Zambezia (2001), XXVIII (ii).FROM INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASEDMANAGEMENT APPROACHES: THE ZIMBABWEANEXPERIENCEGIDEON ZHOUDepartment of Political and Administrative Studies, University of ZimbabweAbstractThe adoption and implementation of public enterprise sector reforms theworld-over reflects a paradigmatic shift from state<entred to private sector-oriented management styles. This article captures these evolutionary trendsthrough a detailed case analysis of the management regime that prevailedin the Zimbabwean public enterprise sector before the adoption of reforms.Public enterprise sector reforms call for a hindamental restructuring ofyesteryear practices at the macro and micro levels. However, as a review ofthe first and the second phases of the programme reveals, by the dawn of thenew millennium, the state in Zimbabwe had not significantly relinquished itstraditional controls over the parastatals sector. Most public enterprises stilloperated under their traditional enabling Acts.INTRODUCTIONA distinctive feature of the post-independence decade in Africa was thebelief in big government. The government was seen as the only organisationwith the capacity to engineer socio-economic development. The creationand subsequent phenomenal expansion of the public enterprise sector inthe past three decades reflects this development orthodoxy. Thisinterventionist development orthodoxy was rooted in the belief thatmarket systems are inherently imperfect and, as such, can hardly allocateresources in line with public preferences. Such market failures, it wasargued, could only be offset through active state intervention.In industrial countries, the experience of market failures in the 1930sand the apparent successes of Kynesian-based reconstruction policies ofthe 1940s and 1950s practically asserted the need to put the state incommand. These views, which also derived strong support from labour-dominated political parties, produced the "social democratic consensus"(Brett, 1988,16) which was responsible for organising the transition fromthe war economy to the long boom of the 1960s.In the developing world, practical realities, such as small domesticcapital markets, dependence on primary export, income disparities,reluctance of the private sector to invest, mistrust of private sector229230 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESmotivations, and shortage of indigenous entrepreneurial skills, amongother factors, were often cited as justifications for governmentparticipation in market activities (Ndongko, 1991). In such circumstances,public enterprises became critical policy instruments for importsubstitution and the generation of investible profits.In colonial Africa, the interventionist doctrine found ready acceptanceas it easily blended with the basic assumptions of nationalist movementsfighting for independence. In the newly emerging post colonial states,interventionism provided the new black elite with the rationale for takingcontrol of the commanding heights of the domestic economy. As Brett(1988) argues, such views could be presented as a model for reformistsocialism based on domestic state power in opposition to thepredominantly expatriate interests, which controlled the commandingheights of the local economy in most developing countries. Reeling underpressure to provide visible and tangible manifestations of modernisation,newly emerging post-colonial African governments had little choice butto use public enterprises as instruments of state intervention.Yet by the late 1980s, the consensus in many countries was that thepublic enterprise sector's contribution to the progress of economicdevelopment was far below expectations (World Bank, 1998; Killick, 1983;IMF, 1986; Rammanadham, 1989; Cook and Kirkpatrick, 1988). State-ownedcompanies that were expected to provide investible surplus to thegovernment often required massive subsidisation, imposing a fiscal burdenon the economy. They became a drain on scarce state resources (Gills etal, 1987; Nellis and Kikeri, 1989; Woon, 1991). As forcefully argued byWilson (1986), "rather than contributing to economic development, publicenterprises sat like huge white elephants over the African landscape,voraciously consuming what had been produced by others".Instead of promoting economic development, interventionist policystrategies left behind a residue of strong central intervention and anextensive and highly monopolistic state sector. While it was possible tounderwrite public enterprise inefficiencies with huge subsidies duringthe immediate post-independence decades, by the 1990s, a host ofexogenous and endogenous problems had emerged to constrain the fiscalcapacity of the treasury.In particular, the fiscal crisis of the state, induced by the downturn inthe world economy which began in the 1970s and high levels of corruptionand inefficiency in the state sector, led to a fundamental re-evaluation ofthe role of the interventionist development strategy in economicdevelopment. There was overwhelming pressure to reduce the role of thestate and to sell loss-making public enterprises into the private sector(where it was assumed they would be rehabilitated by being subjected tothe discipline of the market). In practice, this meant freeing the publicG. ZHOU 231enterprise sector from the direct controls and regulations of the pastthree decades.This consensus received a big boost from the emergence ofconservative political leaders in the UK and USA, who, as noted byTurner and Hulme (1997,183), provided "a radical practical demonstrationof how the rolling back process could be done through the privatisationof public enterprises". Donor agencies also lent support to these argumentsby arguing that "governments need to do less in those areas wheremarkets work" (World Bank, 1991, 1). In this way, public enterprisesector reforms became key components of the International MonetaryFund and World Bank policy prescriptions.Zimbabwe embraced these reforms in the early 1990s. This articleexplores management styles that were employed in Zimbabwe's publicenterprise sector during the pre- and post-independence periods. Theaim is to provide an empirically based explanation of the contextualforces that led to the transition from interventionism to market-basedpolicy strategies.THE COLONIAL LEGACYWhile a new era began in Zimbabwe with independence in 1980, thelegacy of the colonial era remained a major determinant factor inZimbabwe's development initiatives. In fact, most policy initiatives reflectconcerted efforts by the new leadership to come to terms with thevestiges of the past.At independence, the new black government took over a state inwhich income and wealth distribution were skewed in favour of theforeign element (Seidman, 1986; Chimombe, 1985; Moyana, 1984;Sachikonye, 1986). Herbst (1990,30) refers to a "bruised but not defeated"settler state which contained "powerful anachronistic elements whichwere potentially hostile to the political project of the new regime".According to Bratton (1981),At Independence, the ZANU (PF) leadership constituted a thin veneeratop a largely untransformed state apparatus. The cabinet found itselfin a fragile position because institutions wholly or partially controlledby groups of dubious loyalty were imposed between the leadership andits popular base (p.452).As Murapa (1984, 62) notes, 29 000 of the 40 000 civil servantsinherited by the new government in 1980 were blacks, with the majoritybeing teachers or clerical assistants. Of the 10 570 Established Officers,only 3 368 were black, with no Blacks holding positions above the senioradministrative level. The import of this is that the bureaucracy (as themain policy-implementing organ of the new sovereign state), was yet to232 INTERVENTIONS TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESbe brought under state control. Under such circumstances, its allegianceto the new state was viewed as questionable.In the parastatal sector, the new black government inherited a sectorthat had been principally used as a vehicle for securing the interests ofthe white community. For instance, during Ian Smith's 1965 UnilateralDeclaration of Independence, the parastatal sector acted as a "bufferagainst the threatening international environment" (Herbst, 1990, 19).Agricultural parastatals were used to subsidise inputs as well as topromote access to credit facilities to white commercial farmers (Rukuni,1994, 18). The system was so entrenched that for Herbst (1990, 22), itamounted to "socialism for whites".By the 1950s, the colonial government had enacted comprehensiveprice controls over large parts of the economy. These interventionistpolicies benefited white farmers as they set prices for the bulk of theircrops, thus guaranteeing the purchase of these crops when they weremarketed. In the same manner, manufacturing industries were alsoprotected from the vagaries of the market as they took advantage ofprotectionist tariffs and the "inexpensive labour provided by the labourreserve system" (Seidman, 1986,173).This system reached its pinnacle in the mid-1960s when theAgricultural Marketing Authority (AMA) was established. Legislationrequired that AMA, through its marketing organs, the Grain MarketingBoard (GMB) and the Cotton Marketing Board (CMB), buy the entirecrops regulated by the government (Herbst, 1990, 84).In addition to using controls and subsidies, the colonial state alsomoved aggressively to develop public enterprises in areas deemed vitalto the economy but unattractive to private investors. Thus, by 1945, stateenterprises included electrical power stations, the Cold StorageCommission's abattoirs, Cotton Research and Industrial Board (1936)and the Maize Control Board (1937), the Rhodesian Iron and SteelCorporation's foundries and the Sugar Industry Board's Triangle Estate.Bythe 1970s, state companies like the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporationand the Agricultural Finance Corporation were already in existence andin full operation (Stoneman, 1976, 33). By 1980, a parastatal investmentportfolio of 20 public enterprises was in existence in Zimbabwe.In the Zimbabwean agricultural sector, production was largely in thehands of the white commercial sector. Seidman notes that, while theGMB had 27 depots throughout the country before independence, onlyone in Mrewa specifically served communal sectors. Fn the financialsector, the institutional structure at independence was such that it offered"relatively little financial or credit facilities to the communal areas"(Rukuni, 1994, 17). In addition, the white community had, through the"constitutional safeguards" in the Lancaster constitution, ensured thatG. ZHOU 233no major changes in the socio-economic structures would be made, atleast during the first decade (Nzombe, 1989, 194). Thus, one negativeimpact of colonial policy in Zimbabwe was that it left behind a "residue ofdeep-rooted inequalities" in the economy (Moyana, 1984, 85). The blacks,who constituted 75% of the population, only occupied 47% of the land, sothat, at independence, the communal lands had a population density ofapproximately 28 people per square kilometre, compared with 9 persquare kilometre in formerly white areas (Bratton, 1994, 72).In fact, it is these racially-induced imbalances which had been theprincipal foci of the armed struggle in Zimbabwe. Thus, one dauntingchallenge facing the new government at independence was to translateliberation ideals into tangible deliverables, such as improved standardsof living, greater returns for their labour, better transportation forexporting and marketing their surpluses, easy access to education,adequate water supply, electricity, health-care facilities, and otheramenities. These social expectations summed up the mindset of the newnation.PUBLIC ENTERPRISE MANAGEMENT STYLES IN THE POST-INDEPENDENCE ERALike its predecessor, the new government of Zimbabwe adopted a highlyinterventionist development strategy in which public enterprises wereused as critical instruments of reversing the vestiges of the past. Withinthis development model, inherited parastatals, such as the AgriculturalFinance Corporation, the Industrial Development Corporation, theZimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, and the Grain Marketing Board,were expanded in line with post-independence priorities as enshrined inthe first Independence Plan: Growth with Equity. The state also usednewly created companies, such as the Zimbabwe Mining and DevelopmentCorporation and the Minerals Mining Corporation of Zimbabwe, to controlmining activities and marketing of minerals. In this way, the state madesignificant inroads into areas that were deemed critical to economicdevelopment.In the industrial sector, the state took over the Industrial DevelopmentCorporation (IDC), which had been established in 1963 and registered asa company. Until 1984, the IDC was 80% state-owned, with 20% privatesector investment. In 1984, the IDC Act was amended and the governmentbought out the 20% private sector share. Through the IDC's rescueoperations, the state expanded its ownership into various sectors of theeconomy such that by 1990, the IDC had 45 wholly or partially-ownedsubsidiaries under its portfolio of investments.For instance, the government had shares in the following subsidiarycompanies: Motec Holdings (100%), Willowvale Mazda Motor Industries234 INTERVENTIONIST! TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHES(51%), AMTEC (52%), Chemplex Corporation (100%), Dorowa Mineral(100%), Deven Engineering (100%), Sable Chemicals (21 %), National GlassIndustries (50%), Zimbabwe Phosphate Industries (100%), ZimbabweFertiliser Company (50%) and the Zimbabwe Grain Bag (49%).Thus, within a decade, the public enterprise sector in Zimbabwe hadexpanded from its 1980 level of 20 to over 40 by the 1990s, with themajority being monopoly companies in which the state had 100% shareownership. The public enterprise system in Zimbabwe comprised publiccorporations established through special acts of parliament, statecompanies incorporated under the private Companies Act with 100%government ownership, and joint ventures with foreign companies. Thus,in terms of primary intents and purposes, public enterprises in Zimbabweexhibit a variegated mix of regulatory, promotional, developmental andcommercial objectives, with proportions of each set of objectives varyingaccording to the nature of the enterprise.As outlined in the General Report of the Committee of Inquiry into theAdministration of Parastatals (1989, 5-6), the authority to create a publicenterprise in Zimbabwe was the preserve of either the Executive or theresponsible minister. A memorandum justifying the need to establish aparastatal was submitted to the responsible cabinet committee beforebeing referred to Cabinet for approval. The memorandum was expectedto specify its functions, explain how the parastatal related to otherparastatals and any possibilities of overlapping, as well as showing thesize and composition of board membership. In practice, however, theseprocedures were hardly followed in the immediate post independenceera. In fact, as noted by the Smith Report (1989,6), the establishment of apublic enterprise was "approved without regard" to the fact that existingparastatals or other organisations had functions which might overlapwith those of the proposed new public enterprises. For instance, thefunctions of the Zimbabwe Development Corporation and those of theIndustrial Development Corporation overlapped. The general procedurewas that, once a public enterprise was established, it was left to theBoard of the public enterprise concerned, with some guidance from theresponsible ministry, to determine its structure and size of staff. Givensuch discretion, the Board of the new public enterprise and the Chiefhxecutive would "justify existence" of the public enterprise by "increasingits workforce" (Smith Report, 1989, 8).SUBSIDIES POLICYIn these circumstances, public enterprises were invariably subjected tovarious forms of control. The principal-agent relationship between thesiate as owner and its parastatals as agents also meant that the state wasG. ZHOU 235statutorily obliged to finance public enterprise operations and makegood any of the losses from their operations. What, in effect, emergedwas a state-dependent public enterprise sector whose capital base wasvirtually loan capital. Whether the parastatal sourced funds througheither domestic or offshore borrowing, often, there were governmentguarantees. Consequently, the parastatal system did not motivatemanagement to minimise costs since poorly performing parastatals couldbe bailed out by subsidies from the treasury.It should however be noted that, despite these misgivings, a subsidypolicy was necessary if the post-colonial state had to achieve its equityobjectives of enhancing the welfare of the peasant farmer through theprovision of affordable prices to the poor. The subsidies policy was alsodevelopmental in that it aimed at ensuring self-sufficiency among thehitherto neglected communal producers. For instance, pricing policies inrelation to cotton, beef and dairy production were used to encourageexport production and expansion of the national herd, respectively. Asnoted by Herbst (1990,104), when threatened with shortages of its staple(maize), the government provided a price high enough to promoteincreases in production.In this context, a key feature of public enterprise management inpost-independence Zimbabwe was the subsidies policy. In the 1981/82financial year, subsidies constituted 11.6% of total government expenditureand 24.2% of total tax revenue while subsidies to the agricultural marketingboards totalled Z$43 million (Seidman, 1986, 46). In the 1982/3 financialyear, the government, in an attempt to hold down prices of essentialfoodstuffs while ensuring a high return to the growers (producers),provided heavy subsidies of Z$79 million through the Ministry of Tradeand Commerce. By 1990, the extent of direct subsidies to the publicenterprise sector was as shown in Tabe 1 below.As shown in the table, the principal recipients of subsidies andtransfers from the government were the Agricultural Marketing Boardsthrough their Agricultural Marketing Authority, the National Railways ofZimbabwe, and Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company. These parastatalsalso benefited from hidden transfers such as tax exemptions, access tocheap credit facilities on a government guarantee, and sales by governmentto public enterprises at below-market prices. This was unfortunate as, inpractice, indirect subsides constitute a major drain on the national fiscus.To honour its statutory obligations, the Zimbabwe government endedup borrowing heavily from both the external and domestic markets, thusmopping up funds which could have been put to use in productive capitalventures. These supports to the parastatal sector substantially increasedgovernment expenditures, culminating in unacceptably high budgetdeficits which, by 1990, averaged 10% of GDP (Zimbabwe: Framework for236 INTERVENTIONS TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESTable 1TRENDS IN GOVERNMENT SUBSIDIES TO PES 1986-1990 (Z$ MILLION)Major PEsin ZimbabweAgri. Mark.BoardsGMBDMBCSCCMBAMANRZAir ZimbabweAffretairZISCOAFCNOCZ1MTOTAL1986/87166.048.165.049.5Š3.480.045.015.082.018.4_406.41987/88210.0123.943.331.211.7100.039.93.0100.04.5Š457.41988/89156.180.040.011.025.0120.010.0-Š167.015.0Š468.11989/90160.248.956.137.517.7100.015.0,100.012.5Š387.71990/91Š255.09.0100.0Š628.6Source: Government Framework for Economic Reform.Table 2TRENDS IN PROFITS AND LOSSES (-) OF MAJOR PARASTATALS 1986-1990 (Z$ MILLION)Major PEsin Zimbabwe1986/87Agric.MarketingBoardsGMBDMBCSCCMBAMANRZAir ZimbabweAffretairZISCOAFCNOCZIMTOTAL(-183.0)(-82.9)(-55.6)(-33.4)-91.7-25.1-3.3-57.9-14.6-13.4-11.1-389.01987/88-214.8(-86.6)(-49.3)(-28.9)126.8-23.2-89.4-17.9119.0(-50.0)-353.11988/89-193.1(-71.7)(-51.3)(-36.7)-116.7-27.187.2-16.0112.2(-33.4)-327.91989/90-163.0(-71.8)(-52.2)(18.0)-117.6-10.1-77.65.9(-21.0)-362.41990/91166.7(-59.2)(-59.8)(-15.2)-216.0-4.5-80.0Š-106.9(-15.2)Source: Government Framework for Economic ReformG. ZHOU 237Economic Reform, 1991J. The irony, however, is that, despite thesecontinuous massive infusions of capital, public enterprises generallyfound themselves capital-deficient.PERFORMANCEWhile the parastatal sector gobbled up so large a chunk of the nationalbudget in direct and indirect subsidies, its produce as a sector showed"small returns, if any on capital performance of the parastatal sector forthe same period" (Zimbabwe Framework for Economic Reform, 1991, 9).The net parastatal performance was as shown in Table 2 above.As shown in the table above, in most large parastatals, the returns onthe portfolio of investment were always negative. In these circumstances,public enterprises ended up depending either on subsidies fromgovernment or from domestic and offshore borrowing, further worseningtheir deficits, since interest on the short-term borrowing was chargeableto the parastatal concerned. By 1987, parastatal performance had sunkso low that a Commission of Inquiry into Parastatals was set up under theChairmanship of Justice L. G. Smith.According to the Commission, public enterprise deficits were mainlydue to state controls. For instance, prices for parastatal goods and serviceswere determined by executive fiat. Often, they were set below marketlevels, thus making it difficult for Public Enterprises (PEs) to cover theiroperating costs. The AMA Report of the Committee of Inquiry intoParastatals sums up government pricing policy as follows:While government periodically Increased prices paid to producers ofproducts like maize, wheat and beef and milk and readily increasedwages; usually, government was slow in allowing parastatals to pass onthe cost increases to wholesalers and consumers (Smith, 1989. 41).The cumulative effect of these delays was that most parastatals, forexample, Air Zimbabwe, NRZ and ZISCO, received a "deficit on every unitsold" (Smith, 1988, 11) during that time. For the NRZ, it took "26 monthsfrom October 1983 for government to approve a tariff increase", while AirZimbabwe had to wait for "three months before it could adjust its fares"(Smith, 1988 15). In fact, when its requests for a 10% increase, which hadbeen submitted in 1983, was finally approved in 1986, that increase hadbecome paltry because, by 1985, "Zimbabwe currency had been devaluedby 53%" (Smith, 1988, 23). When ZISCO applied to the Ministry of Tradeand Commerce for a 19% domestic price increase on steel, it took "21months for the application to be approved and, by then, the companyhad lost Z$20 million in potential revenue" (Smith, 1988, 13).Apart from price controls, public enterprises were required toundertake investments or activities of a social nature, which were not238 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESeconomically viable. For example, the AFC and the GMB were directed to"avail larger amounts of credit to peasants" and to "ensure national foodsecurity through its strategic grain reserves", respectively (AMA, 1987,13).As a result, the GMB, as a residual buyer, incurred huge losses requiringhuge subsidies from government. Furthermore, export prices were lowerthan what the GMB paid producers, while the price at which GMB importedwas higher than the price at which it sold to millers. Since their capitalbase largely consisted of loans, this meant a subsequent heavy burden ofdebt service on the parastatals concerned.In this situation, management often argued that poor parastatalperformance was due to circumstances beyond their control. There werestructural constraints on PE Boards' discretion to invest, purchase, hireand fire, coupled with inadequate internal financial control systems andexternal monitoring systems for PEs. In such an administrative regime,managers could not be rewarded or penalised according to theirperformance. In fact, the system did not motivate management of PEs toprovide quality products and services.While it had been possible to underwrite public enterpriseinefficiencies with huge subsidies in the early 1980s, during the 1990s, ahost of social, political and economic problems had emerged to constrainthe fiscal capacity of the treasury. On the international scene, the pro-reform winds emanating from the World Bank and the InternationalMonetary Fund were sweeping across Africa and the entire world. On thelocal scene, the budget deficit was no longer sustainable and calls toembrace liberalisation were even heard within government and rulingparty circles. Reeling under these pressures, the Zimbabwe government,though still nursing nostalgic feelings about scientific socialism (Lehman,1992, 15), had no option but to adopt public enterprise sector reforms.MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT POLICYThe Zimbabwe Government embarked on Public Enterprise Sector Reformsin 1991 as part of a broader Public Sector Reform initiative under theEconomic Structural Adjustment Programme. As outlined in the Zimbabwe:A Framework For Economic Reforms (1991-95) and the ZimbabweProgramme For Economic and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST), publicenterprise sector reforms in Zimbabwe sought to improve the macro andmicro contexts of the public enterprise sector by removing restrictionsthat prevailed within the policy environment and at enterprise levels.The liberalisation and the deregulation of the policy framework are,therefore, central features of the new management orthodoxy.The new consensus was that the budget deficit, which in 1990 waspegged at 10% of GDP, largely originated from loss making publicG. ZHOU 239enterprises. As inefficient monopolies, public enterprises required hugetransfers of resources from the government in the form of subsidies. As aresult, subsidies were to decline so much that, by 1995, commercialisedPEs would not be receiving any budgetary support {Zimbabwe: TheEconomic Framework, 1991, 5). Indirect subsidies, such as import dutyexemptions, concessional loans, and government guarantees oncommercial bank loans were also to be gradually phased out. Thegovernment was however expected to subsidise losses that were a resultof social or policy obligations.In addition, commercialised and privatised companies were expectedto pay taxes to the government, thus improving government net revenue.This, as policy initiators argued, would, in turn, reduce government'spropensity to borrow from the domestic market, resulting in the releaseof more funds towards productive ventures. Government revenue, asfurther argued, would also be boosted through the sale of governmentshares or whole companies to the public. The new policy measures alsosought to improve operational viability in the public enterprise sectorthrough a cocktail of micro level measures including operational,organisational, and managerial restructuring. To make this possible, thegovernment was to relax its direct controls on the operations of PEs, thusgiving more autonomy to parastatal boards and management in microdecision making in areas such as price setting, investment, hiring andfiring. This was meant to expose the companies concerned to competitivecommercial discipline.Given the inherited racially induced skewed ownership patterns, lowsavings and weak collateral bases, one critical concern of this programmewas to ensure the economic empowerment of the hitherto disadvantagedindigenous groups (blacks). The policy ideal was to institute defensivemechanisms and legal instruments to enforce compliance with suchnational concerns. It should however, be noted that the first policydocument (Zimbabwe: A Framework for Economic Reforms, 1991-95) makesno explicit reference to indigenisation. While the concept features in arelatively detailed way in the second policy document (Z1MPREST, 1996-2000), policy strategies are however, not clearly described. As stated inthis policy document, the rationale for indigenisation arose from theobservation that:The foreign component of the private sector dominates the economy.Foreign ownership is over 80%. The domestic private sector is muchsmaller and weaker and Is dominated by non-indigenous enterprises.While the economy heavily depends on agriculture, mining and agro-based manufacturing industries, foreign investment in these sectorsaccounts for over 70% of total investment with the remainder mostlyowned by non-Indigenous Zimbabweans (Zimprest, 1996-2000, 1).240 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESPOLICY STRATEGIESAs is evident from Zimbabwe: A Framework for Economic Reform (1996-2000, 12), the reform programme sought to achieve its goals through amix of policy options, which included the sale of shares, sale of assets,leasing, and contracting out of non-core activities. The sale of sharesusually takes various forms. It may be public or private. Where the publicfloatation strategy is adopted, the state sells the equity of the enterpriseto the public through the formal capital market/stock exchange. Theequity may be offered at a fixed price or on a tender basis. The shares canbe marketed internationally or domestically. The public sale may entailthe selling of the entire or partial entity.While public floatations have the potential to widen share ownership,to generate short-term revenue gains to the government and to attractforeign investors, they however, require well developed local stockexchange and equity markets. Even where these conditions prevail,privatising directly through the stock exchange has the risk of furthermarginalising indigenous groups, who, due to low savings and weakcollateral, may not afford to buy shares that are floated to them. Anothermajor drawback of this option is that there are huge costs to be borne bythe state in the form of fees charged by professional advisors andunderwriters involved in the pricing and valuation of state assets.Where the private sale option is adopted, it involves the sale of all orpart of the shareholding in a public enterprise to a single purchaser or agroup of purchasers. The sale may be by private placements withinstitutional investors or a trade sale to other private sector companies.Private sales can be negotiated by competitive bidding or by negotiationwith potential buyers. Where there is already a vibrant private sector inplace, the government may simply sell its shareholding to the existingprivate shareholders.While private sales do not require developed stock and capital marketsand allow governments to identify the buyer, there is, however, the riskof underpricing state assets especially where the government deals witha single buyer. Private sales are also very vulnerable to self-seekingpursuits by some government officials. In such situations, there is thetwo-pronged danger of increasing wealth concentration and reducingcompetition. The investors may also demand warranties from governmentsuch as tax concessions, high rates of protection and incentivemechanisms to allow them to recover their total investment in extremelyshort periods. Ndongko (1991, 105) cites the case of a Togolese steel millcompany that was leased to a private foreign entrepreneur. The newinvestor demanded a protection rate of 41% and tax-free importation ofall raw materials. The lessee ended up paying a paltry fee of US$175; aG. ZHOU 241fraction of the interest charges which the government of Togo continuedto pay on the planned investment.Where Management Buyouts (MBOs) are adopted, they involve themanagers of the enterprise acquiring a controlling shareholding in theenterprise. These can also be in the form of employee buy-outs. Sucharrangements are however, ideal where the government wants to reducethe risk of ownership passing into foreign control. MBOs also ensurecontinuity of the management of the enterprise. However, theireffectiveness depends on the easy availability of financial institutionswilling to lend to management and employee investors. They are thereforebest suited to those companies with favourable cash flow positions.Under the contracting-out arrangement, a private sector contractorassumes responsibility under a contract for providing a specified leveland quality of public services for a fee. The main objective is to obtainthe most cost-effective delivery of the service. Competitive tendering isusually used by inviting tenders from both public and private sectors.While such arrangements have the advantage of ensuring governmentownership of assets and the control of service provided, there is the riskof disrupting service supply and, sometimes, there are problems inmonitoring quality of service supplied. Contracts usually do well wherethere are autonomous regulatory agencies to monitor the activities ofthese new companies (Usman, 1993).Where the government adopts leasing and franchising policy options,a private operator leases assets or facilities owned by the governmentand uses them to conduct business on its own account (CommonwealthSecretariat, 1991, 39). The lease specifies the conditions under which thelessee can operate the assets and specifies the payments to be made tothe government. One important characteristic of this arrangement is thatthe lessee assumes full responsibility for the commercial operation of theassets and, at the same time, has full control over the operation of theassets or facilities, subject to any maintenance and repair conditionsspecified in the contact. Leases and franchises also ensure guaranteedpayment, irrespective of enterprise profitability.IMPLEMENTING REFORMSReforms in Zimbabwe were undertaken in two distinct phases (1991-95and 1995 to date), with commercialisation/ privatisation and indigenixationconstituting major policy features of the two phases, respectively. Anothercontrasting feature of the two phases is that, while the first phase wasrelatively less visible, the second phase tended to be more lively, political,and contentious. This mainly stems from the fact that indigenisationprogrammes are, basically, re-distributive in outlook. They involve theG. ZHOU 243balance sheet restructuring. This entails assessing the assets and liabilitiesof the enterprise earmarked for commercialisation (Luke, 1988, 169).Balance sheet restructuring is important given that poor financialperformance of the public enterprise sector is usually a result of internalfactors such as inept management and use of PEs as conduits to fulfilsocial and political objectives of government. In this case, it is imperativethat policy implementers distinguish such extra burdens, which are likelyto deprive PEs of a level playing field.Balance sheet restructuring is a complex exercise which involvesbusiness strategies such as reorganisation of existing businesses,determination of current and potential inflows, hiving off some of thesecontrols, and the determination of core business (Pande, 1994, 40). Assetrestructuring presupposes a detailed business plan both in the medium-term and in the long-term perspective. The divestment of non-corebusiness, either as assets or preferably after being incorporated as aseparate company, are to be decided at this stage.In Zimbabwe, the NRZ was among the first state companies to undergoorganisational and operational restructuring. Its restructuringconcentrated on shedding of non-core activities such as the Road MotorServices (World Bank, 1995, 109). Restructuring also entailedretrenchments (cutting the workforce by about 3%), tightening of staffsupervision, improvement of management information systems, fillingcritical job vacancies, and increasing security to reduce cases of theft.While the World Bank Report (1995, 13-17) was quick to declare thisrestructuring exercise a "success story", its performance in the ensuingyears did not give credence to these claims. As revealed in the ZIMPREST(1998, 4) policy document, the NRZ was, by 1998, among those statecompanies which "contributed to the bulk of the losses". The FinancialGazette (21 August 1997) also notes that, in the 1995/96 financial year, theNRZ had incurred a deficit of $192 million, an increase of $106 million onthe $86 million deficit in the 1994/95 financial year.Reforms in the agricultural parastatal sectorThe agricultural sector in Zimbabwe is, to date, among those sectors thathave experienced significant commercialisation. Cases in point are theDairy Marketing Board (DMB), the Cold Storage Commission (CSC), andthe Cotton Marketing Board (CMB). These were subjected to extensiverestructuring to achieve efficiency-oriented initiatives. The governmentalso made an undertaking to take over their debts of approximately $4billion {ZIMPREST, 1998, 107).These agricultural marketing boards had, by the end of the firstphase, been moved from the Public Act of Parliament and incorporatedunder the Companies Act thereby becoming fully commercialised publicG. ZHOU 243balance sheet restructuring. This entails assessing the assets and liabilitiesof the enterprise earmarked for commercialisation (Luke, 1988, 169).Balance sheet restructuring is important given that poor financialperformance of the public enterprise sector is usually a result of internalfactors such as inept management and use of PEs as conduits to fulfilsocial and political objectives of government. In this case, it is imperativethat policy implementers distinguish such extra burdens, which are likelyto deprive PEs of a level playing field.Balance sheet restructuring is a complex exercise which involvesbusiness strategies such as reorganisation of existing businesses,determination of current and potential inflows, hiving off some of thesecontrols, and the determination of core business (Pande, 1994, 40). Assetrestructuring presupposes a detailed business plan both in the medium-term and in the long-term perspective. The divestment of non-corebusiness, either as assets or preferably after being incorporated as aseparate company, are to be decided at this stage.In Zimbabwe, the NRZ was among the first state companies to undergoorganisational and operational restructuring. Its restructuringconcentrated on shedding of non-core activities such as the Road MotorServices (World Bank, 1995, 109). Restructuring also entailedretrenchments (cutting the workforce by about 3%), tightening of staffsupervision, improvement of management information systems, fillingcritical job vacancies, and increasing security to reduce cases of theft.While the World Bank Report (1995, 13-17) was quick to declare thisrestructuring exercise a "success story", its performance in the ensuingyears did not give credence to these claims. As revealed in the ZIMPREST(1998, 4) policy document, the NRZ was, by 1998, among those statecompanies which "contributed to the bulk of the losses". The FinancialGazette (21 August 1997) also notes that, in the 1995/96 financial year, theNRZ had incurred a deficit of $192 million, an increase of $106 million onthe $86 million deficit in the 1994/95 financial year.Reforms in the agricultural parastatal sectorThe agricultural sector in Zimbabwe is, to date, among those sectors thathave experienced significant commercialisation. Cases in point are theDairy Marketing Board (DMB), the Cold Storage Commission (CSC), andthe Cotton Marketing Board (CMB). These were subjected to extensiverestructuring to achieve efficiency-oriented initiatives. The governmentalso made an undertaking to take over their debts of approximately $4billion (ZIMPREST, 1998, 107).These agricultural marketing boards had, by the end of the firstphase, been moved from the Public Act of Parliament and incorporatedunder the Companies Act thereby becoming fully commercialised public244 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHEScompanies, although they were 100% state-owned. In line with their newlegal status, the Dairy Marketing Board (DMB) became DairiboardZimbabwe Limited (DZL), the Cotton Marketing Board (CMB) became theCotton Company of Zimbabwe (Cottco) and the Cold Storage Corporation(CSC) became the Cold Storage Company (CSC).Deregulation in this sector liberalised the buying and processing ofmilk, the buying and ginning of cotton, and the buying and processing oflivestock meat. For example, the deregulation of the cotton industry in1994 saw the scrapping of the CMB monopoly in the buying and selling oflint on the local market. This opened the cotton sector to two competitors,Cotpro (owned by the Commercial Cotton Grower's Association) andCargil (a subsidiary of the giant Cargil International). By 1996, Cotprocatered for 30% of growers nationwide. With its main ginnery in Triangle,its catchment zone spread from the Lowveld to the Midlands, Hurungwe,and Makonde districts, through to Guruve, Dande, Muzarabani, MountDarwin, Chesa, Mazoe Valley, and the Umfurudzi resettlement area. Cargil,on the other hand, has interests in several African countries (such asMalawi, Nigeria, and Tanzania). In Zimbabwe, Cargil operates Chegutuand Tafuna ginneries, which it acquired from the Cotton Company ofZimbabwe.Impact of phase one reformsWhile a considerable amount of time was spent during the first phaseundertaking diagnostic studies of all major parastatals with the objectiveof coming up with instruments to effect the policy of restructuring andcommercialisation of PEs, by the end of this phase, "the fundamentalconditions for the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the PEs working in asluggish bureaucratic maze of environment were left intact" (ZIMPREST,1998,106). In fact, until 1994, the restructuring of PEs consisted mainly ofchanging institutional structures and systems, price adjustments, andtariff increases to reduce operational losses. By the end of 1995, none ofthe PEs in Zimbabwe were ready yet for privatisation.Although the main goal during the first phase was to restructure orrationalise the operations of PEs, creating sound financial systems provedto be very difficult. The public enterprise sector's privileged access tothe budget, credit system, tariffs, special tax status and regulatoryprotection was not significantly curtailed. The first phase resulted inmodest reductions in the aggregate PE sector financial deficit. Net lossesfor 1993/94 were Z$648 million, while, for the previous year 1992/93, netdeficits amounted to Z$4 707 million {ZIMPREST, 1998, 108). PEs such asthe NRZ, GMB, CSC, CMB and ZISCO continued to pose a drain on thebudget, as they incurred total losses of Z$ 1,753 million in the first phaseof the reform programme. As further noted in the ZIMPREST policydocument, public enterprise sector performance "deterioratedG. ZHOU 245significantly" during the reform phase {ZIMPREST, 1998, 4). Lossesamounting to $2 billion and $1.8 billion were incurred during the 1993/94and 1994/95 financial years respectively. While these losses may havebeen internally induced, in the majority of cases, they were largely clue togovernment control systems, which, by the end of 1995, were still intact.Most PEs operated under their traditional enabling Acts. In thesecircumstances, the government continued to exercise direct controls onpricing, investment, hiring and firing.In its assessment of progress during the first phase, ZIMPREST (1998)concluded:As a whole the first phase of reforms affected changes in the operationsof the PEs, it left out the most important ingredient of reform, that is,the delegation of autonomy to run these organisations in a competitiveenvironment. Even those PEs like the DZL, Cottco and CSC which hadbeen allowed commercialisation status, had their hands tied bygovernment (p.107).As is evident from this statement, the legal and institutionalframeworks governing PEs in Zimbabwe up to the end of the first phase(1995) imposed constraints on the achievement of public enterpriseviability. Of particular concern was the legislation governing labour,investment, borrowing, reporting, and public procurement. The problem,as revealed in ZIMPREST was that:From the point of view of alleviating the budget deficit, parastatalswere urged to compete effectively and turn out profit, while from theadministration viewpoint, parent ministries continued to regard theirPEs as coming under the previous Acts of Parliament governing theformer Boards (p.109).In fact, when the first phase ended, all the parastatals in Zimbabwewere governed by their respective Parliamentary Acts. The PEs that hadbeen subjected to rationalisation under the rubric of commercialisationand registered as private companies under the Companies Act were stilladministered under the Acts of Parliament. The designation of heads ofPEs in most cases remained those of General Manager or Director, asenunciated in the relevant Parliamentary Acts.Public enterprises were not allowed to change their structures withoutclearing with the parent ministry and the State Enterprises AdvisoryCommittee. For instance, the positions of General Managers and DeputyManagers were designated posts whose salaries and appointments werecleared through the State Enterprise Advisory Committee of thePresident's Office. While designated employees were free to choosecontracts or general conditions of employment, their annual incrementsfor salaries and wages had to be approved by the relevant ministry. Thus,the parent ministry still wielded considerable direct control over themanagement of PEs in Zimbabwe. The Minister, in consultation with the246 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESPresident, appointed Boards of Directors, while the ministry fixed theBoard fees and sitting allowances. All Boards of Directors required CabinetAuthority obtainable through the relevant parent ministry beforeundertaking foreign travel on official business.While the disposal of assets such as the grain and slaughter depotsand other fixed capital assets were undertaken by public tender, theyhowever had to be cleared with the relevant parent ministry, who, inturn, sought the clearance of the Ministry of Finance. Where organisationalrestructuring resulted in staff retrenchment, the retrenchment proposalsand severance packages were first cleared with the parent ministry. Thetraditional bureaucratic delays in the processing of such tenders inevitablyset in.In fact, at the end of the first phase of the reform programme inZimbabwe, there was a huge backlog in terms of the goals of this phase.As shown in Table 3 below, by 1998, most parastatals in Zimbabwe stillhad their enabling Acts unrepealed.Table 3TIME TABLE FOR COMMERCIALISATION AND PRIVATISATION OF PESIN ZIMBABWEPEMinistryCabinetDecisionCurrentStatusLegalFramework1 DeltaFinanceDisposal ofthe share-holding inDeltaGovernmenthas 6% shareholdingCorporateCompany2 Z1MREFinanceTo reduceGovernmentshareholdingfrom 100% to20%100%government-ownedZIMRE Act3 CBZFinanceTo reducegovernmentshareholdingfrom 100 to20%Privatisedwith 20 %governmentshareholdingBankinginstitution4 ZDBFinanceRepeal ZDBAct andincorporateit as aDevelopmentBankGovernmentowns 33%sharesZDB Act5678910PEFINHOLDASTRADepartmentof PrintingandStationeryOffice ofthe Commi-ssioner ofInsuranceandPensionIndustryZ1CARDAMinistryFinanceFinanceMinistryof FinanceFinanceFinanceLands andAgricultureG. ZHOUTable 3 (Cant)CabinetDecisionReducegovernmentshareholdingfrom 48.79%to 20%Sell RBZ share-holding to theindigenoussectorSeekingcabinetdecision onCurrentStatusBankingInstitutionCorporateCompanyowned80% by RBZGovernmentDepartmentcommercialisationSeekingCabinetdecision on theestablishmentof a regulatoryand SupervisoryAuthority of theGovernmentDepartmentIndustry Insuranceand PensionIndustryTo remainundergovernmentCommercialestates tooperate as100% ownedby gvt whiledevelopmentactivities tocome underthe ActCurrently100%Government-owned andfundedParastatal247LegalFrameworkRegisteredBankingInstitutionRegisteredCompaniesActA tradingFund underthe AuditandExchequerActDivisionwithin theMinistry ofFinance(notindicated)ARDA Actwhich is tobe amendedto reflectseparationof ARDA intocommercialandDevelopmentalDivision248 INTERVENTIONS TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESTable 3 (Cont)PEMinistryCabinetDecisionCurrentStatusLegalFramework11 AFCLands andAgricultureTo split intoAGRIBANK(operatingunder BankingAct andDevelopmentFinance Agency)ParastatalAFC Act tobe amended12 GMBLands andAgricultureStrategic GrainReserves toremain underthe Act whileGrain Tradingis to becommercialisedParastatalsGMB Act13 DZLLands andAgricultureTo beprivatised andpromote wideshareownershipin the processPrivatised withGovernmentowning 25%of the shareDMB Act1415161718CottcoCSCPig IndustryBoardTobaccoResearchBoardTobaccoMarketingBoardLands andAgricultureLands andAgricultureLands andAgricultureLands andAgricultureLands andAgricultureTo beprivatisedTo beprivatisedTo beprivatisedTo beprivatisedTo remain aparastatal100% ownedby Government.100% ownedby GovernmentParastatalParastatalParastatalCMB ActCSC ActPIB ActTRB Act(notindicated)i» iw Transportand EnergyTo separatepermanentaway fromrolling stockParastatal(notindicated)20212223242526PEZESAAirZimbabweAffretair(Pvt) LtdNOCZIMCMEDZSTCSEDCOMinistryTransportand EnergyTransportand EnergyTransportand EnergyTransportand EnergyTransportand EnergyIndustry andCommerceIndustryandCommerceG. ZHOUTable 3 (Cont)CabinetDecisionTocommercialiseZESA and tointroduceindependentpowerprocedures atgeneration leveland distributionto a bulk pointTocommercialiseprior toprivatisationafter two yearsTo resuscitateprior toprivatisationTo remain100%government-ownedTocommercialiseTo be soldto indigenousenterprisesCabinet hasapproved partof privatisa-tion involvingselling 49% ofshares toprivateinvestors inorder tocapitalise itCurrentStatusParastatal100%government-owned100%government-owned100%government-owned100%government-ownedParastatalParastatal249LegalFrameworkZESA Act(not(indicated)CompaniesActCompaniesActFundZSTCSEDCO Actamended toallowprivateshare-holders250 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESTable 3 (Cant)272829303132PEZDCIDCCPASDFZISCOZTAMinistryIndustry andCommerceIndustry andCommerceIndustry andCommercePublicServiceLabour andSocialWelfareIndustry andCommerceMinesEnviron-mentandTourismCabinet CurrentDecision StatusZDC to Parastatalspearheaddevelopmentat Growth Pointsand other smallcentres. However,Ministry ofIndustry isproposing thatZDC be dissolvedand subsidiariesbe disposed ofIDC old Parastatalinvestments togenerate capitalto support newinvestmentsTo be wound A parastatalupNo decision A Fundhas as yetbeen made.PSChasrecommendedcommercialisationTo be partly 100%privatised government-ownedDevelopmental Parastatalactivities tocontinue underAct whilecommercialZTDC to be ashareholder inhotels withother partnersLegalFrameworkZDC ActIDC Act(not shown)(not shown)ZISCO ActTourism Actof 1995G. ZHOU251Table 3 (Cont)PEMinistryCabinetDecisionCurrentStatusLegalFramework33ForestryCommissionMinesEnviron-ment andTourismTo be Paras tatalseparated intotwo entities;a developmentalarm under Actand a commercialforestry commissionForestryCommissionAct34 RainbowTourism34 RainbowTourismMinesEnviron-ment andTourismMinesEnviron-ment andTourismTo be commer-cialised priorto privati-sation100%government-ownedSemipublicenterpriseCompaniesActGovermentDepartmentSource: ZIMPREST, 1998, 51-53.THE SECOND PHASEWhile the second phase is officially associated with the year 1996, therewas, however, no full-scale privatisation until 1997. For instance, attemptsto conclude the ZESA-YTL (Malaysia) private sale in 1995 had not onlygenerated nationwide protest, but it also resulted in the dismissal of theentire board of directors under the chairmanship of Solomon Tavengwa,It should also be noted from the outset that, while privatisation andindigenisation took centre stage during this phase, these programmeshowever, ran concurrently with commercialisation.The term privatisation, as used in this context, is in the restricted orstructural sense of ownership transfer and refers to the sale/transfer ofownership from the public (government) to the private (individuals/localand foreign investors) and institutions (local companies and multinationalcompanies).This phase was more lively and contentious than the first phase for anumber of reasons. Indigenisation ideals demand equity, fairness,transparency, and accountability in any privatisation processesundertaken. Secondly, ownership transfers (especially of state-ownedentities) impact on issues of sovereignty. There are deep-rooted fearsthat such transfers may result in foreign control of the commandingheights of the economy, thereby reversing independence gains. The policy252 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESdebates that ensured among civil societal groups, key stakeholders, andthe state should be understood within these contexts.From 1996 to 1998, reform implementation was undertaken withoutany legally constituted privatisation plan of action. Policy implementersrelied on conflicting official statements that were, occasionally, issued bythe Department of State Enterprises responsible for indigenisation andthe National Economic Planning Commission. Consequently, programmeimplementation, generally, remained behind schedule, with only five outof an investment portfolio of over 40 state companies having beenprivatised by 1999. These are the Dairiboard Zimbabwe Limited (DZL),the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe (Cottco), the Commercial Bank ofZimbabwe (CBZ), the Zimbabwe Reinsurance Company of Zimbabwe(Z1MRE) and the Zimbabwe Tourism Group of Companies.The DZL caseThe DZL was born through the commercialisation of the former DairyMarketing Board in July 1994. it was the first state owned enterprise to beprivatised and listed on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange. It was privatisedthrough a public sale of 336 661 000 government shares to the public(individual and institutional investors). A consortium of three merchantbanks, namely the Barclays Merchant Bank, the Trust Merchant Bank,and the Heritage Investment Bank assisted in this privatisation programme{Zimbabwe Independent, 23 May 1997). Share distribution structure wasas shown below:Table 4SHARE DISTRIBUTION STRUCTURECategory of ShareholderPublic (Individual Investors)Technical PartnerSmall Scale ProducersEmployees (DZL)Large Scale ProducersNational Investment TrustGovernmentTotalNo. of Shares50 492 00033 661 00016 831 00033 661 00033 66100033 661 00033 661 00033 661 000Percentage1525510101025100Source: DZL Prelisting Document, 1997The share offer opened on June 16 and closed on June 27 1997, withshares selling at an affordable price of $1,20. This offer raised well overG. ZHOU 253Z$840 million, having attracted around 27 000 applications from individualinvestors (Financial Gazette, 3 July 1997). Individual investors were offereda 15% equity in the company, which translates into 50 492 000 shares witha net value of Z$60 million. In fact, the share offer was over-subscribed,with about 26 000 applicants being turned down. This over-subscriptionmay have been due to the low price of the shares (sold at $1,20 each) aswell as the massive publicity mounted on DZL's privatisation (whichincluded radio announcements in the vernacular languages of Shona andNdebele). It may also be explained as a demonstration of public confidencein the DZL as an entity.DZL employees negotiated the acquisition of 10% of the shares throughthe Dairiboard Employees Share Ownership Trust. The National MerchantBank (NMB) facilitated the deal through its corporate finance division,which acted as the advisors to the Dairiboard employees (Sunday Mail,13 July 1997). The DZL employees, with the assistance of the' NMB,established the Dairiboard Employees Ownership Trust as an autonomousorganisation representing all employees in the negotiation process.The Cottco casePreparations for the privatisation of the Cotton Marketing Board were inprogress by July 1997. The process kicked off with the preparation of aprivatisation prospectus, with the over-the-counter 350 million shareoffer finally taking place between 30 September and 17 October 1997(Sunday Mail, 13 July 1997). Z$620 million was raised during the process.These shares, which were selling at 110 cents per share, were offered toemployees of the company, cotton growers, individual and institutionalinvestors of Zimbabwe, giving them an opportunity to acquire 75% of thecompany's off loaded shares. The entire share distribution structure wasas below:Table 5SHARE DISTRIBUTION STRUCTUREType of InvestorSmall-scale Cotton growers (shares warehoused by NSSA)National Investment Trust (NIT)Large-scale Cotton GrowersGeneral PublicInstitutional InvestorsEmployeesGovernmentTotalShares Offered20%10%10%15%15%5%25%100Source: Cottco Prospectus. 1998, p5.254 INTERVENTIONS TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESThe privatisation of Cottco was subsequently followed by its listingon the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange, with most financial institutionswarehousing its shares. By March 1999, at least 80 million of the Cottcoshares worth about $120 million had been traded on the stock exchangeat prices fluctuating between $1,35 and $1,48 per share. The share priceappreciated by about 50% during this period. In fact, the Cottco priceclosed at $1,48 on 2 March 1999, having appreciated by 75% from their1997 level (Business Herald, 4 March 1999).While these two privatisation cases present a somewhat successfulindigenisation through privatisation, on the whole, the implementationof the Zimbabwean Indigenisation Programme has been severelyconstrained by the absence of a coherently defined indigenisation policydocument. It took almost eight years for the Zimbabwean government tocome up with a policy document to guide the implementation of thisprogramme. The Indigenisation Policy Document that was finally adoptedin 1998, apart from being long overdue, was generally viewed as lackingin coherence. The policy document does not provide an explicitprogramme of action. Neither are its policy strategies comprehensivelydefined. There are no clearly stipulated defence schemes for ensuringthe economic empowerment of the indigenous groups. Its legitimacy as apolicy statement has also been curtailed by the absence of constitutionalprovisions to back up the Zimbabwean Indigenisation Programme. In theabsence of such legal provisions, programme implementation has tendedto be ad hoc, poorly co-ordinated, opaque and indeed vulnerable topolitical manipulation by self-seeking politicians and top civil servants.The PTC sagaAttempts to open Zimbabwe's communication and information sectors toprivate participation through the tendering processes resulted in a seriesof court litigations between responsible ministries and the would-beinvestors. The PTC case best captures these issues.In the case of the PTC, the responsible ministers interfered with the°perJ'°ns of the Tender Board, thus depriving the Government TenderBoard (OTB) of its operational autonomy. In most cases, the adjudicationprocesses were manipulated to suit favoured tenderers. One such case isme long drawn-out court case between one local businessmen, Strivewiasiyiwa, representing Enhanced Communications Networks (Econet)and the then Minister of Information, Joyce Mujuru. The centre ofcontroversy was the government decision to award the country's firstprivate cellular phone licence to a consortium of black businessmen,«n HT8. , Sdent MuSabe>s nephew, Leo Mugabe, and a foreign firmSnT MeK? IM thiS PTC saga unfolded> the then chairman of the GTB,Stanley Mahlala, disclosed that the Cabinet Secretary, Charles Utete hadG. ZHOU 255ordered him to award the second cellular tender to Telecel, incontravention of the board's own resolution (Zimbabwe Independent, 23May 1997).In 1997, the PTC saga took a new twist when the Retrofit and theEnhanced Communication Network (Econet) served the then TenderBoard chairman, Phibian Mashingaidze, with a High Court Provisionalorder restraining the board from proceeding with the adjudication of thecellular telephone tender. Kantor and Immerman served the interdict.This High Court order restrained the PTC Board and the Minister ofInformation, Posts and Telecommunications from "processing further, orfrom suffering or permitting any other agency of government in theprocurement process, from proceeding further on the public tender . . .which closed on February 9,1995" (Financial Gazette, 30 November 1997).In June 1997, the then Minister of Information, Posts andTelecommunications, Joyce Mujuru, admitted that the award of a secondcellular phone network licensing (Network Two) to Telecel Zimbabwewas "flawed" and immediately called for tender re-evaluation (FinancialGazette, 5 June 1997). In an affidavit filed in the High Court, the ministerasked the GTB to carry out a reappraisal of the evaluation. The ministerresponded thus:In the light of the extraordinary revelations of the tender board, I donot oppose the claim for an order that the award of the licence toTelecel should be set aside. While 1 concede that the tender processhas been deficient, I cannot accept that this automatically entitles theapplicant to the second licence. 1 respectfully submit that the additionalnew facts presented in this affidavit necessitate a reappraisal of theevaluation of all the tenders by a reconstituted tender board (FinancialGazette, 5 June 1997).These scenarios suggest that divestiture processes are, by their verynature, highly political. As transfer processes, they inevitably invokenormative issues of justice, transparency, and accountability.It is also interesting to note that, while the government had by 1996made a policy decision to establish a National Investment Trust (NIT), byOctober 1998, this decision had not yet been translated into action. Theidea of NIT originated from the need to warehouse some shares on behalfof the indigenous groups. Its establishment was delayed by lack of crediblebudgetary support. For instance, its 1997/98 vote of Z$200 million, apartfrom being too meagre, was "diverted to meet other unbudgeted-forgovernment expenditures" (Herald, 1 October 1998).tThe Privatisation Agency of Zimbabwe (PAZ)The PAZ was established at the end of 1998 with a $120 million cashinjection from the British government (Financial Gazette, September 16-22 1999). It, however, became fully operational in September 1999.256 INTERVENTIONISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESIts establishment was a result of protracted lobbying by civil societalgroups for an autonomous and professionally-run body, to be involved,among other things, in evaluating parastatals earmarked for sale, decidinghow best the disposal should be handled, assessing the legal environmentand other aspects of privatisation. The creation of such an agency wasimperative given that in 1998, parastatals had made a total loss of $11billion, that is 15% of the national budget (Herald, October 19 1999).The PAZ took over the responsibilities that were, initially, undertakenby over ten state institutions (such as the National Economic PlanningCommission, the Inter-ministerial Committee on Privatisation, theDepartment of State Enterprises and Indigenisation, the President's Office,and other ministries responsible for parastatals). Cephas Msipa, the thenMinister of State responsible for public enterprises and indigenisation,outlined the modus operandi of the new agency as follows:ministries would forward to the agency the names of those state-companies to be privatised and the agency would do the rest of thework. This eliminates delays which were previously experienced due tothe submission of incomplete privatisation proposals to the inter-ministerial committee (Herald, 22 October 1998).By September 1999, the PAZ had already received privatisationproposals for the CSC, with the privatisation of the Rainbow TourismGroup (RTG) in progress. It was also earmarking the following statecompanies for sale: the National Railways of Zimbabwe (which made aloss of $700 million in 1998), the Forestry Commission (which was by1999 saddled with a $50 million overdraft), and the heavily borrowedZimbabwe Iron and Steel Company (Zimbabwe Independent, October 8,x y y y),On October 11 1999, the RTG became the fifth state-company to offerits shares to the public and the first to by-pass the "over-the-counter"route (Financial Gazette, October 14-20, 1999). This share offer, whichwas expected to raise $444,7 million (US $11,7 million, was open to thepublic up to 22 October 1999.The government retained 30% stake, while 35% was for a strategicpartner (yet to be selected), 20% for the public (namely, individual andinstitutional investors), 10% for the National Investment Trust, and 5%for the employees. RTG employees succeeded in raising $30 million,which was required to claim the five-percent employee share offer (HeraldOctober 14, 1999).CONCLUSIONWhile the establishment of the PAZ is indeed a welcome development,the agency's operational effectiveness is constrained from the onset byG. ZHOU 257the absence of a privatisation law. Without such a legal framework, thePAZ can not make binding monitoring decisions.Another issue of concern is its location. Like the ten predecessorstate institutions already mentioned, the PAZ is located in the Office ofthe President. While this may strengthen policy decisions emanatingfrom this agency, such centralisation may work against it. In particular,the location factor may rob this institution of the much neededaccessibility, decisional autonomy, transparency, and accountability. Insuch circumstances, professionalism, the fundamental value on which Itis supposed to operate, may be severely compromised.As argued by a spokesman for the Zimbabwe National Chamber ofCommerce (ZNCC),The operational structure of the PAZ is very defective. The body is notautonomous as it reports to the President's Office and not Parliament.When it was formed, no consultations were done with the stakeholdersoutside Government and, as such, key stakeholders are not represented(Sunday Mail, November 5, 2000).The Agency's autonomy is very crucial if the risk of partisan interesttaking precedent over national concerns is to be reduced. One way out ofthis impasse is to create a legal framework for the PAZ. This frameworkmust spell out its specific mandates and how it relates with other organsof the state. Without these requisite conditions, the creation of the PAZwill remain meaningless.The need to address these anomalies is urgent, given the current adhoc and knee-jerk approaches to reform implementation in Zimbabwe.For instance, while this reform programme is almost at the tail end of itssecond phase, very little has been covered in all its three major policystrategies: commercialisation, privatisation, and indigenisation. Thosestate companies that have been exposed to commercial discipline havenot been accorded the requisite institutional autonomy as their enablingActs are largely in place. Referring to the issue of indigenisation inZimbabwe, the chairman of Africa Resources Limited observed:The government has not been speaking with one voice on this definingissue and the private sector has also used this lack of clarity byGovernment to do nothing. The Government talks of empowering peoplebut there is nothing on the ground to push this agenda forward and thisunfortunately creates an impression that the Government is not seriousabout privatisation and empowerment (Sunday Mail, November 5,2000).In the absence of an indigenisation policy framework with clearlyspelt-out procurement procedures (as the PTC saga testifies), tenderingprocesses inevitably fall victim to clientelist interests, posing a potentthreat to the achievement of broad-based ownerships.258 INTERVENTION ISM TO MARKET-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACHESIt is also disquieting that, despite the transition to market-basedmanagement styles in the public enterprise sector, parastatals continueto register losses. For instance, in 1998, these losses were to the tune ofZ$ll billion, with the National Oil Company of Zimbabwe, ZimbabweElectricity Supply Authority, Grain Marketing Board, Zimbabwe Iron andSteel Company, and Post and Telecommunications Corporation, beingmajor loss-making entities. Of crucial concern is that such loss-makinggiants have not been targeted for privatisation. The official position isthat they are strategic, implying that they are to remain sacred cows.Given the financial crisis Zimbabwe is currently reeling under, to continueretaining such a resource-draining empire is hardly sustainable, especiallysince one major goal of this reform programme is to reduce a spirallingbudget deficit.The state in Zimbabwe is still in the majority shareholding position inmost state-companies. Even in those that have been privatised, its equityholding is still considerable. Allocating shares to some state-ownedenterprises such as National Social Security Authority (NSSA) and theNational Investment Trust has ensured this.The net picture is that, while the declared policy is to shift frominterventionism to market-based management styles, interventionistmanagement practices still reign supreme. Zimbabwe is yet to put inplace conducive macro and micro contexts in line with this newmanagement dispensation. Yesteryear principal-agent relationships arelargely intact. In other words, while official policy espouses market-based management styles, the mindset of the key policy makers is stillsteeped in the interventionist orthodox.ReferencesBooks and published articlesBRATTON, M. (1981) "Beyond the state: Civil society and associational lifein Africa", World Politics, 41 (3).BRETT, E, A. (1988) "State, markets and private power: Problems andpossibilities" in Cook and Kirkpatrick (eds.) 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