Zambezia (2002), XXIX (i)."THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TOZIMBABWE?H. A. MANWADepartment of Business Studies, University of ZimbabweAbstractOver the last two decades in which empirical studies on gender and leadershipstyles have been undertaken, the findings have consistently confirmed thatpeople's perceptions have not changed from using leadership traits, especiallymale traits as a requirement for appointment to managerial positions. Mostof this research was carried out in developed economies with differentcultures from those prevailing in African countries. It is, therefore, importantto investigate the applicability of findings from developed countries to theZimbabwean context. The findings of the study reported in this articlediffered from the literature in that, although managers were perceived topossess male traits, they were also perceived to have some female traits,such as intuition and modesty.INTRODUCTIONMuch research on leadership and leadership styles exists (Bass, 1985;Kotter; 1988; Conger and Kanungu, 1988; Bass and Avolio, 1994; Hinkinand Tracy, 1994). However, researching the role of gender in leadershipis a relatively new phenomenon (Denmark, 1993). The literature reviewedhas demonstrated that, over the last two decades in which empiricalstudies on gender and management have been undertaken, the findingshave consistently confirmed that people's perceptions have not yetchanged from using leadership traits, especially male traits, asrequirements for appointment to managerial positions. The first part ofthe article reviews relevant literature. This is followed by presentation offindings from a study undertaken in Zimbabwean banks and hotels.Implications for management development and suggestions for futureresearch are then presented.DEVELOPMENT OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ON GENDER ANDLEADERSHIP STYLEThe work of Broverman et al. (1972) and Schein (1973; 1975) has greatlyinfluenced the research on gender differences in leadership styles as wellas the leadership styles considered appropriate for managerial positions.Broverman et al. investigated college students' stereotypes associated60H. A. MANWA 61with males and females among college students, using a number of traits,such as competency and aggressiveness, to compare females and males.The study found a consistent pattern of stereotypes pertaining to malesand females in which, if males were regarded as competent and aggressive,females were not. Subsequent studies have focused on trying to prove ordisprove Broverman et aJ. 's findings (e.g. Denmark, 1993).Another important contribution to the debate on gender andleadership styles was by Schein (1973; 1975) and Schein, Lituchy and Liu(1996). These studies confirmed that male traits were generally associatedwith traits considered appropriate for managerial positions. Later, Brenner,Tomkiewicz and Schein (1989) replicated Schein's (1973/1975) studies.This time, the study found differences between male and female inperceptions of traits which were appropriate for managerial positions.The male sample confirmed Schein's original findings that there was acorrelation between characteristics associated with men and thoseassociated with managers. The sample of females, on the other hand,included characteristics generally associated with both males and femalesto be the requisite characteristics for entry into managerial positions.AndrogynyBern's (1974) research brought a new dimension to the debate onleadership by arguing that masculinity and femininity do not constituteexclusive sets of traits and that it was possible for one to possess bothmasculine and feminine traits. To test this theory, she developed theBem-Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) scale. This BSRI scale contained typicallymasculine, feminine and androgynous dimensions. It was, therefore,possible to score low or high on both the masculine and the femininetraits. If an individual scored high on both the masculine and the femininetraits, that individual was classified as "androgynous".Transformational LeadershipAs organisations continuously faced challenges resulting from factorssuch as globalisation, there was a growing interest among researchers inthe most effective type of leadership styles that could enable organisationsto respond quickly to changes. There has, therefore, been a continuedemphasis on the important role of transformational leadership style inthe changing and dynamic environments (Bass, 1985). Transformationalleaders have been described as leaders who make decisions throughconsensus and consultation with their followers and who are also able toinspire followers to set aside their own personal interests for the good ofthe organisation (Behling and Mcfillen, 1996).In the area of gender and management, one of the early studies torecognise the existence of transformational leadership style in females62 "THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TO ZIMBABWE?was Rosener (1990). Her findings were that there are differences inleadership style between females and males. Females use what she referredto as "interactive leadership" whereby they rely on group consensus toarrive at a decision (Bass and Avolio, 1994). Males, on the other hand, usea transactional leadership style which emphasises goal achievement as aguiding principle and relies on positional power to exercise authority.Despite the acknowledgement that females who are in managerialpositions have a transformational leadership style, which is nowconsidered most effective, empirical evidence shows that male traits arestill the prevailing criteria in the selection of leaders (Rozier and Hersch-Cochran, 1996; Kent and Moss, 1994). Sinclair's (1994), England's (1996)and Still's (1997) research in Australia have all confirmed that themasculine leadership style is still the most favoured style and is used byboth females and males. For females to be acceptable in management,they are forced to deny their feminine characteristics and adopt masculineways of managing.Although the literature reviewed above confirms that Schein et al. 's(1996) analogy that "think manager, think male" is the norm the worldover, there is little empirical evidence from the African continent toconfirm this view. The few studies that are remotely related to this topicwere carried out in South Africa. The major weakness of these studies isthat they did not specifically investigate the leadership styles mostpreferred in managerial positions. They investigated perceptions offemales and blacks as managers (Human, 1993; 1991; Day, 1991).Interestingly, however, the evidence from these South African studieshas also confirmed the existence of negative perceptions of females andblacks as managers. Of note is the fact that there was also a closeassociation of maleness and management in South Africa. Females andblacks were perceived not to be managerial material because they didnot possess male traits such as confidence and competitiveness andwere perceived to be emotional and less mathematically inclined.Thus, extant literature has confirmed that the variablesaggressiveness, competitiveness, logic, and objectivity were normallyassociated with males, while emotion, intuition, modesty andsubmissiveness were normally associated with females (Marshall, 1984;Human, 1991). Existing scholarship has suggested that expectations ofwhat was required for managerial appointments were universal (Schein,et al., 1996). This claim is made although the African continent was notincluded in these studies' investigations and despite the fact that empiricalevidence has shown that national cultures influence preferred leadershipstyles (Hofstede, 1993; Antonio and Dorfman, 1999). This study, thus,seeks to test this claim to universality by investigating perceptions ofH. A. MANWA 63managers in senior and middle management in Zimbabwean banks andhotels on traits that organisations look for when they make managerialappointments.The study seeks to establish whether:1. males differ from females in their perception of traits associated withfemales and males?2. males differ from females in their perception of traits that areconsidered for appointment to managerial positions?3. Black Zimbabweans differ from White Zimbabweans in their perceptionof traits associated with females and males?4. Black Zimbabweans differ from White Zimbabweans in their perceptionof traits required for promotion to managerial positions?MethodologyThe main design of the study was a national survey using a postalquestionnaire to collect data. The sample was drawn from four commercialbanks and 140 Zimbabwean hotels offering full service around Zimbabwe.Banks and hotels were chosen because, traditionally, these industrieshave been acclaimed to be woman-friendly in that a high proportion oftheir employees are female (Guerrier, 1986; Purcell, 1993). Also key playersin the banking and hotel industries endorsed the project. 184 usablequestionnaires were returned, representing a 65% response rate. Thereturned questionnaires represented 88 females and 96 males. The twoindustries were represented as follows: 96 hotels and 88 banks. The unitof analysis was senior and middle managers in the banking and hotelindustries. For the banking industry, these included managers whooccupied the first four highest levels in the organisational structure,while in the hotel industry, hotel general managers and heads of hoteloperational departments were surveyed (Hite, 1996).The study listed eight characteristics, namely, aggressiveness,submissiveness, emotion, competitiveness, logic, objectivity, intuitionand modesty, and asked participants to use a seven-point Likert scale(where 1 = highest and 7 = lowest) to indicate the degree to which eachcharacteristic was associated with either females or males, or consideredimportant for upward mobility into senior management positions.Data AnalysisStatistical Package for the Social Sciences was used to analyse the data.Descriptive statistics was used to analyse the results. Means, frequenciesand percentages were derived for the sample of black females, whitefemales, black males and white males. T-tests and ANOVAs were also run.64 "THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TO ZIMBABWE?FINDINGSPerceptions of Female Characteristics Classified by Gender ofRespondentsOne of the main objectives of the study was to compare male and femaleresponses to determine whether there were gender differences inperceptions of characteristics that Zimbabwean society normallyassociated with each gender. Table 1 lists characteristics associated withfemales. Females and males had similar ranking of the top 3 characteristicsof a female. These were emotion, submissiveness and modesty. Malerespondents gave the variable intuition, a lower rating (3.04) than whatthe female respondents gave (2.82). Both female and male respondentsagreed that logic, objectivity, competitiveness and aggressiveness weremoderately present in females.T-testsT-tests were administered to determine whether there were significantdifferences between male and female perceptions of female characteristics.The tests did not show any significant differences (p<0.05).Table 1:PERCEPTIONS OF FEMALE CHARACTERISTICS CLASSIFIED BY GENDEROF RESPONDENTSCharacteristic Female Mean (N=88) Male Mean (N=96)2.002.432.913.044.214.474.595.04Female Characteristics Classified by Race of RespondentsThe second objective of the study was to compare perceptions by race ofrespondents (Table 2). Both races perceived females to be emotional,submissive and modest. For the variable intuition, whites had a highermean (2.78) than that of blacks (3.07). Blacks saw females as moderatelyintuitive, while whites saw females as high in intuition. Blacks and whiteshad similar ratings of the following variables: logic, objectivity andEmotionSubmissivenessModestyIntuitionLogicObjectivityCompetitivenessAggressiveness2.102.352.572.824.314.474.345.02H. A. MANWA 65competitiveness. Although both races perceived females to possess thevariable aggressiveness in moderation, blacks had a slightly higher mean(4.84) than whites (5.25).T-testT-tests revealed significant differences between means for the variableobjectivity. Blacks had a higher mean than whites. Blacks saw objectivityas significantly more present as a characteristic for females than didwhites.Table 2:PERCEPTIONS OF FEMALE CHARACTERISTICS CLASSIFIED BY RACE OFRESPONDENTSCharacteristic Blacks' Mean (N=100) Whites' Mean (N=84)2.082.672.673.044.464.68*4.585.25Analysis of VarianceTo determine if any interactions between the variables exist, a series ofANOVAs were run against the dependent variables (emotion,submissiveness, modesty, intuition, logic, objectivity, competitiveness,aggressiveness,) using the independent variables of gender, race andindustry. Significant findings are presented below.IntuitionFor the variable intuition, the analysis yielded one significant interaction,an interaction between gender and race (Table 3). White females andblack males had a significantly higher mean than black females and whitemales. Black males and white females saw intuition as significantly morecharacteristic of female in general than did black females and whitemales.EmotionSubmissivenessModestyIntuitionLogicObjectivityCompetitivenessAggressivenessNote: * (p<0.05)2.112.822.822.824.104.084.384.8466 "THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TO ZIMBABWE?Table 3:ANOVA RESULTS AND MEANS FOR INTUITION FOR FEMALES BYGENDER AND RACERaceBlack White F=6.39 p<0.05Gender Female 3.21 2.45Male 2.94 3.18Male Characteristics Classified by Gender of RespondentsTable 4 documents ranking by males and females of the degree ofassociation of the eight characteristics of the study to males. Males andfemales had a similar ranking of four characteristics that were consideredto be associated with males: aggressiveness, competitiveness, objectivityand logic. Both males and females agreed that intuition and modestywere moderately associated with males. Males and females differed in theranking of the variable emotion. Males had a higher mean (5.11) thanfemales (5.72). Both genders ranked submissiveness under the categoryof characteristics that were not associated with males.T-testsT-tests showed significant differences between means for the variables,logic and emotion (p<0.05). For the variable, logic, females had a highermean (2.03) than males (2.50). Females see logic as significantly morecharacteristic of males in general than did males. For the variable, emotion,females had a lower mean (5.72) than males (5.11). Males perceivedemotion to be significantly more characteristic of males in general thandid females.Table 4:PERCEPTIONS OF MALE CHARACTERISTICS CLASSIFIED BY GENDER OFRESPONDENTSCharacteristic Female Mean (N=88) Male Mean (N=96)Aggressiveness 1.52 1.72Competitiveness 1.95 2.03Logic 2.03* 2.50*Objectivity 2.10 2.31Intuition 4.05 4.02Modesty 4.84 4.96Emotion 5.75* 5.11*Submissiveness 5.85 5.37Note: * (p<0.05)H. A. MANWA 67Perceptions of Male Characteristics Classified by Race ofRespondentsAs far as racial comparisons were concerned (Table 5), the characteristicsnormally associated with maleness in both races were similar. Both racesagreed that the ranking of the highest two items in descending order wasas follows: aggressiveness and competitiveness. Blacks ranked logic thirdwhilst whites ranked objectivity as third and logic was fourth. Blacks andwhites differed in their ranking of intuition. Blacks had a mean of 3.76while whites had a mean of 4.37. Both races agreed that males weremodest to some extent. Blacks perceived males to be emotional to alimited extent, whilst whites did not believe males were emotional at all.Both races did not perceive males to be at all submissive.T-testsT-tests revealed significant differences between means for the variable"intuition". Blacks had a significantly higher mean (3.73) than whites(4.37). Blacks saw "intuition" as significantly more characteristic of malesthan did whites.Table 5:PERCEPTIONS OF MALE CHARACTERISTICS CLASSIFIED BY RACE OFRESPONDENTSCharacteristic Blacks Mean (N=100) Whites Mean (N=84)1.652.142.452.294.37*4.985.586.01AggressivenessCompetitivenessLogicObjectivityIntuitionModestyEmotionSubmissiveness1.611.872.132.143.75*4.845.385.97Characteristics Important for Upward Mobility into SeniorManagement, Classified by GenderTable 6 displays the ranking of perceptions of characteristics that areimportant for upward mobility into senior management levels by genderof respondents. Both genders agreed on the most important characteristicsthat a manager must have to be promoted to senior management. Thesewere objectivity, logic, competitiveness, aggressiveness and intuition.68 "THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TO ZIMBABWE?Modesty and submissiveness were ranked under variables that weremoderately desirable for upward mobility. Females did not see emotionto be desirable for promotion into senior management positions. Maleson the other hand saw "emotion" as moderately desirable for upwardmobility.T-lestsT-tests revealed significant differences (p<0.05) between means for thevariable, emotion. Males had a higher mean (5.31) than that of females(5.65). Females saw emotion as significantly less important than didmales.Table 6:PERCEPTIONS OF CHARACTERISTICS IMPORTANT FOR UPWARDMOBILITY CLASSIFIED BY GENDER OF RESPONDENTSCharacteristic Female Mean (N=88) Male Mean (N=96)1.651.681.702.032.734.455.365.31*ObjectivityLogicCompetitivenessAggressivenessIntuitionModestySubmissivenessEmotion1.541.571.592.142.604.345.215.65Characteristics Important for Upward Mobility into SeniorManagement, Classified by Race of RespondentsBlacks and whites differed in the rating of the most importantcharacteristics for upward mobility into senior management. Ranking byeach race in descending order is reflected in means in Table 7. Blacks andwhites had similar ranking concerning the most important characteristicsfor upward mobility into senior management positions. These werecompetitiveness, logic, objectivity, aggressiveness and intuition indescending order. Under characteristics that were moderately important,both racial groups included modesty and submissiveness. Whites did notperceive emotion to be important for upward mobility into seniormanagement levels.H. A. MANWA 69TtestsT-tests revealed significant differences (p<0.05) between means for thevariable "emotion". Blacks saw emotion as significantly more importantthan did whites.Table 7:PERCEPTIONS OF CHARACTERISTICS IMPORTANT FOR UPWARDMOBILITY INTO SENIOR MANAGEMENT CLASSIFIED BY RACE OFRESPONDENTSCharacteristic Blacks Mean (N=100) Whites Mean (N=84)1.511.591.662.002.584.66*5.505.72*Analysis of VarianceT-tests in the previous segment covered main effect only. To determine ifany interactions between the variables exist, a series of ANOVAs wererun against the dependent variables (emotion, submissiveness, modesty,intuition, logic, objectivity, competitiveness, aggressiveness) using theindependent variables of gender, race and industry. Significant resultsare presented below (p<0.05).ANOVA for IntuitionANOVAs for intuition yielded one significant interaction, an interaction ofgender and race (Table 8). Black females and white males had a lowermean than black males and white females. Black females and white malessaw intuition as a significantly more important characteristic for promotioninto senior management levels than did white females and black males.ObjectivityLogicCompetitivenessAggressivenessIntuitionModestySubmissivenessEmotionATote.-*(p<0.05)1.681.671.642.162.754.18*5.125.27*70 "THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TO ZIMBABWE?Table 8:ANOVA RESULTS AND MEANS FOR INTUITION FOR UPWARD MOBILITYBY GENDER AND RACERaceBlack White F=4.08 p<0.05Gender Female 2.47 2.71Male 2.94 2.42ANOVA for AggressivenessANOVA for aggressiveness yielded one significant interaction, gender/race (Table 9). Black females and white males had a lower mean thanwhite females and black males. Black males and white females sawaggressiveness as a significantly more important characteristic forpromotion into senior management levels than did black females andwhite males.Table 9:ANOVA RESULTS AND MEANS FOR AGGRESSIVENESS FOR UPWARDMOBILITY BY GENDER AND RACERaceBlack White F=4.90 p<0.05Gender Female 2.47 1.84Male 1.93 2.18SUMMARY OF PERCEPTIONS OF CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITHEACH GENDER AND THOSE ASSOCIATED WITH SENIOR MANAGEMENTTable 10 is a summary of perceptions of characteristics associated witheach gender and those required for upward mobility into seniormanagement. All groups of respondents agreed on the order of importanceof each characteristic for each gender and those required for upwardmobility into senior management. Females were perceived by a largepercentage of the sample to be highly emotional, submissive, modest andintuitive, and moderately logical, objective, competitive, and aggressive.Males on the other hand were perceived by the sample at large to behighly aggressive, competitive, logical, and objective. Males wereperceived to be moderately intuitive and modest and not at all emotionaland submissive.H. A. MANWA71Another feature of Table 10 is that male and female characteristicsare reversed. The two most important characteristics that were associatedwith males (aggressiveness, competitiveness) were at the bottom ofcharacteristics that were associated with females. Females were expectedto have a limited amount of these characteristics. Emotion andsubmissiveness were at the top of characteristics that society normallyassociated with females. Males were however not expected to possesstypically female characteristics (emotion and submissiveness).Under characteristics that were considered when appointments tosenior management were made it was clear that organisations looked forindividuals who on the whole possessed male traits. Managers wereexpected to be objective, logical, competitive, aggressive and intuitive.The only minor difference was in the ranking of these characteristics.Ranking of characteristics required for senior management levels differedslightly from the one used for males. In particular, modesty helped inupward mobility into senior management. It was acceptable for a managerto possess some limited degree of modesty to climb to the top. What isdifferent about Zimbabwe is that, although senior managers are expectedto possess male traits in abundance, they are also expected to have somefemale traits like intuition and modesty.The findings of this study confirmed that submissiveness, which wasconsidered characteristic of most females, was not acceptable in seniormanagement in Zimbabwe. These results are in line with Baack el al. 's(1993) observations that to be able to rise to top management levels, amanager should not be seen to be emotional, impulsive or submissive.Table 10:SUMMARY OF FEMALE, MALE AND SENIOR MANAGEMENTCHARACTERISTICS ACROSS ENTIRE SAMPLEFemaleMaleSenior ManagementHighEmotionSubmissivenessModestyIntuitionModerateLogicObjectivityCompetitivenessAggressivenessHighAggressivenessCompetitivenessObjectivityLogicModerateIntuitionModestyLow/noneEmotionSubmissivenessHighObjectivityLogicCompetitivenessAggressivenessIntuitionModerateModestyLow/noneEmotion, Submissiveness72 "THINK MANAGER, THINK MALE": DOES IT APPLY TO ZIMBABWE?CONCLUSIONSConclusions that can be drawn from these results are that each gender issocialised differently to uphold characteristics that are associated withits gender. Respondents also agreed that characteristics associated withmales were the same characteristics that were required for upwardmobility into senior management levels. It can be deduced from thisunanimity of respondents' perceptions that female characteristics werenot considered appropriate for upward mobility into senior managementlevels. Furthermore, females were effectively excluded from successfullycompeting for senior management positions because of their gender.Unlike Schein etal. 's (1996) studies, where females were perceived topossess only feminine traits, females in Zimbabwe were perceived to behigh in feminine traits like submissiveness, emotion, modesty and intuition,but in addition, they were perceived to possess moderate male traits,such as logic, objectivity, competitiveness and aggressiveness. Anotherarea that differed from the literature were the perceived male traits(Schein etal., 1996). In Zimbabwe, males were perceived to be aggressive,competitive, objective and logical. In addition, they were perceived topossess female traits like intuition and modesty.Yet another difference was that, in previous studies, male respondentsassociated male traits with traits required for middle management, whilefemale respondents included both male and female traits (Brenner et ai,1989). There was agreement among respondents on acceptable femaleand male traits as well as traits considered for appointment to managerialpositions. This agreement can be interpreted to mean that Zimbabweansociety used very powerful indoctrination on females to instil in them theacceptable traits for a female, which they would transfer to workenvironments. Thus, female respondents did not take cognisance of thefact that, despite all the odds, they had made it into senior management.This fact means that there must be something positive in femalecharacteristics that had helped their upward mobility into managerialpositions.This study has confirmed that, overall, there was agreement betweenblacks and whites on the traits associated with each gender and thoserequired for upward mobility into senior management positions.Interestingly though, there was significant difference in perceptionsregarding some traits, intuition, objectivity and emotion. Whites perceivedintuition to be characteristically feminine and, therefore, not suitable forsenior managerial positions, while blacks perceived this trait to be auniversal trait which is present in females, males, and senior management.Concerning objectivity, whites perceived it to be characteristically maleH. A. MANWA 73and required for upward mobility into senior management. The lastvariable with significant differences was emotion. Whites perceivedfemales to be the only ones with this trait, while blacks perceived femalesto be emotional to a larger extent than males.It can be concluded, therefore, that there are differences in culturalorientations between white and black Zimbabweans. The view of thewhites seems to be closely aligned to the Anglo-Saxon view that wasreported on in the literature reviewed, while blacks seem to be affectedby a different cultural orientation. This study has confirmed that culture/ethnicity is another variable that influences people's perceptions of traitsassociated with each gender and those required for appointment intosenior managerial positions. This is an area that should be exploredfurther in future studies.LIMITATIONSThe point needs to be made however, that this study was limited tomiddle and senior managers in the two industries - hotels and banks and,therefore, its findings can not be generalised to other types of managersand industries. It is possible that the nature of the industries underinvestigation demanded a different leadership style that was morecustomer oriented. The situation might be different in non-serviceindustries like manufacturing and mining, for example. This calls forfurther studies to explore leadership styles adopted by managers indifferent types of organisations and in order to assess the influence oftype of industry on the leadership style adopted.This study has, however, contributed to theory building in that itconfirmed that Zimbabwe did not differ from developed economies in thetransference of societal role expectations into formal organisations. 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