Zambezia (1999), XXVI (ii).JESUIT MISSIONARY TYPES AND NSENGA RESPONSESIN DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBFREDERICK HALEUniversity of Stellenbosch, South AfricaAbstractAlthough Dominic Mulaisho's The Tongue of the Dumb (1971) was arguablythe first post-colonial Zambian novel to gain any measure of internationalrecognition, it has not yet been the subject of noteworthy scholarly enquiry.In this work, Mulaisho challenges categorical generalisations about Christianmissionaries which had become a Leitmotiv in the fiction of Mongo Beti,Ferdinand Oyo, and many other novelists elsewhere in Africa by creating avaried gallery of Jesuits at a conventional station in eastern Zambia. Thesecharacters, though perhaps overdrawn in their differences, embody a broadspectrum of attitudes towards indigenous Nsenga culture and types of Christianspirituality. The contours of their diversity as purveyors of the Gospel areespecially illuminated through Mulaisho's treatment of their interaction withNsenga beliefs and practices regarding divination, witchcraft, marriage,healing and other dimensions of indigenous culture which have challengedmissionaries throughout much of Africa.As Michael R. Ward pointed out in 1986, "Zambian literature is one of thesmallest national literatures in anglophone Africa".1 Within this microcosm,Dominic Mulaisho's The Tongue of the Dumb2 occupies a special niche.This novel was the first Zambian contribution to Heinemann'sinternationally acclaimed African Series, which in the wake ofdecolonisation in much of Africa provided opportunities for dozens ofthat continent's novelists, poets, and litterateurs in other genres to presenttheir work to readers across national borders far and near. Moreover,along with Andreya Masiye's Before Dawn (1971) and Gideon Phiri'sTicklish Sensation (1971), The Tongue of the Dumb was one of the firstZambian novels to roll from the presses in any country. Beyond theseobjective, chronological distinctions, Mulaisho's debut work arguablyattained a higher niveau of literary quality than any other Zambian novelduring the first 20 years following independence in 1964, a standard not1 Michael R. Ward, "Zambia", in Albert S. Gerard (ed.), European-Language Writing in Sul>Saharan Africa (Budapest, Akademiai Klado, 1986), 972.2 ?07^ni»C,,Mu«laish01 lhe I°"8ae of the Damb (London, Heinemann Educational Books.1971). All references in the present article are to this edition.211212 DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBupheld in his only other published novel, The Smoke That Thunders?Nevertheless, The Tongue of the Dumb, like literally hundreds of otherAfrican novels written since the 1950s, has received only the scantiestscholarly notice. This neglect is especially regrettable because Mulaisho'sreconstruction of relations between Nsenga and European colonialcultures, particularly with regard to religious matters, provides uniqueinsight into this aspect of central African history during the waning yearsof the British empire and at a time of waxing African nationalism. In thepresent article I take steps towards filling this lacuna in internationalscholarship by examining this Roman Catholic layman's portrayal ofJesuit missionaries in the then Northern Rhodesian field, paying particularattention to his varying evaluations of four types of missioners and thereaction of indigenous Nsengas to their attitudes and behaviour in anenvironment of colonialism and cultural clashes.Mulaisho's religious and cultural perspectives appear to haveinfluenced strongly his depiction of missionary endeavours in The Tongueof the Dumb. He was born at Feira in 1933 and raised a Roman Catholic, aspiritual identity which he still maintained while writing his debut novelin his late thirties. Mulaisho received his secondary education leading toa teaching diploma at Chalimbana College before taking a bachelor'sdegree at what was then the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaktnd.He taught briefly but by 1965, while still in his early twenties, had becomea personal assistant to President Kenneth Kaunda. Before the end of the1960s he held the title of permanent secretary in the Ministry of Education,and in 1970 was appointed executive chairman of the Mining DevelopmentCorporation.4 It was as a Catholic who had drunk deeply at the wells ofChristianity, Western civilisation, educational administration, andcorporate business that he took up the pen to begin his literary career.The fictional world Mulaisho constructs mirrors what he observed nearthe town of his birth when he was a young teenager but can mostprofitably be read with his ascent in the world of post-colonial politicsand economics in mind.PLOT SUMMARYBecause The Tongue of the Dumb remains largely unknown both in Africaand elsewhere, a brief recapitulation of its plot is essential for anunderstanding of the themes we shall explore. It all unfolds in the valley3 (London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1979).4 "Mulaisho, Dominic (Chola) 1933", Contemporary Authors, Vols. 97-100 (Detroit, GaleResearch Company, 1981), 387-388; John Reed, "Mulaisho, Dominic", in Eugene Bensonand L W. Conolly (eds.). Encyclopedia of Post-colonial Literatures in English B (LondonRoutledge, 1994), 1052-1053. 'F. HALE 213of the Kaunga River of south-eastern present-day Zambia, almost dueeast of Lusaka, immediately west of the Mozambican border and only afew kilometres north of that of what are now Zimbabwe and the town ofLuangwa. The brief chronological span is 1948 and 1949. This region isinhabited by Nsenga people whose orientation is primarily towards theirvillages from which most appear not to have travelled any noteworthydistance. Few, for example, have seen Lusaka. Not surprisingly, xenophobiais the order of the day. The burghers of Mpona tolerate their counterpartsfrom villages nearby but are suspicious of people from farther afield and,of course, of Europeans. Maize and goats form the basis of subsistenceagriculture in an environment which is prone to drought and ensuingfamines. Electrical current and motorised public transport are largelyunknown in this insular area, although there are a few lorries andmotorcycles. Illiteracy is the norm, as mission schools have only recentlybeen established in some of the villages. Most of the Nsenga charactersare firmly committed to the beliefs and practices of their traditionalreligion, which emphasises inter alia the veneration of ancestral spirits,zoological and other natural omens, and the observation of festivals inharmony with the rhythms of nature. In this mainly patriarchal,polygamous society, male characters occasionally insult one another bycalling them women.The village of Mpona, ruled by a polygamous chief of the same namewho is also the titular king of the region with its other hamlets, is one ofthe two principal venues. Aspiring to power is his councillor and thevillage medicine man, Lubinda, a lascivious and totally unscrupulousman who has his sights set not only on his sovereign's throne but also thewife of a young friend, Dulani. Indeed, he has been sexually intimate withher several years earlier, at the behest of Dulani, who, convinced of hisown infertility, requested him to impregnate this Natombi, who hailsfrom another village within walking distance of Mpona. Her one child,however, a mute boy called Mwape, is in fact Dulani's son, contrary to hisfather's belief that the tryst between Lubinda and Natombi launched herpregnancy. During an evening of revelry to celebrate the marriage of oneof Chief Mpona's daughters to an elderly man, Mwape wanders off. Dulanigoes in search of him but is caught in a flash flood of the Kaunga Riverand is killed.This is the first in a string of tribulations which the village experiences.Locusts eradicate the maize crop. More people contract leprosy. Awhirlwind destroys part of the village. Colonial officials appear to collecttaxes. An ancient rifle explodes when fired, injuring its bearer. The oncestable if economically marginal social fabric of the community graduallyunravels. Chief Mpona's suggestion that these woes are signs that ancestralspirits are displeased with waning adherence to tribal traditions does not214 DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBfind general acceptance; instead, the view which Lubinda and othersadvance, namely that furtive witchcraft In the village is to blame, gainswidening support. Eventually Lubinda summons a diviner, or kamcape,who confirms that witches are present. Rather than identifying them,however, he gives them a month to mend their ways. Lubinda uses thisopportunity to use every rhetorical trick he can think of to direct suspicionat Chief Mpona and, after she spurns his advances, Natombi. Increasingly,local suspicion is directed not only at these two but also at Nyalutila, adedicated Christian teacher from Petauke, whom the Jesuits at theKatondwe Mission some 30 kilometres away have recently commissionedto establish a school in the village of Mpona. This lay missionary and hiswife flee the village and take refuge in his home town. Natombi and herdumb son are also hounded out of Mpona.Lubinda's intrigues continue to bedevil that town, and within monthsnearly all the principal characters are either conniving against each otherin a power struggle or are suspected of practising witchcraft. Owing to acrop failure, famine ravishes Mpona. Nyalutila leads a delegation ofChristians who approach it with parcels of food but, believing that thesevictuals are being offered from the hands of bewitched people withulterior motives, the starving villagers refuse to accept them. The teacherreturns to re-open his school, but Lubinda and his cohorts burn himseverely in his home, forcing him again to quit Mpona and settle at theKatondwe Mission, where he almost dies.Interwoven with Mulaisho's narrative of events in Mpona is his accountof Katondwe Mission, focussing on the attitudes and personalities of, andrelations between, its expatriate personnel. Heading the mission is theseasoned and quiet Father Superior Gongazo, who is assisted by FatherPaul Oliver, a relative newcomer whose scholarly credentials are matchedby impatience and an authoritarian bearing towards his colleagues andthe Africans alike, and a layman named Arrupe, who has considerableexperience in Africa and harmonises well with both its people and fauna.Apart from exchanging often hostile criticisms of each other's approachesto missionary endeavours and debating the moral fibre (or, alternatively,allegedly uncivilised state of the Nsengas), these three do little that isremarkable at Katondwe. As we shall see shortly, however, Mulaishoemploys his Jesuit characters masterfully in their interaction with eachother and with the indigenous people to whom they are ministering toconvey his perceptions of how missionary endeavours can either reapfruits among, or merely alienate, evangelised peoples.In the closing chapters, Lubinda continues his campaign to replaceChief Mpona and rid the village of its leader as well as the teacher andNatombi. He has based part of his case against them on the mute conditionof Natombi's son Mwape, which is generally believed to be a sign that heF. HALE 215has been bewitched, and the co-operation of the three accused with themissionaries, who have arranged corrective surgery to be performed onthat youth. Belatedly, the kamcape returns and, perhaps operating in leaguewith Lubinda, announces that the chief, as has been widely suspected, isa witch. An angry crowd binds and leads away Mpona, Natombi, andNyalutila, the latter two of whom are equally despised. The kamcape isreluctant to pour into the chief the mwabvi to confirm his judgement,however, fearing severe reprisals by the colonial administration if thisbaneful potion kills the accused. Lubinda is about to administer it toMpona when, mirabile dictu, Natombi's son is brought back from Lusakaable to speak. The healing which has obviously taken place immediatelyundermines Lubinda's credibility; he flees in the company of the similarlydiscredited kamcape and is killed by a leopard. In the meantime Arrupehas been killed by a lion at Katondwe, and Father Gonzago and FatherOliver have been reconciled there immediately before the death of theFather Superior. Father Oliver continues the ministry to the village ofMpona in a spirit of greater cultural toleration and experiences the resultsof his intervention in young Mwape's life by hearing him speak. The boy'shealing reminds him of Isaiah 35:5-6: "Then shall blind men's eyes beopened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped. Then shall the lame man leaplike a deer and the tongue of the dumb shout aloud."FATHER PAUL OLIVER: EVANGELISATION VIA CONFRONTATIONMulaisho devotes more space to describing the imperious Father PaulOliver, whom the Nsengas for some reason call "Chiphwanya", than anyof the other missionaries. His portrait of this authoritarian European isarguably an overdrawn caricature who represents a type more than is acredible character who merely embodies attitudes and behaviour whichMulaisho finds repulsive and counterproductive in the mission field.Father Oliver's ethnic background is unclear. Despite his surname,which could of course be British and is certainly not Slavic, he expresseshomesickness in a letter accompanying a card to his sister Anatolia inCracow and remembers nostalgically the chiming of bells there onChristmas but also, quite uncharacteristic for Poland, turkey dinners onthat holiday. Moreover, this prelate recalls using his oratorical skillswhile celebrating midnight Mass on Christmas "before a packedcongregation of dignitaries" (p. 33). Finally, he has earned at least one ofhis two doctorates at the University of Cracow. Is Father Oliver a Pole?Apart from these references to the historic city in southern Poland, thereis no compelling reason to believe that he is.Regardless of his provenance, this relatively young Jesuit and"scientist of world renown" (p. 39) in Mulaisho's unbridled description216DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBhas broueht to the Northern Rhodesian mission field an enormous amountof cultural Intolerance and anti-African attitudes which call into questionhis suitability for this kind of vocation. These underlying facts areestablished from the outset. In the previously mentioned letter to hissister whom he regards as his "only window upon the world", suggestingthat to him Africa does not count as part of such, Father Oliver lamentsthat he has nothing to look forward to on Christmas "except the hordesof half-naked unwashed natives begging for presents" (p. 32). In aconversation with Father Gonzago, he continues along the same path bydeclaring of the local indigenes that "all of them" are beggars (p. 34).Negative signs in Mulaisho's description of his physical appearancereinforce the impression of Father Oliver as a blustery man:He was tall and roughly built, and he had a stormy temper. His whitecassock was tightly filled out, tattered, and patched. He had bushyeyebrows and a face clouded with the grimness of thunder about toexplode (p. 38).Readers soon learn that Father Oliver does not confine hiscondescending remarks about the populace to letters and conversationswith his colleagues. Riding a motorcycle from Katondwe to Mpona, hebecomes agitated when people on the road do not give way. Upon seeingthat they were bearing a corpse to a burial, he asks curtly, "A Christian?"and upon receiving a negative reply shouts "A pagan!" and criticises themourners for not requesting him to perform an emergency baptism.Opening the theme of relations between missionaries and colonialauthorities in Northern Rhodesia, Father Oliver warns the crowd, "If youdon't bring your sick to the mission, I will tell the Dfistrlct] C[ommissioner]to Imprison you" (p. 41).Father Oliver resents being commissioned to Katondwe after servingas private secretary to a prelate in Lusaka but nevertheless believes thathe has a purpose in the rural field, namely to use whatever means provednecessary to bring civilisation to the indigenes and them to Christianity.In his perception, the Nsengas are physically, mentally, spiritually andculturally sick:To him the work was clear. It did not consist simply in baptizingpeople, but also in curing them. Curing them of their bodily diseases aswell as the ills of their minds. The natives had to be forced into becomingChristians. They also had to be forced to abandon superstition. He wasappalled by the Father Superior, who would rather have let the nativesgo on living as they had always done. He was appalled by the DistrictCommissioner at the Boma, who seemed to do nothing to force thepeople to change their ways (p. 40).Education is to provide the principal bridgehead for the assault onNsenga paganism. It is Father Oliver who has sent Nyalutila to establish aF. HALE 217school for the children of Mpona. When his Father Superior informs himthat the teacher is living under threat in the wake of the initial tribulationin the village and could fall victim to ritual murder, the young missionaryis incensed that the despised Africans would "do that to a Christian" and,in another appeal to secular authority, vows, "I will have them arrestedand charged under the Witchcraft Ordinance" (p. 35). He never actuallyfollows through on this threat, but during his visit to Mpona he makesanalogous ones during his conversation with the chief and inadvertentlygives Lubinda's accusations about the malevolence of the missionariescredence in the minds of the villagers:Mpona, I want to hear from you. The school opens tomorrow or else Iwill tell the D.C. about it. If you do not allow the teacher to teachreligion, I will punish you. This village will have plague. The fire of Godwill descend upon it ... School tomorrow. And anyone who does notsend his child to school will hear from the Boma (p. 44).What is particularly ironic about Father Oliver's oft-repeated threatsto invoke the colonial authorities is the fact that through his conduct hehas also alienated them. He appeals in writing to James Coates, theDistrict Commissioner in Feira (present-day Luangwa), to alleviate thesuffering which famine has caused in the area. Mulaisho does not presentthe text of that letter but only Coates's sarcastic reply, in which herejects what he regards as a gratuitous request and declares thatthe physical welfare of the natives in N. Rhodesia is the responsibilityof His Majesty's Government and that your action in appealing forassistance on behalf of these natives constitutes grave and unwarrantedinterference and is calculated to cause dissension and disaffectionamong these primitive people ... (p. 141).After completing this reply, Coates ponders "this uncouth youngman of a Father Oliver who seemed to have an unfailing knack of annoyingeveryone, including the natives ..." (p. 142).On an orientation course at what Mulaisho calls the School of OrientalStudies (presumably meant is the renowned School of Oriental and AfricanStudies) in London, a lecturer who had been a District Officer in Kenyahad implored Father Oliver and other prospective missionaries, "Alwaysbe firm with the native" (p. 44). This authoritarian Jesuit experiences nodifficulty or compunction in putting into practice those archetypicalwords of British imperial advice. Indeed, most of the words he uttersunderscore his commitment to this dictum. Apart from the demeanourhe brings to his position, Father Oliver's attitude towards the Africansfacilitates his posture of supremacy. During his vituperative exchangewith Lubinda overtaking Mwape away for medical treatment, the incensedpriest is more concerned with his interlocutor's audacity in contradicting218 DOMINIC MULAISHOS THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBhim than he is with the salvation of the indigenes. He has been willing totrade intellectual blows with "heretics" at the University of Cracow andeven find debates with them "stimulating". "But these creatures , hethinks of the Nsengas, "what right had they even to think for themselves?fn 137) In another revelation of his colonialist attitude, Father Olivereffectively denies the individuality of the Nsengas as rational humanbeines in a typically heated exchange with the Father Superior, whoquestions the wisdom of taking Mwape for medical treatment withoutfirst securing the consensus of community opinion in Mpona. "The onlytime these natives will agree with you is if you ask them to agree to beingfed", fumes Father Oliver. "Otherwise, they won't do anything positive"For that matter, Father Oliver has at best an ambiguous attitudetowards his colleagues at Katondwe Mission, notwithstanding thehierarchical nature of the Society of Jesus. At times, to be sure, he defersto the Father Superior. "That was the way of the Order. You may argue,but must follow the leader" Father Oliver reasons reluctantly (p. 143). Yethis direct criticism of Father Gonzago can be brutal. Accusing him oftolerating the traditions of local converts to Catholicism, Father Oliverclaims that his Superior does not care "what paganism they bring to thealtar so long as they don't kill anyone" and, "shouting into the old priest'sear" cautions that "the work of the Church will come to nought" unlessdiscipline is imposed (p. 149). Father Oliver also unleashes hisauthoritarianism at the convalescent Nyalutila at Katondwe, orderinghim to assume certain postures while, however, bandaging his burns andadministering medicine (p. 200). He believes Nyalutila could acceleratehis own recovery by practising some measure of hygiene. "But that habitof expectorating on to the floor, never getting up to wash his stinkingbody vomiting into his blanket Š how could these help to cure him? Hewonders" (p. 199). Father Oliver's words to Brother Arrupe rarely riseabove the level of badgering, and he is equally domineering towardsArrupe's successor, Sergio, commanding him in a representative to "bringmy two bicycles to my room and deflate them" and, rather than brookingany protest on the part of his subaltern on the grounds that the FatherSuperior needs one of the bicycles for transport the following day, simplyorder him to "do what I tell you. He can walk" (p. 153).For all his faults vis-a-vis the Nsengas, Father Oliver evinces genuineconcern for them and has made an impact on their lives that extendsbeyond the neophyte school at Mpona. Perhaps most obviously, withouthis intervention Mwape presumably would have remained dumb and,consequently, Lubinda's malevolent revolt would have been carried toits murderous conclusion. That he cares about their eternal salvation, ashe understands it eschatologically from his orthodox Roman CatholicF. HALE 219perspective, is beyond dispute, and he seeks to convince them to abandontheir belief in witchcraft which Mulaisho clearly depicts as the bane ofNsenga society. More problematically, Father Oliver, whose quiver ofvirtues does not Include the arrow of humility, holds himself in higheresteem than does anyone else. "Without him, as he was often wont toremind the Little Father Superior, the mission would be dead and he,Father Superior, would be forced 'to feast off the skulls of those mummies'in the cemetery" (p. 39). For his part, Father Gonzago readilyacknowledges, at least to himself, that Father Oliver is "hard-working"and, despite their great differences, is grateful for both his presence atKatondwe and his contacts overseas. "Without him and his wide net offriends abroad, where would the mission have been?" he wonders. "Therewould have been no quinine, which had saved the lives of many Africansaround the mission. Above all there would have been little money and,therefore, no bandages" (pp. 142, 154).FATHER SUPERIOR GONZAGO: DEVOTION AND ACCULTURATIONMulaisho provides considerably less information about Father Gonzago'sbackground. His surname is Spanish, and although Father Oliver assureshis sister in Cracow that his colleagues at Katondwe are "Europeans"(p. 32) there is no compelling reason to believe that Gonzago hails fromSpain rather than from Latin America or, for that matter, some other partof the world. Since the sixteenth century, the Society of Jesus has operatedon an international basis, recruiting missionaries from several countrieson both sides of the Atlantic. In any case, Father Gonzago has toiled atKatondwe for a decade in 1948 (p. 38). Mulaisho describes him initially inthe third chapter as "a little, dried-up old man" (p. 38); during the balanceof the novel much more of this devoted priest's personality and spiritualityemerge, especially in his interaction with Father Oliver, who is nearly hispolar opposite with regard to attitudes towards the Africans andmissionary strategy. Indeed, It is chiefly In the generally antagonisticjuxtaposition of these two arguably overdrawn types that Mulaishoilluminates pivotal missiological themes.The theme of Father Gonzago's attempts to identify with the peopleto whom he seeks to convey the Gospel is a scarlet thread runningthrough much of the narrative. That at least some of them accept him isestablished early on. On Christmas, an emaciated, old African man whoappears to be blind visits Katondwe Mission and gives Father Gonzago achicken as a Christmas present (p. 34). Perhaps it is such acts of generositydespite palpable poverty that has convinced the elderly cleric that theNsengas are "good people", as he enthusiastically tells Father Oliver,adding that "they are even better than some of our own people, we the220DOMINIC MULAISHO-S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMB—. f rhrutianitv" fp 149). He refers to these Africans as "myC f- «d2S£nto bury him and pray for the repose of his soulfnTo) Accordtag^I Father Gonzago embraces the Nsenga headnŽ(p. 150). Acuc°laŽl *' d es hlmi »We are your people, Chiefrr"^59)ThSs"andrin marked contrast to Father Oliver's threats to*P'p,Ur to colonial authorities to punish Mpona and other Nsengas InWs Sa w^Sore expiring at Katondwe Mission, uttered to FatheroleThe ^ "I leave my people in your hands. Pray for understanding.Oliver, ne says., »i J r There ls mOre love among them than in^^£^^^£^ does not wish his identity withthe Nsengas to end with his death. His written "dying wish" is "to bethe Nsengas ground" rather than having his bonesSS^^n missionaries in an ossuary at the station^Father Gonzago's commitment to the inculturation of the Gospelh^n^sLoaVent almost immediately. As part of his annual preparationf Sits he caries figures for a Nativity scene. In 1948, the three%3%^^ ditdAfricans- Thi* drs the lre%3%£ti^*^Ž de?icted«Africans- Thi* drs the lre5FaVher Oliver who accuses his colleague of distorting what he assumes2 the truthMS "Jesus was white, not black." The diminutive creator ofthese Cres vigorously defends his artistic licence on theological grounds,1 ,,«STn the primacy of the essential Incarnation as transcendingSSX^SEJeitetlc. of it. "Jesus became Man. This is themo t important mystery of the Nativity. It is as Man I am going to portrayHim aKso happens that here in the valley - nay -1 would go further,no sympathy for or understanding of this reason ng however FatherOlSabels it "nonsense" and insists - pointedly distancing himselffromthe indigenous population -that "these black people of yours mustSlonfromslavery.their salvation from hell". Tipping his ethnocentrichaSTe adds that "Jesus had to be born white. No civilized personwould have listened to a black Jesus" (pp. 28-29).Attitudes towards traditional African marriage practices which are atvariance with European Christianity have been a recurrent theme inmissiologicalcontroversies since the nineteenth century, usually crossingverbal swords over the question of polygamy. The personnel at Katon*«eMission echo part of this well-worn controversy, namely that dealingwith the practice of widowers marrying the sisters of their deceasedwives Predictably, Father Gonzago defends this convention, whereasFather Oliver asks, "At what point does a pagan custom become a Christianpractice? Are your actions not heretical?" His Superior easily disarmsthis objection, pointing out that "the only impediment to a proper marriageF. HALE 221in this case is consanguinity, of which there is none". Mulaisho uses thisexchange to voice his perception of the superiority of Nsenga to Europeanmarriages. Father Gonzago asserts:There is more love between man and woman among these people thanin our own country. In our country we kiss our women in public, in thestreets, in order to sjambok them better in the homes. The holy lovethat these people have for their wives extends to the woman's family(pp. 150-151).The two priests also clash over the legitimacy of indigenous Africanmedicine. As he approaches the end of his earthly journey, the ailingFather Gonzago refuses to enter a hospital for treatment, "because evenhere there are many African medicines, Father, which can cure thisyellowness which you consider to be a disease". Countering Father Oliver'sobjections that indigenous healing practices are "pagan" and lamentationsthat he has wasted time "teaching these Africans to come to hpspital toreceive medicines, teaching them not to scatter their faeces all over theplace, to avoid disease, to be treated for leprosy, smallpox and everythingelse", Father Gonzago insists that the gap between African and Europeanmedicine is less expansive than one might initially believe. "Tell me, howis it pagan to believe in African medicine?" he asks.So many of our medicines are made from herbs, both in Europe andhere. These people have medicines which will stop birth when theywant. I'm not saying it's right, but the fact is that they can stop thearrival of unwanted children (pp. 220-222).A final, overarching difference between the two European men lies intheir general missionary strategies. To the elderly Father Superior, thekey to successful evangelisation of the Nsengas lies partly in theirhierarchical social structure in which an old chief holds considerablesway over his subjects.For him [i.e. the Father Superior] the gospel was to be brought throughthe old people rather than the children. It was the old people whostood nearest to the Day of Judgement. Anything learnt in childhoodwas bound to be forgotten in adult life unless there was a connectingladder between the old and the new (p. 36).This conviction, which runs counter to much nineteenth and twentieth-century missiological thinking and practice, helps to explain FatherGonzago's insistence on maintaining cordial relations with and showingrespect for Chief Mpona. To the considerably younger and moreacademically inclined Father Oliver, however, the establishment andmaintenance of the school in that chief's village is paramount.Mulaisho gradually reveals aspects of Father Gonzago's essentialspirituality and thereby explains to a considerable degree this missionary's222 DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBapproach to his vocation. Much of this revelation comes late in thenarrative. Psychologically an introvert, the Father Superior is a man ofprivate devotion whoalways looked forward to a moment of calm when he could say hisprayers, and when he found it he guarded every second of it jealously.It was from these brief moments of utter loneliness that he rechargedhis spirit.Mulaisho finds this individualistic quietude harmonious with life inAfrica. Father Gonzago has "stayed too long in lonely places to think thata man could go on doing this and that, stirring the whole earth intoAction". Consequently, rather than emphasising social ministry, the FatherSuperior believed that the "mystical experience was what really mattered"(pp. 216-217). For all his learning, Father Oliver, who is quite unsatisfiedwith his own devotional life (p. 224), does not comprehend FatherGonzago's religious nature until after experiencing a nightmare and readingthe dying priest's devotional notes, which include reminders to pray for"Father Oliver's continued strength and health", "Chief Mpona, to besaved from the false Judgement of the kamcape", and "obedience to myholy assistant" (p. 229). This epiphany does not cause Father Oliver toalter radically his own strategy, although he elects to visit the chief onbehalf of the deceased Father Superior (p. 247). It is this pastoral callwhich saves Mpona's life, giving him at least salvation from the caprice ofthe kamcape and Lubinda's followers who are intent on putting theirheadman to death.NYALUTILA: AN INDIGENOUS INCARNATION OF EUROPEANMISSIONARY ZEALMulaisho provides in Nyalutila an almost obligatory indigenous missionarynot only to represent the vital role which Africans played in theevangelisation of their own societies but also to bridge the otherwiseformidable gap between Father Oliver and the village of Mpona. Verylittle information is provided about this local Christian. He is said toreside in Nyimba near the Kaunga Valley, but whether he is a native of theregion or has merely settled there in connection with his employment forthe Katondwe Mission is not stated. For that matter, the text reveals littleelse of a biographical nature, and Nyalutlla's personality never fullyemerges. Apparently he is an introvert, "a shy man" whose seemingaloofness has led some local residents to accuse "him of isolating himselffrom the adults of the village" (p. 23). Mulaisho emphasises his zeal forhis calling in the second chapter, however, as well as his devotion to thechildren whom he instructs in Mpona. Within a short time he has becomea fixture "among them exuding encouragement, mystical joy, andF. HALE 223satisfaction" while giving his undivided attention to his work, therebygaining enough respect amongst the villagers that they refer to him as"Aphunzitsi", meaning teacher. His love of education extends to theschoolhouse which bears his personal stamp:For him the construction of the new low mud-walled shelter was thefulfilment of a dream. It was his design he had put everything that hehad into this building, and to him it appeared to bubble with his soul.Moreover, Nyalutila's Catholic piety is inseparable from hiseducational vocation:Every night he walked around it [i.e. the school] as he recited therosary. He prayed God to bless every particle of mud that went into thebuilding, every pole, every blade of grass (p. 23).In some respects this simple educator mirrors Father Oliver'sintolerance of indigenous practices, on which he has turned his Africanback. He diligently follows the instructions that Jesuit had stressed whencommissioning him to establish a school in Mpona, namely that "it is asin to attend the funeral of a pagan. It is a sin to join in or watch pagandances" (p. 26). These strictures imposed on him prevent Nyalutila fromattending the initiation of Chief Mpona's daughter immediately precedingher marriage to the elderly Simbeya only three months after she hasexperienced her first menstruation. Yet the teacher remains sufficientlyin contact with and has enough compassion for non-Christian villagersthat he seeks to join the mourners after the untimely death of Dulani. Hiscondolences are rejected, however, by townsmen who resent his absencefrom the initiation rites the previous evening. "I know that they will noteven be at the funeral today because it is a pagan burial", declaresLubinda of Nyalutila and his wife, who is seeking to console the widowedNatombi. "Why don't they just go away now, back to the home their whitemissionaries have built them?" (pp. 24-25). Of necessity they do after theschool is temporarily closed, but his dedication to the work of the churchprompts him to remain in contact with residents of the region who aresympathetic to Christianity. He travels to nearby Cacuwamba, for example,to baptize a sick man. For his efforts there, Nyatulila is beaten senselessby Lubinda and others who falsely accuse him of using his connections inboth indigenous society and the Katondwe Mission to sell African womento Whites (pp. 64-66). He is also one of the very few people who continuesto evince any sympathy for Natombi, notwithstanding her apparentrejection of the Gospel, and probably saves her life and that of her dumbson after they are hounded out of Mpona.Although Nyalutila is generally depicted as a saintly person, theseries of tribulations he must endure because of his faith take their tollon his personality. After being accused again of practising witchcraft and224 DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBfeeling totally alienated from the population of Mpona as Lubinda's self-serving intrigues there have pitted nearly everyone against everyone, heabandons his belief that the chief has been an instrument of God's salvationfor the village (p. 175) and becomes thoroughly disillusioned with thelocal population.This was what these people were, he thought to himself, dogs, absolutedogs. You gave them so many years of your life, but you were still aforeigner. For that they would neither trust nor forgive you (p. 175).The suspected teacher remains isolated in his house, fearing for hislife if he should appear in public. "Not all the pictures of a dying JesusChrist along his wall could shake him out of his stupor of hate", declaresMulaisho of this once forgiving Christian servant. "They had becomemeaningless masks mocking his irresolution" (p. 181). The extensive burnshis enemies inflict on this easy target shortly thereafter, create a crisisfor Nyalutila, during which he almost dies while convalescing at KatondweMission. While virtually in extremis, however, he gradually recoups hisspiritual strength, in part owing to the ministry of Father Gonzago. "AtMpona he had been an active Christian, a crusader. He had been asalesman for Christianity", we read of Nyalutila's spiritual transformationduring this time of regeneration. "But in the last few weeks that he hadbeen at the mission, he had found a new richness, a spiritual upliftingwhich he could not describe". Long before his recovery is certain, heexpresses his determination to return to Mpona and attempt to save it(pp. 200-201). Finally able to make that effort, the teacher nearly loses hislife at the hands of the people to whom he desires to proclaim salvation.Again, the timely intervention of the new Father Oliver, at last operatingin the spirit of the deceased Father Superior, prevents him from beingkilled for allegedly practising witchcraft.BROTHER ARRUPE: THE EUROPEAN AS AFRICAN?Mulaisho devotes much less space to Brother Arrupe than any of theother principal missionary personnel and provides virtually no informationabout his background, but in his portrait of this serious little man heunderscores certain traits that have allowed him to make a valuablecontribution to the work of Katondwe Mission by serving as a bridge tothe local Africans whom the intellectually far more gifted Father Oliverwas unwittingly antagonising.The brief description of Brother Arrupe includes unmistakable signsof his personality and relationship to the Nsengas. Mulaisho introduceshim as a "small elderly brother" and as a "small man with a weather-beaten scaly skin, hairy arms, and a back curved into a bow from liftingheavy bags and stones". Nothing about him is physically attractive:F. HALE 225His head was pointed, and only at the apex was there any sign of visiblehair-growth. He was so light and small that sitting there before theenormous organ he looked like an ugly sparrow treading on a heap ofmaize (pp. 29-30).Much later in the narrative, Mulaisho refers to "the sweaty smell ofhis greasy little body" (p. 144). Though visually and aromaticallyunappealing, Brother Arrupe has sufficient musical proficiency to playwhat Mulaisho variously calls a piano and an organ while leading choirpractice to prepare the mission's congregation for the celebration ofChristmas.Brother Arrupe contributes virtually nothing to the dialogue, onlygrunting "No" upon hearing a report on the radio of the introduction ofcapital punishment for practising witchcraft in Cameroon. Whether thisresponse is intended to suggest a toleration of Indigenous folkways or anabhorrence of violence, particularly when it is inflicted by colonialauthorities, is impossible to say. In any case, he communicates with manand beast alike and has gained wide acceptance by both the Nsengas andat least a part of the local animal kingdom. Domestic animals are hiscompanions at Katondwe, especially the chickens he tends. "To him thefowls were pets, and while he dressed them for the table he would nevereat them", explains Mulaisho of this Assisi-like churchman (p. 144). Thesebirds recognise his scent and welcome him when he investigates theirsafety. Like many Christians in the Roman Empire, however, BrotherArrupe falls victim to a lion while tending his flock. His death weighsheavily on the Nsengas whom he has touched. They mourn his death inaccordance with their own customs, singing funeral songs whoseunchristian character infuriates Father Oliver and imbibing alcohol:Beer passed around and people sang. But it was not the song of drunkenpeople, or of people rejoicing. It was the song of people sorrowing andpeople who sipped at the calabash to lighten their hearts (p. 148).Apparently more than any of his colleagues, Brother Arrupe hasmanaged to reach the local indigenes without Š unlike the teacher Šalienating many of them. Missing from Mulaisho's narrative, however, Ismore than the sketchiest impression of how he has done this. One mustassume that to a great extent Brother Arrupe has won the hearts of theAfricans by becoming one of them, at least to the extent that theconstraints of his own cultural identity have allowed this. Mulaisho'saccount of his outreach to the Nsengas is entirely positive.CONCLUSIONPost-colonial African fiction is rich in categorical generalisations, manyof them clearly vilifying, about foreign missionaries and their alleged226 DOMINIC MULAISHO'S THE TONGUE OF THE DUMBdisrespect for indigenous cultures. One needs only read the novels ofsuch authors as Mongo Beti, Ferdinand Oyono, and Timothy Wangusa tofind ample evidence of deep resentment of heavy-handed clerical bumblingand unbridled colonialist attitudes. To be sure, one can also find morefavourably disposed representations, or at least qualified criticisms ofChristian missionaries in the works of inter alia John Munonye, KenjoJumbam, and T. Obinkaram Echewa, but these are decidedly in a minority.Mulaisho's The Tongue of the Dumb, by contrast, cries out againstcategorical indictments as well as facile affirmation of Christianmissionaries and their strategies in propagating the Gospel. The ongoingdevelopment ofZambian literary studies and research on the proliferationof Christianity in southern Africa would be well served by giving suchcarefully qualified portrayals their due. Unlike Mark Antony inShakespeare's Julius Caesar, in his consideration of the missionaryendeavour Dominic came neither to bury nor to praise.