Zambezin (2002), XXIX (ii)Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys andGirls in Secondary Schools in Zimbabwe:Some Implications for Teachers andParentsJOHN MAPFUMOFaculty of Education, Africa University, Mutare, ZimbabxveREGIS CHIRESHEEducational Foundations Department, Masvingo University College,Masvingo, ZimbabweMUNHUWEYI PERESUHFaculty of Education, University of ZimbabzveAbstractThe study investigated the career perceptions and visions of boys and girls insecondary schools. Subjects (N=120) were students enrolled in Fonns 1 to 6 whowere drawn from secondary schools in ManicalanJ and Masvingo educationalregions. An open-ended questionnaire ivas used to generate data. The PearsonProduct Moment Conelation (r) was used to analyse the data. Results showed thatboth boys and girls had similar perceptions about male and female jobs. It was alsoindicated that relatives were the chief influences in career choice among boys andgirls. Male students had higher educational aspirations than females. The studyrecommended the education of relatives especially parents on careers so as to avoidnegative influences on career choice. A vigorous offering of guidance and counselingin secondary schools was also recommended.IntroductionGender stereotyping can be defined differently in different settings (e.g. inthe home, at school and at work places). The society perpetuates certainbehaviours among males and females through the way they are broughtup. It is believed that men are born with certain natural abilities, aptitudesor talents that are different from those of women. Similarly, boys are expectedto have a flair for physically demanding tasks. They are supposed to bemechanically minded, emotionally robust, daring, virile and should generallybe interested in outdoor life (The Herald 2001). Some of these expectationstranslate into the way they think and behave. Similarly, girls are expectedto be good at various forms of handwork and should generally enjoy156J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 157staying and working indoors (Ministry of Education, Sport and Cultureand UNICEF 2000). Primary school textbooks in Zimbabwe and elsewherecontain pictures which show girls and women working in the kitchen,sweeping, and fetching water and doing what have traditionally beenconsidered women's jobs, thus, implying that women occupy lower statusjobs than men.There has been perpetuated disparities between males and females inboth secondary and tertiary education in Zimbabwe. Women continue todrop out, perform more poorly, and have less access to education than men(Gordon 1994, Dorsey, Gaidzanwa and Mupawaenda 1989). This study alsofound much congruence among the attitudes of the parents, teachers, boysand girls about educational aspirations and careers for boys and girls. Girlshave internalized negative beliefs about themselves. They perceivethemselves as unequal and inferior to boys (UNICEF 1995). The cleardifferentiation of jobs into male and female has also been found (Dorsey et.al 1989, Mapfumo 1993, UNICEF Zimbabwe 1995, Gordon 1994 and 1995).Presently efforts are being made to attain gender equity and equality inthe home, at school and at work places in Zimbabwe (UNICEF 1995, Ministryof Education, Sport and Culture and UNICEF 2000). It remains to be seenwhether this attempt to promote gender equity and equality has had anyeffects on boys' and girls' career perceptions and visions or not.In this study, parents were not included as participants. It was believedthat what was important was not what the attitudes of parents were, butwhether the pupils felt that their parents were exerting influence on themin their career choice.The study targeted students in Forms 1-6 in selected schools and aimedto establish:Ł Secondary school students' aspired educational level,Ł Perceived marital status,Ł Knowledge of career,Preferred jobs,Ł The existence of stereotypic job choices by gender, andŁ Major influences on students' job choices.In Zimbabwe, Forms 1 and 6 are the first and final years of the secondaryeducation cycle, respectively. The Zimbabwe Junior Certificate (ZJC) is thesecond, while 'O' and 'A' levels are, respectively, the fourth and sixth yearsof the secondary school cycle. The fourth year is usually the terminal levelfor many. Those who succeed at this level proceed to different forms oftertiary education. The sixth year normally leads to University educationfor those who meet University entry requirements. For example, the drop-out rate at this level has been staggering as the following three-yearpercentages reveal: 1988 (14.5%), 1989 (11.5%), and 1990 (18.4%)(Peresuhand Ndawi 1998).158 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweHypothesisThe study hypothesized that there were no differences in:Ł perceived female and male jobs between boys and girls,Ł educational aspirations between boys and girls,Ł expected and preferred jobs after school between boys and girls, andŁ no differences on major and chief influences on student job choicesbetween boys and girls.MethodologySampleThe participants (N=120) consisted of secondary school students (60 boys,60 girls) of between 12 and 16 years of age, drawn from eight urban andrural secondary schools, four in the Manicaland educational region andfour in the Masvingo region. The sample comprised an equal numericaland gender representation from each cycle of the secondary sector as follows:'A' level (N=40) (20 boys, 20 girls); 'O' level (N=40) (20 boys, 20 girls) andZJC (N=40) (20 boys, 20 girls).InstrumentThe data for the study was collected through an open-ended questionnairesoliciting for information on perceived job preferences and major influencesin career choice for boys and girls. Students were required to write a letter,listing perceived and preferred male and female jobs. A test re-test reliabilityof the questionnaire carried out a month later with 20 students from twosecondary schools in the Masvingo educational region in July 2000 was0.86. This shows that the instrument was reliable.ProcedurePermission to carry out the study was obtained from the Ministry ofEducation, Sport and Culture. The names of the secondary schools inManicaland and Masvingo educational regions with ZJC up to 'A' levelwere written down on separate pieces of paper and placed into smallcontainers. One of the researchers randomly picked out four pieces ofpapers from each container to select the participating schools. The sameprocedure was followed to select the students from each selected school.The selected students were asked to complete the questionnaire in a periodof 45 minutes. Three researchers administered the questionnaire, assistedby class teachers of the selected classes.J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 159Data Analysis and ResultsCross tabulations, t-test and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r)were used to analyse data. The summarized data presented in tables whichfollow were obtained from the sampled 120 students. Under each table is astatement on what the information in each table means.Table 1: Aspired Educational LevelLevel Male FemaleN % N %'0' level'A' levelCollegeUniversityUniversity, Ph.D.2462843,36,71046,76,7511Š23Š8,318,3Š38,3ŠTable 1 shows that more male than female respondents had highereducational aspirations. It is interesting to note that not even one femalerespondent aspired to do a Ph.D. However, using a t-test for independentsamples at 0.5 significance level, the t obtained, which is 0.15, was smallerthan the tabulated t, which is 1.86. Therefore the hypothesis that there wereno differences in educational aspirations between boys and girls can berejected.StatusMarriedSingleHaving childrenTableN3611262: Perceived MaritalMale%606,743,3StatusN16616Female%26,71026,7As indicated in Table 2, more male than female respondents aspired toget married. Related to marital status was the aspiration to have children.43,3% of the male respondents perceived themselves as having children ascompared to 26,7% of the female.The figures in Table 3 were used to calculate the level of correlation anda Pearson Product Moment Correlation (r) of 0.9 was obtained. This showsthat there is a strong relationship between male and female perceptionsabout the jobs that should be done by males. The most frequently perceivedjobs for males were tradesman, engineer, and security services provider.160 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweTable 3: Perceived Male Jobs (Male and Female Job Perceptions)JobTradesmanEngineeringSecurity ServicesManagementPrimary industrialistsHealth relatedDrivingPoliticianTeachingLaw relatedGardnerArtisticFinancialOtherMale Responses8365413832322513121611656Female Responses124653016242828914171011114Table 4: Perceived Female Jobs (Relationships Between Male and FemalePerceptions)JobCateringHealth relatedSecretarialFinancialDesigningDomesticBeauticianLaw relatedManagementSecurity ServicesJournalismOtherFemale Responses7170 (56 nurses, 10doctors, 4 other)8530473210594711Male Responses4258 (50 nurses, 4 doctors,4 other)861640452632617Using the above figures in Table 4, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation(r) of 0.95 was obtained. Once again, the evidence shows that there is astrong agreement between female and male perceptions about the jobs thatshould be done by females. Students indicated catering, health, secretarialand designing as jobs for females.J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 161Because of the high correlation obtained from both Tables 3 and 4, thehypothesis that there were no significant differences in perceived femaleand male jobs between boys and girls cannot be rejected.Table 5: Jobs Expected After School (Male and Female Expectations andPreferences)JobLaw relatedManagementEngineeringHealth relatedFinancialTeachingSecretarialCatering ServicesPoliticianTradesmanDriverComputer ProgrammerAuthorOther (Geologist, Meteorologist, GameRanger, Model, Psychologist, SocialScientist)DesigningJournalismMale ResponsesN %211535202691Š11782Š4Š1352558,333,343,3151,7Š18,311,713,33,3Š67Š1,7FemaleN122437312712154Š1Š3325Responses%203,36,761,751,74520256,7Š1,7Š553,38,3On the whole, the respondents tended to choose stereotypical jobs asshown earlier on, in Tables 3 and 4 above. Male respondents expected to dothe male jobs, while female respondents expected to do female jobs. Usingthe above responses, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient(r) of .40 was obtained. The results reveal that there is a difference betweenjobs expected and preferred by both boys and girls after school. Therefore,the null hypothesis that there were no significant differences in expectedand preferred jobs after school between boys and girls cannot be rejected.On health related jobs, 10 female respondents expected to be Doctors and12 to be Nurses, while 17 males expected to be Doctors.162 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweTable 6: Major Influences in Career ChoiceInfluencesRelativesTeachersFriendsOtherMaleN88503320Responses%46,126,217,310,5FemaleN9163447Responses%44,430,721,53,4The above responses were calculated using a Pearson Product MomentCorrelation Co-efficient, producing an (r) 0.95 result. This shows a highpositive correlation between male and female students' influences on careerchoice. Boys and girls indicated that they were greatly influenced by thesame people (i.e. relatives and teachers).Table 7: Three Chief Influences in Career ChoiceInfluencesRelativesTeachersFriendsOtherFemaleN371053Responses%67,318,29,15,5N30634Male Responses%69,8146,989,3Using figures from the above responses, a Pearson Product MomentCorrelation (r) of 0.99 was obtained. This suggests that the main influenceson career choice for boys and girls are the same. Relatives emerged as thechief influences of secondary school students in terms of career choice.Because of the high correlation between male and female responses onmajor and chief influences in career choice, the null hypothesis that thereare no significant differences on major and chief influences on students' jobchoices between boys and girls cannot be rejected.DiscussionThe study sought to investigate the career aspirations and visions of boysand girls in secondary schools. Statistical testing of null hypotheses of thestudy generated two major findings. First, results indicated a strongrelationship between male and female job perceptions. Boys and girlsdisplayed similar perceptions about jobs which should be done by eithermales or females. Second, there was an agreement among boys and girlsthat male jobs include engineering, building, electrical, carpentry,J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 163management, security services, welding, mining and driving. The femalejobs indicated include nursing, catering, designing, teaching, secretarialand domestic. These findings are consistent with those from a study carriedout in Zimbabwe (UNICEF 1995). The UNICEF study found that someoccupations are perceived as 'heavy', 'dirty' or 'dangerous' and are alwaystyped masculine. Examples of these occupations were found to beengineering, building, security services and driving. Some occupations aredescribed as 'light', 'clean', 'easy', 'safe' and 'needing a woman touch'.Occupations, such as teaching, nursing, and catering, are always typedfeminine. Thus, students' perceptions may have their roots in society. Thisis in agreement with findings from a study by Bond and Hwang (1986)which established that Chinese peoples' roles are rigidly defined. Thissocietal rigidity in roles explains students' perceptions towards careeraspirations and visions of children in school.Related to the above, is another UNICEF (1995) study, which found thatboys and girls believe that subjects like Fashion and Fabrics and Food andNutrition are feminine and should be taken by girls. This automaticallymeans that the girls will end up in catering and designing jobs, the so-called'feminine' jobs. This means, therefore, that the choice of school subjectsexcludes girls from pursuing certain careers of their choice in the future.The present study found that relatives and teachers were the majorinfluences in boys and girls' career choices. This is in line with the UNICEF(1995) finding that, in Zimbabwe, parents and teachers influence students'job perceptions. Parents and teachers believe that males are suited for the'heavy', 'dirty' and dangerous jobs, while females are suited for the 'light','clean' and 'safe' jobs. This is, perhaps, why boys and girls' perceptionsabout male and female jobs are similar to those of parents and teachers.Traditionally, parents prescribe jobs for their children during their day-to-day interactions, while teachers encourage girls to do 'feminine' jobs andboys to do 'masculine' jobs during career guidance sessions (UNICEF 1995).It is worth noting here that the boys' and girls' parents and relatives mayalready be in those 'feminine' and 'masculine' jobs and that the studentsfollow suit. It is thus likely that the girls and boys' tendency to choose'female' and 'male' jobs, respectively, is persistent because of lack of properguidance and counseling. Findings from this study confirm those of Lau(1995) that parents are the major influences on career choice among Chinesechildren. As a result, children take up jobs that satisfy parents' demandsand expectations and not their own individual aspirations. Taylor, Kelso,and Power (1986) in Lau (1995) also found that Australian secondary schoolstudents most frequently discuss their intentions with their parents andcareer teachers.While relatives, especially parents, are the chief influences in careerchoice as found in the present study, it is not clear whether parents takeinto account the children's interests, abilities and the job market .and164 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in Zimbabwedemands. Teachers who are supposed to be knowledgeable about students'interests, abilities and job market demands are not taking their expectedleading role in influencing the students' career choices. This may lead to amismatch between the job and the person resulting in less job satisfaction.There is need to seriously educate relatives on career choice. Teachersshould also be encouraged to take their leading role in career education. Asagents of change, their thinking, attitudes and behaviour should be gender-sensitive (UNICEF 2000). The need for teachers to sensitize students to thefact that there is nothing to stop either boys or girls from getting into anyfield, provided they have the interest and ability and take advantage of theopportunity, needs to be taken seriously, as this is one of the teachers' keyresponsibilities.In view of the findings from this study, one of the challenges facingteachers is how to make students aware of the basic personal qualitiesrequired to succeed in any occupation. According to Strang and Morris(1964), the basic qualities to succeed in any occupation are: the right attitudetowards work, willingness to take responsibility, accuracy,conscientiousness, and the ability to get along with others.This study also indicated that boys had higher educational aspirationsthan girls. The girls had low educational aspirations perhaps because theyknew that they would get married and be supported by their husbands.The boys had high educational aspirations because they knew they wouldbe heads of families (UNICEF 1995). From the above., it can be concludedthat girls need to be encouraged to aspire beyond marriage and develop aview of themselves as equal players in the world of work and people whocan make meaningful contributions to the material and financial well-beingof their families.ConclusionThis article has shown that male and female career choices are influencedmostly by their relatives and teachers and that students are socialised intobelieving that some jobs are for females, while others are for males. Anotherinteresting result was that more male than female respondents aspired toget married and having children. Thus, the male respondents saw themselvesas providers. The less female interest in marriage was however, not matchedby higher educational or vocational aspirations. This result was somewhatconfusing and worth further investigation. Finally, the article has highlightedthe fact that, because teachers are influential in determining the students'career choices, they should play their role in counselling students in such away that the gender divide between so-called male and female jobs isprogressively eliminated. Teachers need to realise that their contribution incareer guidance and counselling matters has a very significant role to playin the career choices their students make.J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 165Further ResearchMuch more research is needed into the interface of whether parents' socio-economic status (SES) has any influences on their children's career choices.There is need to know, on a much larger and more detailed enquiry, theinfluences of high and low SES, if any. Likewise, the fact that less femalestudents than male perceived themselves as not having children, needsfurther investigation.Looking into the future, much more action-based research in schools isneeded which can provide useful leads into the minor and major influencesin career choices. Finally and, above all else, it is crucially important thatnew and experienced teachers come to terms with the fact that their owncontribution in career guidance and counselling matters can have afavourable or unfavourable bearing upon the student's career choice.ReferencesBOND, M. H. AND HWANG, K. K. 1986, The social psychology of Chinesepeople', in, M. H. Bond ed, The Social Psychology of Chinese People, HongKong: Oxford University Press.DORSEY, B. J., GAIDZANWA, R. B., MUPAWAENDA, A. C. 1989, Factors AffectingAcademic Careers for Women at the University of Zimbabive, Harare: HumanResources Research Centre, University of Zimbabwe.GORDON, R. 1994, 'Educational policy and gender in Zimbabwe', Gender andEducation, 6 (ii).1995, Causes of Girls' Academic Underachievement: The Influence of Teachers'Attitudes and Expectations on the Academic Performance of Secondary SchoolGirls, Harare: Human Resources Research Centre, Occasional Paper No. 8.LAU, A. 1995, 'Undergraduates' perceptions and evaluations of career guidanceactivities: A Hong Kong study', British Journal of Guidance and Counseling,23 (2): 219-230.MAPFUMO, J. S. 1993, 'Job Preferences for Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools',Unpublished BSc Psychology Thesis, Harare: University of Zimbabwe.MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, SPORT AND CULTURE AND UNICEF, 2000, GenderResource Book for Teachers, Harare: UNICEF.PERESUH, M. AND NDAWI, O. P. 1998, 'Education for all - the challenges for adeveloping country: The Zimbabwe experience', International Journal ofInclusive Education, 2 (iii): 209-224.STRANG, R. AND MORRIS, G. 1964, Guidance in the Classroom, New York:Macmillan.UNICEF 1995, Attitudes Tmvards Girls in Zimbabwe. A Baseline Study for theGender Equity in Education Provision, Harare: UNICEF.ZIMBABWE 2001, 'Murambinda to hold World Aids Day celebrations', TheHerald, Thursday, 22 November.166 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweAPPENDIX 1QUESTIONNAIRE ON JOB PREFERENCES FOR BOYS AND GIRLSIN SECONDARY SCHOOLSGENDER:AGETYPE OF SCHOOLREGIONFORMMALEURBANRURAL1 2FEMALE3 4 56STIMULUS MATERIAL FOR JOB PREFERENCES OF BOYS ANDGIRLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLSSTIMULUS MATERIAL ONE1. You have a friend who is very dear to you. Imagine that this friend goesto a far away place without your knowledge.2. Imagine also that twenty years have passed without meeting this friendof yours.3. You have now got her/his address.4. Please write to him/her and tell him/her in the space provided belowabout everything which has happened to you since the last time youmet.5. You do not need to write more than one page but try to tell your friendas much as you can inside the one page.Thank you.J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 167STIMULUS MATERIAL FOR JOB PREFERENCES OF BOYS ANDGIRLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLSSTIMULUS MATERIAL TWOWhat we are now requesting you to do is another fairly simple task.Ł Draw up two lists in the spaces provided below.Ł On one list put down what you think are 'female' jobs that is, those jobswhich you expect are to be done by women and not by men.Ł On the other list, show those jobs which you think should be done bymen and not by women.' FEMALE' JOBS'MALE' JOBSThank you very much.168 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweSTIMULUS MATERIAL FOR JOB PREFERENCES OF BOYS ANDGIRLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLSSTIMULUS MATERIAL THREEYour task this time is to state in the spaces provided below three jobswhich you may be happy to do after school.Arrange the three jobs beginning with the one that you desire most to theone that you desire least.1.2.3.Thank you very much.STIMULUS MATERIAL FOR JOB PREFERENCES OF BOYS ANDGIRLS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLSSTIMULUS MATERIAL FOURYou have obviously talked to some people about your plans for a jobafter school.Put down four kinds of people who are very important in influencingyour decisions about the sort of jobs that you intend to do after school.Which one of these four types of people has been most influential in yourdecisions?Thank you very much.J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh169APPENDIX 2PERCEIVED MALE JOBSMALE RESPONSESX2Y2XY1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.TradesmanEngineeringSecurity servicesManagementPrimary industrialistsHealth relatedDrivingPoliticianTeachingLaw relatedGardenerArtisticFinancialOther83654138323225131216116566 8894 22516811 4441024102562516914425612136253612465301624282891417101111415 3764 22590025657678478481196289100112119610 2924 22512306087868967001171682721106558438517 70039123 88519 531r =r =r =nlxy - Ix 2y14(19 531) - 385 x 391V [14(17 700) - 385=]273 434 - 150 535A/247 800 - 148 225122 899^99 575x181 509122 899x (14 (23 885) - 391 ]x 334 390 - 152 881134 438,680,91417C ' Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweAPPENDIX 3PERCEIVED FEMALE JOBSFEMALE RESPONSESX X2 Y Y2 XY1. Catering2. Health related3. Secretarial4. Designing5. Domestic6. Teaching7. Financial8. Beautician9. Law related10. Management11. Security services12. Journalism13. Other71708547324030105947115 0414 9007 2252 2091024160090010025811649121425886404531)16263261717643 3647 39616002 02590025643694362892 9824 0607 310188014401200640203027842187421 23 291 353 17 683 19 826r =r =r =r =r =nSxy - 2x SyV(nlx):] - (Zx):]13(19 826)-421x353ŁV[13(23 291) - 421;]257 738 - 148 613^302 783 - 177 244109 125Vl25 542x105 270109125114 960,02[V- (IyHx [13 (17 683) - 353'X 229 879 - 124 6C0,95J. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh171APPENDIX 4THREE JOBS EXPECTED AFTER SCHOOLX2XY12345678910111213141516172115352026910117820040112243731271215401033325441225122540067681101214964400160114441613699617291442251601099942525230140740806243120440800012051601613 3043 6652 292r =r =nZxy - Ex Zyx[n2y: -17(2 299) - 160 x 161VI 17(3 304) - 160*]38 964 - 25 760V 56 168 - 25 60013 204^30 568 x 36 3841320433 349,450,40Š x [17 (3 665) - 161 ]x 62 305 - 25 921172 Career Perceptions and Visions of Boys and Girls in ZimbabweAPPENDIX 5MAJOR INFLUENCES IN CAREER CHOICEMALE RESPONSES1. Relatives2. Teachers3. Friends4. OtherX188250333420191X27 7442 500108940011733Y9163447205Y28 2813 96919364914 235XY8 0083150145214012 750nSxy - :r =r =r =r =r =r =I ; x [nly -4(12 750) - 191 x 205j x (4 (14 235V (4(11 733) - 191 ]51000 - 39 155— CfL QAft A'I X JO WVu Š 4.V 46 932 - 36 48111845VlO 451x14 9151184512 485, 050,9487(Zy)Ły n-yq.i, UADJ. Mapfumo, R. Chireshe, M. Peresuh 173APPENDIX 6CHIEF INFLUENCES IN CAREER CHOICEMALE RESPONSES FEMALE RESPONSESX2 Y Y2 XY1. Relatives2. Teachers3. Friends4. Other37105313691002593063490036916111060151255 1503 43 961 1197nZxy - 2x ly: xir =r =4(1197) - 55 x 43V(4(1503) - 55"]4 788 - 2 365^6 012 - 3 0252 423V2 987x1 995x3 844 - 18492423r =2 441,120,99r =