Zambezia (2001), XXVIII (i).REVIVAL OF INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITYSTRATEGIES AT THE VILLAGE LEVEL: THE HUMANFACTOR IMPLICATIONSCLAUDE G. MARARIKEUniversity of Zimbabwe, Department of SociologyAbstractThis article reports findings of an evaluation of the Zunde raMambo practiceas a survival strategy in selected rural districts in Zimbabwe. The assumptionmade when the Zunde was being revived was that its revival would go along way in minimizing food stress in some rural areas.The revival of the Zunde raMambo practice was started in 1996 bymembers of the Chief's Council of Zimbabwe, in collaboration with theNutrition Unit of the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare. The main objectivewas to revive the Zunde as a sustainable community project, in line withwhat was once a known Shona traditional practice. In attempting to revivethis traditional practice, there was a need to assess variables such as thenature of existing social and economic structures, leadership, and theavailability of resources such as land and agricultural inputs and implements.The article also reflects on policy issues surrounding rural development andsurvival strategies used by rural people. The article also suggests that thehuman factor approach offers the best way to the understanding of peoples'needs, problems and how problems can be tackled.Data used in this article was collected between November and December1999.INTRODUCTIONIn 1996, the Nutrition Unit in the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare ofZimbabwe welcomed a request by some members of the Council of Chiefsto revive a traditional social welfare practice known as Zunde raMambo inShona. The assumption made at the time was that, since Zunde was atraditional practice, communities would find it easy to identify with itand, therefore, would support it. It was also assumed that communitieswould own the programme, thus guaranteeing its sustainability. However,in 1999, the revival and implementation of the Zunde had yielded varyingresults. In Kwekwe District in the Midlands Province, for example, Zundehad been well received and implemented under Chief Samambwa.However, in Mashonaland Province and other areas, the Zunde projecthad either not been well received or had not even been talked about.5354 INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITY STRATEGIES AT VILLAGE LEVELIt was envisaged that, if implemented, the Zunde programme would,among other issues, increase food production and, therefore, reducelevels of malnutrition at the village level. This would also decreasedependence on the state for food, thus shifting state welfare to the villagelevel.After three years of trying to revive Zunde, it was decided that theproject should be evaluated to assess whether it was a sustainablecommunity food security programme or not. A team composed ofpersonnel from the departments of Nutrition and Sociology of theUniversity of Zimbabwe and officials from the Nutrition Unit of the Ministryof Health was tasked to assess the viability of the programme. This articlecontains observations made by the team and provides an interpretationof these observations.In the sections which follow, the study explains the historical contextof Zunde, examines some case studies, and gives an evaluation of whetherthe project can be used as a sustainable food security scheme at thevillage level. It also discusses the level of human factor competence as amajor variable in the success or failure of the project. Linked to this, areparticipants' human factor content and human factor engineering asdeterminants of success or failure of similar projects and indeed otherprojects.HISTORICAL CONTEXTZunde is a Shona word that may mean a large gathering of people takingpart in a common activity or may refer to plenty of grain stored for futureuse by people in a particular community. However, Zunde normally meansan informal, in-built social, economic and political mechanism. Its primaryaim was to ensure that a particular community had adequate food reservesthat could be used in times of food shortage. The Zunde practice ensuredthat food security for a village or villages was guaranteed at all times. AChief designated a piece of land for cultivation by his subjects. The yieldfrom this land was stored in granaries (Zunde raMambd) at the Chief'scompound. The food was also used to feed the Chief's soldiers, subjectsawaiting trial, the Chief's advisors, and the destitute, as well as travellerswho stopped in the village for the night. Village ceremonies such asburials also benefited from the Zunde raMambo food reserves. The mainbeneficiaries were, however, the villagers themselves during times offood shortages.Zunde was perceived not only as a crop production activity whosemain objective was to address food shortages, but was also regarded as asocial, economic and political rallying mechanism. It was used by thechief to control his people and to ensure their safety. Participation in theC. G. MARARIKE 55Zunde raMambo was an expression of oneness and carried with it socialand moral obligations. Food was perceived not only as a means of meetingnutritional requirements, but also as a social tool which brought peopletogether to share their successes and/or failures.Where a man had two or more wives, Zunde raBaba (father's Zunde)was practised. Each wife had a piece of land where she grew her crops.The yields were used for the up-keep of family members. The wives andtheir children were expected to work in the husband's fields duringdesignated days of the week. Yields from the husband's fields werestored in his granary and were used to meet important family needs orduring periods when the wives' food provisions were exhausted.REVIVAL OF ZUNDE: CHIEF MAKONI'S ROLEDuring the 1994/95 agricultural season, Chief Makoni in the Makoni Districtof Manicaland Province decided to revive the Zunde raMambo practice.He was convinced that the revival of this traditional practice could solvethe problem of food shortages and could reduce malnutrition. Heapproached the Makoni District Food and Nutrition Management Team tosolicit their support. The team accepted the idea to revive Zunde andproceeded to implement it. Initial efforts were encouraging. It was,therefore, decided that the idea should be tried in other areas as well.Consequently, in 1995, a National Inter-Ministerial Planning Meeting washeld. The meeting endorsed the proposal in the hope that the ZunderaMambo scheme would solve food shortages at the village level.Subsequently, consultative meetings were held in order to introduce theconcept to other traditional leaders.The first such meeting was held in Nyanga in 1996. Members of theChief's Council and Provincial Food and Nutrition Management Teamsattended the meeting. A steering committee of ten chiefs was selected,representing each of the country's administrative provinces, plus thepresident and vice-president of the Council of Chiefs. Chief Makoni waselected chairman of the steering committee. Civil servants, who comprisedthe Food and Nutrition Management Teams, were expected to providetechnical support. It was resolved at the Nyanga meeting that traditionalleaders, namely chiefs and village heads, would lead the Zunde raMamboproject.Before examining further attempts to revive Zunde in selected areas,it is necessary to discuss the social and political structures under whichthe project was being revived in order to provide a background to theattempts that were being made to revive the Zunde and the constraintswhich faced these efforts.56 INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITY STRATEGIES AT VILLAGE LEVELSOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL STRUCTURESThe function of chiefs in Zimbabwe can be classified into five broadcategories: constitutional and legislative, judicial, ceremonial, religious,and developmental functions, as well as the maintenance of law andorder. These functions are, broadly, in line with what is in practice inmany other parts of contemporary Africa. Generally, chiefs are expectedto look after the spiritual and material welfare of their people. As judicialauthorities, they preside over traditional courts with the assistance ofadvisors selected from within the community. Chiefs are expected toperform a wide-range of ceremonial rituals, including ensuring theobservation of taboos for the protection of their own persons, the safetyof the sacred relics at their disposal, and carrying out rites on behalf ofthe community. The traditional role of chiefs is, therefore, to protect thelivelihood of the people and their environment (Buxton, 1963; Gluckman,1963).In Zimbabwe, the Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17 of 1998),sets out guidelines on how chiefs are appointed, their duties, and howthey ought to relate to other branches of the government. Part II, sections3 to 7 of the Act, outline how chiefs are to be appointed, their duties,delegation of their functions and disciplinary procedures as they apply tochiefs. Section 5 (b, d, and q) states that a chief shall be responsible forpromoting and upholding cultural values among members of thecommunity under his/her jurisdiction. He/she is empowered to nominateheadmen for appointment and to supervise them, as well as to co-ordinatedevelopment committees in his/her area.For administrative purposes, rural areas in Zimbabwe fall under theDistrict Councils. The Rural District Councils Act (1988) gives legal powerto Rural Councils to administer the affairs of rural areas. The chief allocatesland to members of his/her community, but only in consultation with theRural District Council, as provided for under section 5 (g) of the TraditionalLeaders Act. The Rural District Council structures exist alongsidetraditional and political structures.Each district has a chief. Under the Chief are Headmen (masadunhu),and under them are village headmen Qnasabhuku). Districts are dividedinto wards. The chief may delegate some of his/her functions to headmenin his/her area without divesting himself/herself of such functions. It isagainst this backdrop that this study examines attempts to revive ZunderaMambo.THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ZUNDE RAMAMBO PROJECTThe evaluation of the Zunde project focused on four districts within threeprovinces: Chief Samambwa's area in Kwekwe District in the MidlandsC. G. MARARIKE 57Province, Chief Kazangarare's area in Karoi District in Mashonaland WestProvince, Chiefs Nyamweda and Chivero's areas in Chegutu District, andChief Makoni's area in Manicaland Province. Chiefs Makoni andSamambwa's areas were selected because the Zunde project had beenwell received in them, while Chiefs Nyamweda and Chivero's areas werechosen because the Zunde concept had been tried, but without success.Chief Kazangarare's area presented a contrast to the other areas becausethe concept had not been implemented. The evaluation team wanted toassess why the Zunde project had been well received in some areas but' not in others. The evaluation focused on available social and economicstructures, access to and control of resources, quality of leadership andthe relationship which existed between local leadership and governmentstructures.Below, the study explains the Zunde project sites before examiningsome of the variables that influenced the success or failure of the project.STRUCTURE OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN THE ZUNDE PROJECT AREASThe structure of economic activities in the Zunde project sites should beunderstood within the context of the fact that Zimbabwe falls into threebroad physical regions: The highveld, the middleveld, and the lowveld.Zimbabwe is further divided into five agro-ecological zones: I, II, III, IV,and V. The agricultural activities in these zones are limited by theavailability of rainfall and water supply. The rainfall in natural region I isgenerally above 1 000 mm per year, thus permitting forestry, fruit andintensive livestock production. In natural region II, rainfall is confined tothe rainy season (October to March) and ranges from 750 mm to 1 000mm per year. The region is suitable for crop farming and/or livestockproduction. Natural region III receives 650 to 800 mm of rainfall per year.The rainfall usually arrives in heavy falls, with severe mid-season dryspells. The production of maize, tobacco, and cotton are marginal in thisregion. Natural region IV experiences low rainfall (450 to 650 mm peryear) and is subject to periodic seasonal droughts and severe dry spellsduring the rainy season. The main agricultural activity in this region islivestock production. The rainfall in region V is too low and erratic foragricultural activities to take place. The Zunde project sites fall in regionsIII, IV, and V.11 See also Mararike, C. G. Survival Strategies in Rural Zimbabwe (Harare, Mond Books,1999), Chapter 4; Chavunduka, G. L. (Chairman) Report of the Commission offnquiry intothe Agricultural Industry (Harare, Government Printer, 1982), for more information onagro-ecological zones).58 INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITY STRATEGIES AT VILLAGE LEVELIt should also be noted that the economy of Zimbabwe comprises ofa monetary sector, which co-exists with a rural economy. In 1994, percapita income in the monetary sector of the economy was over 20 timesthe estimated per capita income of rural households (CSO, 1994). Thereis a substantial urban-rural and rural-urban outflow of capital and humanresources, foodstuffs, and services. This urban-rural and rural-urbanoutflow has important implications on how people manage to survive andmay have an impact on how people perceive collective projects such asZunde raMambo.Most family units in rural areas depend on farming for their livelihood.Each family unit is normally entitled to a piece of land for crop cultivation.Most people keep some cattle, goats, and chicken. Livestock are animportant asset in various social and economic transactions such asmarriages, family rituals, ceremonies, and exchange in times of crisessuch as famine and/or illnesses. Small livestock such as goats and chickensare often used as "buffers" in times of crises. They are sometimes soldfirst before cattle or food grain to raise funds for pressing family needssuch as school fees and medical bills.Metal ploughs, hoes, wheelbarrows, and cultivators are some of theimportant implements found at most homesteads. Maize is the mostpopular crop in all the Zunde project sites. It is ground into flour, which isthen used to prepare sadza (thick porridge), the staple food for mostpeople in Zimbabwe. Other crops grown are rapoko, finger millet, a widevariety of vegetables and groundnuts. However, the most importantresource to all the people in the Zunde project sites is land. The evaluationof the Zunde project should be understood against the background ofhow people accessed land and how they controlled land-based resources.It is under the above economic activities that this study discusses theZunde raMambo project sites. It focuses on how the Zunde project wasorganized and managed, noting in particular the role that chiefs andheadmen played in the success and/or failure of the project.THE ZUNDE RAMAMBO PROJECT SITESChief Samambwa's areaChief Samambwa's area is located in the Kwekwe District in the MidlandsProvince, Zhombe area, which Chief Samambwa has jurisdiction over,falls within region IV and receives 450-650 mm of rain per year. The areahas mostly vertifoils and parafersiallitic soils. Such soils rapidly losefertility when cleared of indigenous vegetation. Year after year, cultivationworsens soil infertility, and thus crop yields easily deteriorate.Chief Samambwa decided to introduce the Zunde raMambo projectafter he had visited Chief Makoni's area in 1997. He spent four daysC. G. MARARIKE 59observing how Chief Makoni had attempted to revive the Zunde project.He selected those aspects of the project that he thought would be in linewith what he wanted to introduce in his area. Upon his return from ChiefMakoni's area, Chief Samambwa called a meeting of his 92 headmen,explained the Zunde idea to them, and persuaded three of them to try theZunde project in their areas. Zunde committees were established, allheaded by village headmen who, in turn, reported to Chief Samambwa.Other members of the committee were a vice-chairperson, a secretary, atreasurer, and a committee member. The committee drew up guidelinesthat were to be followed by all participants in the Zunde project whichincluded spending three to four hours per week on Zunde work. Althoughparticipation in Zunde activities was voluntary, a number of social andmoral obligations compelled all adult members of participating villagesto be involved. They all appreciated the support and help that theyreceived from other villages during times of distress such as death orillness in the family. Apart from crop production, members of the Zundeassisted each other in times of bereavement and exchanged informationabout family issues such as childcare.Mobilisation strategies used by Chief Samambwa and his villageheadmen created a sense of ownership of the Zunde project. The piece ofland that they used to grow crops was given to them by the Chief. Theyhad full responsibility over the land and its produce. Each meeting of theZunde project began with a prayer, to be followed by songs and sloganscomposed or identified by the chief as a way to boost the morale ofparticipants.Produce from the Zunde fields was used to feed children under theage of five years, the disabled, and the old members of the villages and tosupport those who would have been bereaved. Occasionally, members ofthe villages who had run out of food provisions borrowed grain from theZunde granary, to be replaced after the next harvest.Although the Zunde project appeared to have been well received inChief Samambwa's area, there were still many problems which threatenedits continuation. Shortages of land, agricultural inputs, weak co-operationwith government sections and the Chief's lack of full control of his peoplewere some of the problems referred to by Chief Samambwa. This will bediscussed in detail below.Chiefs Chivero and Nyamweda's areasChivero and Nyamweda's areas are in Mhondoro north in MashonalandWest Province. The areas fall within agricultural regions 111 and IV andreceive 450-650 mm of rain per year. As in Chief Samambwa's area, themain crop grown is maize. The people of the areas faced an acute landshortage problem and had difficulties secu; ng needed agi 'Ł<: .iHural inputs.60 INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITY STRATEGIES AT VILLAGE LEVELAlthough the people in these areas had been encouraged to revivethe Zunde raMambo project, nothing had yet been done at the time of theevaluation. The chiefs were not keen to revive the Zunde practice. Amongthe reasons given for not implementing the Zunde raMambo idea were thepeople's dislike of the idea, the lack of the necessary resources and thefact that the chiefs did not have the power to compel their people tocarry out such projects. They felt that the government had removed thepower of the chiefs to run affairs in their areas as was the case in pre-colonial times.Chief Makoni's and Kazangarare's areasThere were 496 village headmen under Chief Makoni. Thirty-six of themhad opted to revive the Zunde practice. The Zunde project was organizedin the same way as in Chief Samambwa's area. Chief Makoni's expectationswere that the Zunde project would be used to improve the livelihoods ofthe villagers. The Zunde project also had the potential to improve peoples'food self-sufficiency.In Chief Kazangarare's area, three of his headmen attempted to revivethe Zunde, but without success. The Chief himself was not a participant inthe project. He complained of lack of agricultural inputs and was of theopinion that most of his people were averse to collective projects such asZunde. Besides, most people had very little respect for the Chief'sauthority, a point that the Chief himself acknowledged.In the section which follows, the study discusses observations madeby the evaluation team on why the Zunde project had partially succeededin some areas, but had been rejected in others. It attempts to link the lackof motivation to revive the Zunde project to weak human factorcompetence, human factor content, and human factor engineering. It alsorefers to poor policy formulation and implementation as a variable whichcontributed to the failure of the revival of the Zunde raMambo project.The study also suggests alternative options which may be followed.DISCUSSION OF OBSERVATIONSAs already noted, Chief Makoni first came up with the idea to reviveZunde raMambo. His concern was to minimize food shortages in thevillages and, at the same time, reduce reliance on food aid from the stateand/or donors. The Nutrition Unit of the Ministry of Health and ChildWelfare then took up the idea. Its intention was to provide technicalsupport as well as help to make the idea a national one. A number ofproblems became apparent in the process of trying to revive Zunde.C. G. MARARIKE 61ContextThe context under which the Zunde project was being revived created thefirst problem. Zunde had a historical context. The role and functions ofchiefs in contemporary Zimbabwe and, indeed, most parts of Africa, havechanged. The social and political circumstances are also different. Revivinga traditional practice out of context can be a problem in itself. Althoughchiefs could be used to revive the Zunde project, as was the case in thepast, the role and functions of chiefs have been altered. Their source ofpower and authority has also changed. Chiefs no longer command thesame respect and authority over their communities as they used to do.They have no control over assets that can be distributed to their subjects,such as land. For a long time, chiefs have been made political footballs tobe kicked around by both colonial administrators as well as post-independence leaders (Mangiza, 1985; Mararike, 1995).ConceptualizationThe second problem associated with the revival of Zunde is that ofconceptualization. The Zunde concept cannot be easily understood bypresent generations. Their frame of reference has largely shifted frombeing under chiefs to being under other authorities such as DistrictCouncils, political parties, and central government. Although thepersonality characteristics of chiefs could assist in mobilizing people tosupport the revival of Zunde, their status could not be expected to assistin this regard.Control of assetsThe third problem has to do with peoples' access to and control of assetssuch as land, knowledge, and organizations. Land availability is a problem.Control of the available land is no longer in the hands of Chiefs as was thecase in the past. For a Chief to ask people to join in the revival of Zundeimplies that he has the required resources such as land.THE HUMAN FACTOR APPROACH AND REVIVAL OF ZUNDEIn this section, the study discusses the human factor approach in relationto the revival of Zunde raMambo and points out the importance of humanfactor content, human factor competence and human factor engineering.The main claim of the Human Factor approach is that no organizationor, indeed, any human activity, can sustain itself without people who arereliable, committed, disciplined and have appropriate skills andqualifications. In addition to all these qualities, people must believestrongly in the ideals of their organizations or societies and affirm themat all times. This can only be possible if the peoples' human factor62 INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITY STRATEGIES AT VILLAGE LEVELcontent, human factor competence, and human factor engineering areappropriately developed. The term 'human factor' is used here to refer"to the spectrum of personality characteristics and other dimensions ofhuman performance which enable social, economic and politicalorganisations to function and remain functional over time" (Adjibolosoo,1998,11).The success or failure of the Zunde raMambo project must be explainedfurther from the human factor approach claim. We refer specifically tohuman factor content, human factor competence, human factorengineering, and human factor decay. The human factor approach takesthe view that a combination of these factors contributes to the success orfailure of human activities and, therefore, human factor development.The Human Factor characteristics and contentPersonality characteristics such as commitment, reliability, dedication,and discipline constitute part of the human factor content (HFcf). ChiefsSamambwa and Makoni and some of their subjects believed in the idealsof the Zunde project and affirmed them. Their commitment to the Zundeproject emanated from the way they perceived the project's psychologicaland material benefits. The strength of one's HFcf arises from the clarity ofthe project and its goals. But clarity comes from an appropriateconceptualization of the project and what one may perceive as benefitscoming from taking part in the project. This clarity of perceived benefitshelps to develop a positive HFcf. Implied in the term human factor is thathuman performance depends on how the HFcf is motivated. Mostparticipants in the revival of Zunde raMambo were not positively motivated.In other words, their HFcf failed to perceive any psychological and materialbenefits if they participated in the Zunde project. This negative humanfactor motivation affected their human factor competence (HFcp).Human Factor competence (HFcp)Human factor competence (HFcp) refers to a person's organizationalskills and capacity to deal with tasks he has set for himself/herself ortasks assigned to him by an organization or society of which he/she is amember. HFcp comprises of a person's readiness, awareness, ability,willingness, and capacity to identify problems and then attempt to seeksolutions to the problems (Adu-Febiri, 2000). Readiness and awarenessrefer to a person's perceptions of what his/her problems and needs areand how he/she proposes to deal with them. As part of HFcp, readinessand awareness address perceptions of an unfulfilled desire or need. Thismay be tangible or intangible. They affect the individual's sphere of life.The person may proceed to tackle problems if he/she thinks that suchproblems are reversible as opposed to those that are not reversible.C. G. MARARIKE 63A person's ability, capacity, and willingness largely depend on whetherthe task to be tackled is perceived to be achievable. Variables such as thecontext and conceptualization of the problem, as well as the availabilityof resources to use, play a major role. All these variables constitute one'sHFcp. Human factor competence links up with the HFcf and influenceeither human factor engineering (HFeg) or human factor decay (HFdy).Human Factor engineering (HFeg)The concept human factor engineering (HFeg) refers to how one's HFcfand HFcp are motivated. The assumption made by HFeg is that, if one'sHFct and HFcp are in place, one should be able to carry out one's taskswithout prodding, assuming that one has the needed resources. On theother hand, the concept of human factor decay (HFdy ), refers to thecollapse of a person's HFcf, HFcp and HFeg. As illustrated in Fig 1, theperson will have drifted from normal human factor characteristics toHFdy, as opposed to drifting towards HFeg. Fig 2 gives a summary of HFcf,HFcp and HFdy.Figure 1HFDY AND HF£G-45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 NHFC +5 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30 +35 +40 +45Negative behaviour (HFdy) Positive behaviour (HFeg)Note: NHFC means Normal human factor contentFigure 2:COMPONENTS OF HFCT, HFCP, HFEG AND HFDY(a) HFcf: Its source are: socializationculturesociety(b) HFcp Refers to: awarenessabilityreadinesswillingnesscapacity(c) HFeg incorporates: HF characteristicsHFcfHFcp(d) HFdy implies collapse of: HFcfHFcpHFeg64 INDIGENOUS FOOD SECURITY STRATEGIES AT VILLAGE LEVELREVIVING ZUNDE RAMAMBO: CONSTRAINTSAttempts to revive Zunde raMambo were intended to solve the problem offood shortage at the village level, but the efforts faced a number ofconstraints. The first difficulty lay in the areas of conceptualization andcontextualization. Chiefs and their followers and government officialswere expected to work together in designing the Zunde project. This was,however, not the case. Instead, there were many differences between thetwo sides. Chiefs traced the history of their problems and conceptualizedand contexualized it in their own ways. They wanted to revive their lostauthority and power through reviving Zunde raMambo, while, on theother hand, government officials perceived the revival of Zunde raMamboas a way of relieving themselves of the responsibility to deal with theproblem of food shortage and shunting it off to chiefs and theirsubordinates.The second problem stemmed from the lack of commitment on thepart of those who were expected to implement the project. As alreadynoted, the human factor refers to a spectrum of personality characteristicsand other dimensions of human performance, which enable social,economic and political institutions to remain functional over time. Implied,in this characterization of human factor are qualities such as commitment,discipline, and loyalty. Commitment to the ideals of an organization,however, requires one to understand and believe strongly in the goalsand ideals of the organization. With regard to the revival of Zunde raMambo,it cannot be said that government officials and most of the villagersunderstood and accepted the reasons for reviving Zunde raMambo.Components of their human factor competence such as awareness,readiness, and willingness to see the project through could not, therefore,have been motivated under such circumstances. Participants in the Zunderevival project held different viewpoints on the nature of the project andits objectives and, thus, could not agree on how to revive Zunde.CONCLUSIONThe foregoing analysis of the efforts to revive the Zunde raMambo revealsthat the fate of all projects depends on the involvement of persons withthe correct human factor content for their success. However, thesepersons must also believe strongly in the ideals of the project and affirmthem. 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