Zambezia (2002), XXIX (ii)Emergent Literacies: Raising QuestionsAbout the Place of Computer Technologiesin Education and Society in a DevelopingCountry: The Case of ZimbabweKEDMON NYASHA HUNGWEDepartment of Education, Michigan Technological UniversityAbstract77iis article discusses the meaning of literacy in a technologically changing world.The rapidly expanding use of computer technologies in society has prompted callsfor the re-orientation of education and training curricula. TJiis article criticallyexamines what it means to be literate in the computer age and assesses the feasibilityof setting 'computer literacy' as an educational goal. Throughout the discussion,the term 'computer literacy' appears in quotes to make the point that its meaning isboth contentious and fluid. It is contended that Zimbabwean policy makers havetended to presume the value of computers, without critically examining how thetechnologies relate to education and society.The Origins of Computing TechnologiesComputer technologies emerged from the information and analyticrequirements of advanced industrial societies during and after the SecondWorld War. Computers were the perfect answer to the increasing demandfor enhanced data processing capabilities. According to Berman,Wartime national mobilization, the Cold War, the rapid post-1945expansion of the welfare state, and the growth of more interventioniststate policies of economic planning and management in 'mixed' economiesall led to the rapid growth of the state bureaucracies, civil and military,and an increasing burden of 'number crunching' tabulations.1The first electronic computer was commissioned in 1946 at the Universityof Pennsylvania. It was called the ENIAC (Electronic Integrator andAutomatic Computer), and it filled a room the size of a small two-bedroomhouse. ENIAC's memory was tiny and could only hold twenty 10-digitnumbers. By 1960, developments in microelectronics, and in particular theB. J. Berman, 1992, 'The state, computers, and African development: The informationnon-revolution', in S. Grant Lewis & J. Samoff eds, Microcomputers in AfricanDevelopment: Critical Perspectives, Westview: Boulder, & Co.: 218.121122 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and Societydevelopment of integrated circuits, made it possible to make more compactand powerful microcomputers. Since then, progress has been phenomenaland each decade has produced unprecedented achievements.The 1980s were notable for the emergence of compact desktop sizedmicrocomputers. Previously, ownership of computers had been confined tolarge companies, but now a whole range of institutions, households, andindividuals could own them. In recent years, the most dramaticbreakthroughs have been in software development. Corporate empires thatare entirely devoted to research and development of software productshave been built. The most powerful is Bill Gates' Microsoft.At the beginning of the 21st century, it can be said, with certainty, thatcomputer technologies are now fully integrated into the fabric of societyand economy. Computers are arguably the most dominant tools oforganisational management. As Merrill et al point out, it is 'hard to imaginean organisation, whether large or small, that does not or could notadvantageously use a computer in its operations'.2 Computer technologieshave become the foundation of what has been called the post-industrialeconomy. National economies and, indeed, the global economy, have shiftedfrom the industrial age, dominated by mechanical systems and power, tothe electronic age. If the dominant symbol of the industrial age wasmechanical power, that of the new age is the high-speed microprocessor.These developments notwithstanding, there is a wide gap in theapplication and use of computers and information technology betweendeveloped countries that are considered to have entered a new age ofinformation and Third World countries that have not. In recent years, thisgap has been used as 'an index of backwardness'.3 Many projects funded byinternational development agencies now routinely include microcomputersto improve planning and information management in donor recipientcountries.4 As Berman has noted:The role of computers as an essential component of development hasbeen strongly promoted by international development agencies whichhave accepted whole-heartedly the premise that information technologymust be applied and developed in Third World countries if they are notto be left behind.52. P. Merrill et al, 1992, Computers in Education, Boston: Allyn and Bacon: 1.3. Berman, 1992, 'The state, computers, and African development': 214.4. C. Calhoun and P. F. DeLargy, 1992, 'Computerization, aid-dependency, andadministrative capacity: A Sudanese case study', in S. Grant Lewis & J. Samoff eds,Microcomputers in African Deivlopment: Critical Peispectiivs, Westview: Boulder & Co.5. Berman, 1992, 'The state, computers, and African development': 216.K. N. HUNGWE 123It is presumed that the gap between poor and affluent societies is primarilya gap in technology and that infusing new technologies will assist in bridgingthe gap. Berman is sceptical. He argues that computers in Western societiesemerged as a consequence, rather than a cause, of development. In otherwords, computer technologies were designed to 'solve problems rooted inexisting institutional structures and practices and [were] intended to preserverather than transform their fundamental characteristics'.6 This is a criticalpoint to ponder because there is a school of thought that argues that theintroduction of computer technologies in poor societies will spurdevelopment. Currently, the spotlight is on the Internet, an application thathas a short but explosive history.Internet Technologies and the Rhetorics of DevelopmentIt was only in the 1990s that Internet applications became widely available,initially in universities. The use of the Internet has grown most rapidly inNorthern Industrialised Countries. A 2000 study by the US based InternetCouncil found that, 'In just the last seven years since 1993, the number ofpeople world-wide who use the Internet on a regular basis has grown fromfewer than 90 000 to more than 304 million in 2000'.7 It has been predictedthat the number of Internet users in the world will exceed the 1 billion markby 2005. Conducting online research was the leading online activity forsome 92 percent of American users in 2000. The impact on commerce hasbeen dramatic. An estimated 44 percent of US business sold their goodsover the Internet in 2000. It has been estimated that the use of the Internetaccounted for more than 25 percent of the economic growth of the USeconomy in the 1990s. Projections indicate that this trend will strengthen.There are, however, concerns that the gap between the rich and poor iswidening.The inequitable access to computer technologies between rich and poorsocieties is called the 'digital divide'.8 The divide refers to demographicand regional differences in Internet access that reflect economic disparitiesbetween groups and regions. The term has been used to describe theseparation between those who have access to online information andopportunities and those who do not.9 The 'digital divide' is expected to6. Ibid, 217.7. US Internet Council, 2000, 'State of the Internet Report 2000', Washington D.C.: USInternet Council: 1, [Online: www.usic.org)8. US Internet Council, 2000, 'State of the Internet Report 2000', 'Online content forlow-income and underserved Americans: The digital divide's new frontier' (TheChildren's Partnership, Santa Monica, California, March 2000), [Online:www.childrenspartnership.org],9. The Children's Partnership, 'Online content for low-income and underservedAmericans: The digital divide's new frontier'.! 24 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and Societywiden further as individuals lacking computer skills lag behind and do notreceive necessary training so that the poor become poorer."The idea of breaking down the digital divide has captured the minds ofnlicins in search of a great cause in the post-Cold War era. This becameSS when^eissue was taken up at the Group of Eight ^"EconomicSummi held in Okinawa, Japan in July 2000. The summit .ssued the OkinawaC2Z on the Global Information Society, which affirmed the importance ofb ding he international informal and knowledge divide (otherwiseknown as the digital divide), as a priority development issue. The openingstatement of the Charter reads:Information and Communication, Technology (IT) is one of the mostpotent forces in shaping the twenty-first century. Its revolutionary impactaffects the way people live, learn, and work and the way governmentinteracts with civil society. IT is fast becoming a vital engine ot growthfor the world economy.12In a world where poverty and suffering have persistently co-existedwith affluence, G8 leaders believe that information technologies promise anew beginning.IT represents a tremendous opportunity for emerging and developingeconomies Countries that succeed in harnessing its potential can lookforward to leapfrogging conventional obstacles ot intrastructuraldevelopments meeting more effectively their vital development goals,such as poverty reduction, health, sanitation, and education, and tobenefiting from the rapid growth of global e-commerce. Some developingcountries have already made significant progress in these ^reas.G8 leaders called for universal access to information technologies:'Everyone should be able to enjoy access to information and communicationsnetworks'. .The Okinawa Charter called for a 'continued drive toward universal andaffordable access' to information technologies and for 'IT literacy'. It stated:We are committed to provide all our citizens with an opportunity tonurture IT literacy and skills through education, lifelong learning, andtraining. We will continue to work toward this ambitious goal by getting10. US Internet Council, 2000, 'State of the Internet Report'.11 The G8 is an economic forum made up of eight industrialised countries namely theUnited States, France, Germany, Japan, United Kingdom, Canada, Italy, and mostrecently, Russia.12 G8 Research Group, July 22, 2000, 'Okinawa Charter on Global and InformationSociety', University of Toronto. [Online: http: www.library.utoronto.ca/g7/summit/2000okinawa/gis.htm]13. Ibid.K. N. HUNGWE 125schools, classrooms and libraries online and teachers skilled in II <\ndmultimedia resources.uThe Okinawa Charter indicates a persistent tendency to explainunderdevelopment in terms of gaps in technology. In this instance, thedigital divide has come to be seen not only as a sign of underdevelopment,but also as a cause of it. The provision of computer technologies to poorcountries has, therefore, emerged as an important rhetorical issue indevelopmental assistance. Thus, the dominant conception of the digitaldivide has been in terms of access to hardware (e.g. lack of computers), andconnectivity (shortage of telephone lines, satellite links, and so on). Thequestion of content has been, at best, peripheral. This is a major oversight,as the digital divide is also a content divide.The Digital Divide is a Content DivideThe problem of content barriers has been persistent, as Lewis and Samoffnoted in 1992. Writing about the growing role of microcomputers ininternational development, they argued:Often, this general faith in the use of microcomputers to manageinformation is not accompanied by specific attention to exactly whatinformation is flowing and in which direction . . . Consequently, although,clearly, microcomputers are capable of facilitating the management ofinformation, they may prove to be quite unsuitable for managing theparticular information that is most important to those who acquire themicrocomputers. Similarly, in the absence of specific attention to thedirections and pathways of the flow of information, microcomputersmay, in practice, render more, not less, difficult the control of theinformation flows deemed most important and may, indeed,institutionalize particular transfers of information that are quiteinconsistent with the goals of those who acquire the microcomputers.15Lewis and Samoff have reminded us that content matters. There is needfor online resources that serve low-income and underprivileged groups,with limited education, who live in rural areas, or who are members ofracial or ethnic minorities.16 The specific areas of concern are:Š Lack of information: Much of the information on the Internet isproduced by large institutions, commercial companies, and overseas14. Ibid15. Grant, S., Lewis and J. Samoff, 1992, 'Introduction', in S. Grant Lewis & |. Samoffeds. Microcomputers in African Development: Critical Peispectives, Westview: Boulder& Co: 8.16. W. Lazarus and F. Mora, March 2000, Online Content foi Lmr-liiconic anil LlmteisovcdAmericans: The Digital Divide's New Fionticr, Santa Monica, CA: The Children'sPartnership.126 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and Societysource. It tends to be of a general nature. Communities needinformation that is locally relevant, and that addresses local issuesand problems. ._ The literacy barrier: Online content has been primarily designed foran audience that reads at average or advanced literacy level. There isneed for information that can be clearly understood by limited-literacyusers In the US, roughly 22 percent of the adult population do nothave the reading and writing skills necessary to use the onlinesources.17Š The language barrier: English is the dominant language on the Internet.An estimated 87 percent of documents on the Internet are written in- Thf cultural barrier: There is a lack of material generated by minoritycommunities.Technological barriers exacerbate content barriers. The barriers reinforceflows of information that are uni- rather than bi-directional, from the centreto the periphery This is a problem in many African countries, which arecharacterised by 'a wide gulf of knowledge and competence between thestate apparatus and the surrounding population'.19 The introduction ofcomputers in state agencies can, therefore, reinforce bureaucraticauthoritarianism. Lewis and Samoff, who have described microcomputersas 'the latest development fad, one in a long line of such technologicalfads'20 reflect some of the disillusionment with narrowly construedtechnological solutions. We should, therefore, be more critical of proposalsthat give unqualified support for computerisation as a developmental tool.What then is the way forward? In pondering this question, this articlefocuses on the role of educational institutions. These, more than any otherinstitutions, are facing increasing demands to produce intellectual skillsthat meet the challenges and goals of a rapidly changing and globalizedworld order. In Zimbabwe, the Education Commission of 1999 starkly putthe challenge, noting:Zimbabwe will soon enter the third millennium, which is dominated byeconomic competitiveness and information and communicationtechnologies. These forces challenge the nation to revamp its curriculum[and to] provide ... relevant technological equipment to enable studentsto develop the skills that are essential for a technological age.2117. Ibid.18. Ibid.19. Berman, 'The state, computers, and African development: The information non-revolution': 225.20. Grant Lewis and Samoff, 'Introduction': 8.21. 'Report of The Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training': 19.K. N. HUNGWE 127Zimbabwean society will be well placed to respond to this challenge if itreflects on lessons from the past, especially those from other countries thathave a longer history of computers in education.Computer Technologies in Education: Acknowledging the PastArthur Luehrmann and Herbert Peckam's book, Computer Literacy SurvivalKit, which was published in 1984, indicates an important stage in thedebate on computers in education.22 The book was written in the early andheady days of microcomputers when the Apple computer stormed Americanclassrooms with loud promises of a new age of learning. Luehrmann andPeckam saw a new 'computer literacy' curriculum as education's responseto a new Age of Information. They contended:By the end of this century, four-fifths of us will be information workers,not manual workers. Put simply, our jobs will be to receive informal ionfrom others, to process information in various ways, and to pa.ssinformation to others.23The teaching of computer skills was a matter of survival. Schools wereurged to take up the responsibility to 'prepare children to become fui.lyfunctioning, productive members of society'. Luehrmann and Peckamadded:We encounter computers in banks, grocery stores, department stores,offices, libraries, and practically everywhere else in society. We purchaseand use appliances, toys, and automobiles designed with microprocessortechnology. Simply put, we live with computers. It is obvious that weneed to acquire some fundamental level of understanding of theseelectronic wonders which make our lives simpler and more enjoyable.24The answer to these changes, they argued, was 'computer literacy',which was compared to traditional literacy in reading and writing.Computer literacy is to have as big an impact on career opportunities inthe future as ordinary literacy did in the past, when farm mechanizationdrove millions of workers into the cities in search of factory work.25They defined literacy as the skill to control computers throughprogramming in order to put one in control of the technology, for 'the mainvalue of any kind of literacy is that it puts one in direct control, withouthaving to depend on experts'.26 In other words,22. A. Luehrmann and H. Peckham, Compiife; Literacy Survival Kit.23. Ibid: ix.24. G. G. Bitter and R. A. Camuse 1984, Using a Microcomputer in the Classroom, Reston,Virginia: Reston Publishing Company: 21.25. Luehrmann and Peckham, Computer Literacy Sun<ival Kit: ix.26. Ibid: 358.128 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and SocietyWhen you become computer literate, you will know two important things:(1) what things a computer can do and (2) how to tell a computer to dothe things you want it to do. This therefore gives you freedom. You don'thave to depend on others to read street signs for you, or to tell you thelatest news ... You do not have to trust experts: You are literate . . Youare in control.In a note towards the end of their book, Luehrmann and Peckam remarkto the student, who has presumably gone through the book, that:You now have a solid understanding of what a computer can do. Youalso know how to tell a computer to do some of the things you want. Aswe said on page 1, the purpose of literacy is to set you free. You no longerneed a computer expert to solve all your computer needs. You can domany things for yourself.28The rhetoric of individual freedom was persistent, for as they insisted:Your new program writing abilities will allow you to do things on yourown for which no program exists. Your skills will also make it easier foryou to judge the quality of programs you buy.29Luehrmann and Peckam were writing at a point in time when youngentrepreneurs on small budgets were able to build computers and writehugely successful programs. Large corporations now dominate softwareproduction. The development of computer software has changed from craftwork, done by individuals, to an industrial process, undertaken by teams ofspecialists. In the industrial production of software, individual expertswork in specialised teams and no one person is in control of the wholeprocess. The promise of control has therefore been elusive.For the ordinary user today, the goal is not to make software, but to useit, in the same way that people use cars with very little understanding ofhow they are made. Programming skills are now, more than ever, an aspectof computer skills and are primarily associated with the work of informationtechnology professionals. Computer technologies are more diverse than inthe 1980s. They have changed from a medium primarily used forprogramming, to a multi-dimensional medium that affords the use of text,graphic images, video, and sound in complex interaction with each other.There is no one type of computer technology, but a range of technologiesand applications. It is in this context that Kern has posed the question,'What does it mean to be 'literate' in an age of electronically meditatedcommunication?'3027. lbid:\.28. Ibid: 361.29. Ibid: 359.30. R. Kern, 2000, 'From guest editor', Laugiuige Lent miiy mid TVi/mo/oyi'. 4 (2): 2.K N. HUNGWE 129The advent of computer technologies has not made traditional skills otreading and writing redundant. They continue to exist, integrated withinthe new technologies. For example, the research for this study was conducted,partly, on the Internet, while a word processor was used to produce thearticle. Both these activities involve the traditional skills of reading andwriting, but reading and writing in different ways, using different tools andplatforms. The changeover therefore involves some transformation oftraditional skills, some continuity of traditional skills, and the acquisitionof new skills that were not part of one's training before encounteringcomputers.31 Murray's analysis of these changes comes close to the argumentbeing advanced here. She argues that:The introduction of writing did not replace oral communication, theadvent of print did not replace writing, electronic communication has notreplaced print. Each exists as part of the complex of the communicationforms available for human beings to use, depending on the context of thecommunicative event.12At a more profound level, the debate on literacy reflects tensions betweenalternative visions of society and societal change, as will be shown below.Discourse on Literacy as Alternative Visions of Education andSocietyThe vision of literacy advocated by Luehrmann and others is essentially acall for a curriculum that adapts and fits learners to new societal andworkplace realities. The 'computer literacy' that they advocated was,therefore, intended to give students functional skills in response to newsocietal demands, and, in particular, to changes in workplace skills. Thisraises important questions about the appropriate goals for education. Whatis the appropriate relation between the world of work and education?Should education merely prepare students for the world of work, or shouldits mandate be broader?Strong arguments have been made for a broader view. Buchmann andSchwille, for example, argue that, 'Education that merges the immediategoals of the world of work with those of education limits people's awarenessand their choices'.3331. I have analysed changes in knowledge and skill in contexts 01 transition in K.Hungwe, 1999, 'Becoming a Machinist in a Changing Industry', PhD dissertation,Michigan State University. There 1 have described changes in knowledge and skillin contexts of transition in terms of continuity, transformation, and discontinuity.32. D. Murray, 2000, 'Changing technologies, changing literacy communities?', Ln>ignageLearning and Technology/, 4 (2): 55.33. M. Buchmann and J. Schwille, 1993, 'Education, experience, and the paradox offinitude', in M. Buchmann and R. Floden eds, Detachment and Concei n: Comrtmtionsin the Philosophy of Teaching and Tcachci Education, New York: Teachers College: 28.130 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and SocietyIn other words, education should not be narrowly construed as a tool foradaptation, important as that may be, but of transformation as well. Societaldynamics are complex, and are characterised by both continuities ofknowledge and practices, and transformations as well. Indeed the rate ofchange has been accelerating in recent decades. Education must thereforeprepare societies for both continuity and change. Accordingly, literacyeducation should be responsive to societal and individual demands, and atthe same time, and perhaps more importantly, it should provide anintellectual resource that empowers individuals and societies to manageand change their own situations.There is a perennial tension between education construed as adaptationand education for transformation. Luehrmann and others emphasised theadaptive function. This assumes a world that, once it became computerised,remained static. The missing story is that computer technologies havecontinued to change rapidly. Furthermore, this perspective is based on aninadequate understanding of the impact of computer technologies on workand workplace skills. There is an assumption that computerisation of worknecessitates a universal increase in computing skills. Studies of the impactof computer technologies on work have indicated a complex pattern ofskills change.One example is machining work in a US automobile plant, where a studyconducted over a number of years revealed that a corporation had trainedsome of its skilled machinists to become machinist-programmers. Themachinist-programmers were employed to codify (or programme) theknowledge and skills needed to machine complex parts. Using theseprogrammes, machining work could be automated. With automation, workthat was historically done by skilled artisans could now be performed byunskilled substitutes at lower rates of pay. In computerising machiningwork, the organisation upgraded the skills of machinist-programmers. Atthe same time, the organisation could now employ unskilled machineoperators, with no knowledge of machining or computers, to monitorautomated processes.34 The overall picture was therefore mixed.Given such findings, it is problematic to make general claims thatcomputerisation will raise the demand for computer skills. That is true forsome jobs and job categories, and not for others. The balance has tended totilt towards loss of skill as corporations seek to maximise profits by reducingthe proportion of skilled workers. Computerization and automation have,34. At the time of the study, the organisation wa? still employing skilled machinists asmachine operators. This position, which was negotiated by the union, was intendedto preserve jobs. These working conditions were short-lived because the plant wasclosed some months after the study, and the workers were re-deployed to otherplants.K. N. HUNGWE 131in fact, become important labour issues. The International Association ofMachinists and Aerospace Workers (IAMAW) has responded by proposinga 'Technology Bill of Rights'. The preamble to the Bill of Rights reads, inpart:Powerful new technologies are being poured into the workplace at arecord pace . . . While such technologies offer real promise for a bettersociety, they are being developed in a short sighted and dangerousdirection. Instead of benefits, working people are seeing jobs threatened,working conditions undermined, and the economic viability ofcommunities challenged.35One of the recommendations of the Bill of Rights is that:New technology must be used to improve the conditions of work. Ratherthan using automation to destroy skills, pace work, and monitor workers,it can be used to enhance skill and expand the responsibility workershave on the job . . . Production processes can be designed to fully utilizethe skill, talent, creativity, initiative, and experience of people Š insteadof production designs aimed at controlling workers as if they were robots.36The Technology Bill of Rights is indicative of the recognition by theIAMAW that computer systems are not autonomous, but are embedded incontexts that define specific production structures and power relations. Theexercise of computer skill is not independent of the societal reality (be iteconomic, political, or cultural), in which the technologies are embedded.What is often missing is the recognition that uses of computers reflecthuman choices and they are generally appropriated in contexts ofasymmetrical power relations where there are winners and losers in theprocess of technological change. Human action is both constrained andextended by the computerisation of work, depending on the structure ofthe hegemonic forces at play. Technology is not therefore an autonomoussocial entity. In view of the above, what then are the possible policy optionsfor a country like Zimbabwe?Toward a Sustainable National Policy on Computers in Educationin ZimbabweZimbabwe needs a clear and sustainable national policy on computertechnologies in education. Such a policy is currently lacking. In framing apolicy, a number of pitfalls should be avoided. The first is to assume thatteaching computers and technology will alleviate the problems of povertyand unemployment in the country. This assumption is based on the premise35. H. Shaiken, 1984, Wo;* Transformed, Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books: 272.36. Ibid: 273.132 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and Societythat the current economic problems and unemployment crisis has beencaused by lack of relevant skills. The link between education and work ismore complex than that. While education is necessary for development, it isnot a sufficient condition. A whole range of other issues needs to be factoredin, for example macro economic policies, political dynamics, and investment.The second critical issue is to make a clear distinction between what isdesirable and what is achievable. The Education Commission of 1999envisaged universal access to computers in Zimbabwe. That is desirable,but clearly not achievable. There are, currently, too many other competingbasic priorities facing the nation, in the education sector, in health,transportation, housing, and sanitation, to permit universal access tocomputer technologies.Third, it is important to be critical about what can be achieved by investingin computer technologies. Too often, claims have been exaggerated. Whatthe new technologies offer are only possibilities. Technology does not haveagency independent of the users and their context. With the above caveat inmind, the article will now outline a modest framework to guide theincorporation of computer technologies in education, focussing, initially,on the education of young children and then on \ubl\ ^iiuul, and post-secondary education.Computers in the Education of the YoungSeveral observers have expressed concern about what might be termed the'irrational exuberance'37 of educators in the face of computer technologies.It has been argued that today's society is in too much of a ru^h to developchildren, to push them to get ahead, and that this may have detrimentaleffects on their development.38Childhood is a critical phase of life and must be protected to be fullyexperienced. It should not be hurried. Each child deserves deep respectas an individual. Each needs help in developing his or her own uniquecapacities and in finding ways to weave them into a healthy social fabric.39Rather than 'overwhelming' children with 'electronic stimuli that outstriptheir sensory, emotional, and intellectual maturity', there should be an37. I find the term 'irrational exuberance' apt. It was coined by Alan Greenspan, chairmanof the US Federal Reserve, in describing the unprecedented bull run on the US stockmarket.38. H. K. Cuffaro, 1985, 'Microcomputers in education: Why is earlier better?', in D.Sloan ed, The Computci in Education: A Ciitical Perspective, New York: TeachersCollege Press. A. Zajonc, 'Computer pedagogy? Questions concerning the neweducational technology', in D. Sloan ed, Tlic Computer in Education: A Cr itieal Perspective.39. C. Cordesand E. Miller eds, 2000, Fools Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood,College Park, MD: Alliance for Childhood, Online: wwwalliancetorchildhood.net: 1.K. N. HUNGWE 133emphasis on traditional forms of child activity, and most importantly on agreater use of play.Few parents, policymakers, or school administrators seem aware that avoluminous body of research over the last 30 years ha> decisivelydemonstrated that play Š especially make-believe play Š contributes inunique and critical ways to children's intellectual, social, and emotionaldevelopment. In contrast, studies over the same time period have tailedto demonstrate that computers in elementary education make any criticalcontribution to children's development. Yet playtime in many classroomsis being sacrificed, as computer time increases. Play also, of course,contributes to children's physical health.40It is true that parents worry that their children will lag behind intechnological skills and will be disadvantaged for life. Parents, in short,want to maximise the advantages that their children have, and if thatmeans early exposure to computers, then so be it. The advantages of earlyexposure are, however, questionable:Parents who worry about their child's typing, word processing,spreadsheet, and Web search skills (the underlying fear, of course, isabout earning a decent living), should consider what every experiencedtechnology instructor knows: all of these skills can be taught in a one-semester course for older students.41As children mature and move up the primary school, there is scope forintroducing them to computer technologies. However, it is contended herethat this is not an essential investment, particularly in Zimbabwe, whichhas limited resources. Exposure can be postponed until the secondaryschool unless the school can comfortably meet the financial demands offunding the required resources.There are questions about the benefits of introducing computers in earlychildhood education. Furthermore, in poor countries such as Zimbabwe,computer technologies can be a threat to quality education by divertingscarce resources from critical resources such as books. There is much to begained from building a strong teaching and learning foundation based ontraditional teaching approaches. Local schools have not performed wellbecause they lack basics, such as textbooks, chalk, exercise books, pencils,pens, desks, classrooms, and qualified teachers.Questions of access to technology, rather than questions about contentand pedagogy have dominated the Zimbabwean debate on computers ineducation. There has been a tendency to assume that schools know what to40. Ibid: 5141. Ibid: 69.134 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and Societydo with computers, if only they could get them. However, a closerexamination reveals that schools are not clear as to why they need computers.That is so in the primary school, as well as the secondary school.Computers in the Secondary School CurriculumIn the first two years of high schools, Zimbabwean secondary schools thathave computers follow a skills oriented curriculum. A detailed discussionof the evolution of that curriculum is beyond the scope of this article.42However, the process has been led by a number of government and privateschools that acquired computers in the mid-1980s. The curriculum has thesupport of the iVlinistry of Education, but has not been recognised forpurposes of official certification. The focus in the first two years is onkeyboarding skills, the use of word-processors, and spreadsheet packagessuch as Microsoft's Word and Excel. Computer specialists teach computerskills but these skills are not linked to other areas of the curriculum. Forexample, students are generally not expected to use the computer skills thatthey have acquired to write papers, or to conduct research.A typical example is a Harare private school that has set up a computerroom equipped with state of the art computers. Each class i^ timetabled tovisit the computer room twice a week. The teacher makes up class exerciseswithout reference to any subject area or to any problem or issue of interestto the broader school curriculum. When asked to describe the content of thetasks that they were assigned, students had difficulties remembering them.Nevertheless, they liked the computer classes because they were an easyoption and a welcome distraction from other schoolwork.In the third year of high school, some schools have introduced ComputerStudies, a subject recognised by the Ministry of Education. The curriculumfocuses on programming skills. This course of study is normally offered toa small number, usually less than 30 students. The rest of the students donot have access to computers after the first two years of high school.The picture that emerges is that Zimbabwean schools that have investedin computers are not realising the full benefits of the technology. Inconsidering the way forward, educators would do well to consider whathas been learnt from the teaching of literacy in the language arts. Literacy inreading and writing has come to be considered in relation to specific areasof the curriculum such as history, science, and not as an isolated skill.43 Inother words, literacy is considered in terms of specific specialised discourses,within the school curriculum. If this principle is applied to computer skills,42. See K. Hungwe, Issues in computer oriented innovation in Zimbabwean Education'.43. A. Webster, M. Beveridge and M. Reed, 1996, Mmi/iym^ llic Lilnncn Cinnciilimi,London: Routledge.K. N. HUNGWE 135it means that they should be taught and learned tor use in specific contexts,tor example, in doing writing, mathematics, or conducting research. Studentsshould learn to use technology to solve specific problems that are relevantto their needs, rather than learning technology divorced from situationsand practices. It is important to:make the computer available to .students as a serious tool, in their livesright now, not as something they will need later. Probably the mostimportant example of this is word processing. Students have to writepapers, for English teachers, History teachers, and so on. Word processingcan make the mechanics of this task much easier . . ,14For Zimbabwean secondary schools, access to computer technologieshas been a major constraint. One way of beginning to address this isthrough resource sharing. A number of donor-funded models of resourcesharing have emerged in the last few years. Schools have been clustered toshare scarce resources. The existing models are the Better SchoolsProgramme, the Creating Learning Networks for African Teachers (CLNAT)pilot project, the SEITT project, and the World Links Programme.45 TheWorld Links Programme has set up 42 computer centres at rural and urbansecondary schools across the country. Secondary schools in Binga,Tshololotsho, Sanyati and other areas normally considered as 'remote' arecurrently online. World Links has also set up a Mobile ComputerClassroom', which moves from school to school, camping at each site for aweek at a time to give teachers and students training in computers.While these projects have made some impact, it is worrying that they aredonor-funded as it raises questions about their national impact and longterm sustainability. There is scope for state participation to increase impactand ensure long term sustainability. While computers are a new innovationin the school system, their use in post-secondary education has a longerhistory.Computers in Post-secondary EducationWhen computers were first introduced to universities, they were strictlyused for programming and teaching programming skills. Over time, thenature of computers has changed, raising new questions about traditionalnotions of computer skills. Technologies that have separate histories such44. B. Harvey, B1983, 'Stop saying 'computer literacy!', Online www.cs.berkeley.edu/~bh/stop.html45. The Better Schools Programme was funded by the Dutch government and hastargeted schools. The CLNAT is a UNESCO project for computerising and networkingteachers colleges. The SEITT project is an in-service programme for secondaryschool science teachers.136 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and Societyas video, audio, telecommunications, and text are increasingly integrated.The world is now in the age of hypermedia, which is a convergence ofhistorically distinct technological trajectories. Some post-secondaryinstitutions, especially in the industrialised North, have been takingadvantage of these developments to make computer technologies a majorplatform and medium for the design and delivery of instruction across thecurriculum. The response in developing countries has been slower.In Zimbabwe, the curriculum focus is still on programming applications.Even local teachers colleges (with a few exceptions), follow computerprogramming curricula. Nevertheless, there have been some promisingnew initiatives. Since year 2000, the University of Zimbabwe began settingup a campus-wide network to be used for communication, teaching, andresearch, across the curriculum. European Union countries providedfunding. The reliance on short-term donor funding is, however, worryingbecause computer technologies require regular maintenance, upgrading,and replacement.Access to the Internet has given a new dimension to the concept oflifelong and open learning. Individuals can extend their horizons andbroaden their learning experience by accessing global resources. Theenthusiasm for the growth of online resources has been tampered withconcerns about the quality and suitability of content. Among thoseexpressing concern are Altbach46 who has noted a rapid growth of marketdriven courses of study on the Internet, raising questions about the wisdomof basing the development of education on the vagaries of the market. It is,thus, vital that, as local educational institutions expand their uses ofcomputer technologies, infrastructural developments should becomplemented with the production of quality content.To summarise, it is the contention of this article that there are nocompelling pedagogic reasons for introducing Zimbabwean children in theprimary school to computer technologies. There are, in fact, reasons tobelieve that such a course of action is pedagogically inadvisable in the earlyyears. While computer technologies may be desirable in the higher gradesof primary education, it is questionable whether that is an appropriate goalat this stage of development of the country. The position in the secondaryschools is different and, there, the uses of computer technologies should beencouraged. There is, however, a need to use the technologies across thecurriculum, as tools for solving authentic problems, rather than teachingisolated skills that have no clear applications.46. P. Altbach, Summer 2002, 'Academic freedom: International warning sign',International Higher Education, 24.K. N. HUNGWE 137The provision of adequate resources is a challenging problem. Models ofresource sharing that have emerged over the years need to be explored andexpanded. This calls for greater state commitment. In both secondary andpost-secondary education, there is need to integrate computer technologiesacross the curriculum so that they are not only used by specialists incomputing, but are employed as work tools in all disciplines. It is criticalthat adequate attention be given to content. There has been a tendency todefine access to technology narrowly in terms of hardware, rather thancontent.ConclusionThe cost of computer technologies has decreased dramatically over the last50 years. At the same time, there has been a change in their uses, which canbe broadly characterised as a swing from information and data processing,to tools for communication. Wider access and greater affordability have,paradoxically, brought the question of equity to the fore. As long as theownership of computers was the preserve of large institutions andcorporations, and their uses were restricted to information and dataprocessing, equity was not an issue. Computer technologies have not beenthe cause of socio-economic inequities. Rather, their pattern of diffusionhas drawn attention to socio-economic disparities between rich and poorsocieties.The adoption of microcomputers in the Zimbabwean educational sectoris a good example. Microcomputers are found in less than 2 percent ofZimbabwean schools that represent the most privileged sector of the society.The pattern of adoption of the technology has therefore served to entrenchunequal societal relations. In this case and elsewhere in the world, theexclusion of the poor has manifested itself in two ways: as lack of access tohardware and software, and as content barriers. The Internet is a case inpoint.When analysed in terms of content, language, direction of flow, genreand style, the information on the Internet is dominated by a global elitewhose interests rarely coincide with those of the poor and marginalised.47The exclusion of the poor is not a unique feature of the computer age. Lackof access to resources is a defining characteristic of the world's poor andmarginalised people. To this day, there are significant segments of theglobal population that do not have access to books. The relatively highercosts of the new technologies have merely aggravated an existing crisis forthe world's poor.47. The Children's Partnership, 'Online content for low-income and underservedAmericans: The digital divide's new frontier'.138 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and SocietyThe 'digital divide', which has, in recent years, become an importantdevelopmental concern, is primarily a rich/poor divide that manifests itselfas a divide in skills, and access to technology. While some have argued thatinjection of new technologies in poor societies will spur economicdevelopment, others are sceptical.48 A whole range of factors needs to be inplace for technology to make a difference. Some of the factors are technical.Calhoun and DeLargy49 have cautioned that:computerization makes significant demands on environments.Unfortunately, the planning of many systems presumes settings like theUnited States, Western Europe or Japan, where a high level ofenvironmental support can be taken for granted.In the limited cases where donors have provided hardware and software,there are problems of sustainability. As the Internet Council has observed,'The monthly connection cost for the internet in Africa exceeds the monthlyincome of a significant portion of the population'.50 The obstacles can beinsurmountable, particularly outside the main urban areas. What has beenaccomplished is testimony to the enterprising spirit of a few.51The state can contribute to the development of pro-technologyenvironments through policy and legal frameworks. The telecommunicationsinfrastructure in African countries has been described as 'sadly inadequate'this being 'due to under-investment and strong government control'.52 Acase in point is the development of the telephone system in Zimbabwe. Astate-controlled corporation dominates this sector. The participation of theprivate sector is restricted to mobile telephone networks, and this limited48. See for instance B. J. Berman, 1992, 'The state, computers, and African development:The information non-revolution', in S. Grant Lewis & J. Samoff eds, Microcomputersin African Deivlopment: Critical Perspectives.49. C. Calhoun and P. F. DeLargy, 1992, Computerization, aid-dependency, andadministrative capacity: A Sudanese case study', in S. Grant Lewis & J. Samoff eds,Microcomputers in African Development: Critical Perspectives, Westview: Boulder & Co:35.50. US Internet Council, 'State of the Internet Report 2000': 16.51. See for example J. Chiguma, 1999, The Role of the Computer in the in-servictTraining of A-level Science Teachers', Diploma in Educational Technology ResearchProject, Centre for Educational Technology, University of Zimbabwe. Y. Muda vanhu,1999, 'An Analysis of the Problems Experienced in the Implementation of the CreatingLearning Networks for African Teachers (CLNAT) Pilot Project', Diploma inEducational Technology Research Project, Centre for Educational Technology,University of Zimbabwe. B. Chimbo, 1999, 'A study of Computer-based Instructionin South African Schools: A Case Study of the Gauteng Province', Diploma inEducational Technology Research Project, Centre for Educational Technology,University of Zimbabwe.52. US Internet Council, 'State of the Internet Report 2000'.K. N. HUNGWE 139concession was only won after several years of court battles culminating inan unprecedented intervention by the Supreme Court.The lack of appropriate infrastructure and technology is one problemthat needs to be addressed. However, even if that issue were to be resolved,it would still be necessary to consider how the educational system shouldrespond to the growing importance of computer technologies in society.The idea of 'computer literacy' has been the dominant metaphor inlormingthe education sector's response. If it is accepted that computer skillsconstitute a literacy skill, in the same manner that reading ,~\nd writing areliteracy skills, then the teaching of those skills should be mandatory. Harveyillustrates the powerful effect of using the literacy metaphor as follows:Any educator who suggested eliminating road ing from the curriculumwould be laughed at, if not tarred and feathered . . . One practical resultof the literacy metaphor is that many decisions about computer educationhave been made in a kind of panic. Parents call up the school committeeto ask why their children are not being trained for the vital computerskill. These parents may not know just what that -kill is, and neither doesthe school committee. But they do know that the private schools downthe road have computers.13The literacy metaphor provides a very powerful legitimisation forcomputer-oriented investments in education. This is true at the local level,as well as the district and government levels, especially since there areinternational conventions that obligate governments to provide for universalliteracy. The United Nations periodically published indices of literacy acrossthe globe. There is a danger, however, that the literacy metaphor can be atrap, especially in the context of the fact that there are serious problemswith the cost-effectiveness of universal computer literacy programmes,especially in poor societies. A study sponsored by the Department forInternational Development is illuminating, especially its key observationthat,Experience with the application of new technologies to education overthe past decade has been limited and difficult to evaluate. The evidence isthat computers in schools appear to be most effective at the higher levelsof the system. Where there has been dramatic improvement, it has beenwith established technologies, including radio. One key issue is that newinformation technologies can involve significantly higher recurrent costs,which has clear implications for affordabilitv."1453. B. Harvey, 1983, Stop Saying 'Computer Literacy!', Online www.cs.berkelev.edu~bh/stop, html54. Department for International Development, 2001, Th? Challenge <>»' Llniivrfiil Pi imamEducation, London: DFID: 19.140 The Place of Computer Technologies in Education and SocietyThus, an adequate conception of literacy in this day and age must takeinto account a number of issues, including, first, the multiplicity/diversityof uses that the new technologies afford users. Computer technologies haveevolved from a medium that was solely used for programming to become amulti-functional tool. New forms of use are being developed all the time.Secondly, since the uses of computer technologies are continually changing,the skills base required to use them is dynamic, rather than static. Thisrequires users who are adaptable and are continual learners. Literacy cannot therefore be defined in terms of a fixed set of skills.Thirdly, changes in technology have broader societal implications becausethey enable corporations and institutions to restructure and redefine workroles and job content. In this process, there are winners and losers, and oneconsequence of computerisation has been job losses. A broad understandingof the impact of technology on society is therefore an important aspect ofliteracy.Lastly, literacy education should nurture a citizenry that is both criticaland creative. In other words, it should enhance the societies' capacity toexplore a range of options and make decisions on reasoned ethicalconsiderations that advance negotiated societal value*. What this all meansis that entry into literacy does not merely entail a mastery of existingtechnologies. That is only a part of it. More importantly, it means creatingthe capacity to generate and consider scenarios for action, and an activecritique of dominant paradigms of use of technology.This study is, therefore, calling for a curriculum that empowersindividuals and societies to contemplate and act on alternative scenariosand futures. If Zimbabweans are to be masters of their destiny, then thegoal of education should be broader than teaching specific ttchnical skills.The process of change should not be driven by technology but should berooted in the cultural, economic, intellectual and spiritual resources ofcommunities.In view of the above, it is, therefore, proposed that there should be a shiftfrom the rhetoric of computer literacy (or IT literacy, as the G8 has called it),to that of literacy in the computer age. In addition, the specific skills that arerelevant for survival, productivity, creativity, and sustainable developmentin today's world have to be clearly defined. Some of those skills are quitetraditional. They are reading text, writing, verbal skills, and comprehensionskills. It is contended here that it is a mistake to narrowly focus on practicalskills, such as the use of a word processor or the Internet.A five-year old boy may be able to turn on a computer, insert a CD-ROM,and play a limited repertoire of computer games but he cannot be regardedas literate because he is underdeveloped in some key areas that are essentialto function effectively in this age. Among the areas where he is lacking arereading, writing, and verbal skills. He also needs to develop in the areas ofK. N. HUNGWE 141creativity, critical thinking, and judgement. Much of what has been called'literacy', with reference to computers, is, thus, merely a limited repertoireof skills, many of which are transient because of the changing nature of thetechnology. They are hardly an adequate preparation for the challenges ofthe age, which is precisely what an adequate educational programme ofliteracy should address.