MAINTAINING WORLDSVillage in Zimbabwe' (PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University,The Netherlands).WEINR1CH, A. K. H. (1971) Chiefs and Councils in Rhodesia (Heinemann,London).APPENDIX 1Table 1FIVE LISTS OF PARAMOUNT CHIEFS OF THE MUTEMA CHIEFTAINCYMeredith(1903)1. Shiriyedenga2. Chikanda3. Chinyongo4. Furidzo5. Bindu6. Muriwumcha7. Mutsatsike8. Nyagoya9. Dengura10. Makopa11. Sawurozi12. Matsikachando13. MunodaniRennie (1973);Est DatesChiphaphami; 1678-1705ShiriyedengaChikanda; 1705-1732ChihongoMuriwomutsaFuridzoBinduNyaziro MutsasikeNyagoya; 1732-1759Dengura; 1759-1786Makopa; 1786-1813Chikomba Sawurozvi; 1813-1840Matsikachando; 1840-1881Munodani; 1881-192314. Zarura; 1925-193315. Mwatuma; 1934-?16. Gadzayi; 7-195717. Madzongonya; 1957-?DistrictAdministrator(1996; Government)ShiriyedengaChikandaChinongoMuriwomutsvaFuridzoBinduNyazviroNyagoyaDenguraMakopaChikombaMatsikachomboMunodaniZaruraMwatumaGadzayiMwadzongonya18. Mwanema 7-199219. Sionani 1996-Mutema Chief (1995)ShiriyedengaChikanda FekuraChiongo ChembireMuriro MutsvaFuridzoBindura UtaMutsatsikiNyagoyaDenguraMakopaChikomba ChiripirwaMarigo ChandoMunodani ShambaririmuguraMuzuraZaruraMwatumaGadzaiMwadzongonyaMwanema 7-199220. Siwonani 1996-Medium of Makopa(1996)Shiriyedengan.a. (not asked)n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.n.a.MunodaniZarura and MwatumaMwatumaGadzayiMwadzongonya first withChamwakaona and laterwith MwapingaMwanema; the wholeperiod with Mapipana; andMwaneseniSiwonani and 7?pTlcNm>O3J>