PROCEEDINGS
of

1964 TURF CONFERENCE
Sponsored b y the

and

PURDUE UNIVERSITY
LAFAYETTE, I N D I A N A

March 2 to 4, 1964

PROCEEDINGS OF THE
1964
MIDWEST REGIONAL TURF CONFERENCE

The 32 talks included in these Proceedings are condensations of talks
by speakers before sections and divisions of the 1964 M, R. T. F. Conference.
We appreciated the willingness of the speakers to participate and prepare
material for your reading. See Table of Contents next page. Proceedings of
each annual Conference since 1948 have been prepared. A limited number of
I960, 1962 and 1963 Proceedings are amiable at price below.
A copy of these Proceedings were mailed to:
1. The 580 attending the 1964 Midwest Turf Conference.
2.

One person of each member organization within the Midwest
Regional Turf Foundation not represented at the Conference.

3.

List of those in educational activities.

Additional copies are available at $ 1.00 each from:

W. H. Daniel, Executive Secretary
Midwest Regional Turf Foundation
Department of Agronomy, Purdue University
Lafayette, Indiana
Attendance divided by interest as
judged by registration card

Distribution by States

Golf Courses
Turf Materials & Supplies
Sod Nurseries & Landscape
Parks(most have golf courses
Industrial Grounds
School Grounds
Cemeteries
Non-Profit & Educational

353
115
44
6
11
11
4
36

Illinois
Ohio
Indiana
Michigan
Wisconsin
Missouri
Kentucky
Outside Midwest
Purdue

176
127
142
29

Total

580

Total

580

22

21
24
19

20

Check below for special articles suggested for first reference based on your
major interest.

For Lawns first see
Pages

11, 16, 19, 22, 27, 31, 34, 37, 40, 41, 45, 49, 53, 63a

Sod Production first see:
16, 17, 19, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 45, 49, 51, 53, 63a

Golf Courses - All including:
13, 19, 22, 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 42, 53, 55, 55a, 56, 60.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
3
3
4
6a
9
An Extension Agent Looks Ahead..................

11

The Master Plan for .Golf Course Improvement.....

13

If/
17
19
22
27

Wetting Agents - Their Action and Effects.......

31
Nothing Happens Until.Someone Sells Something...

.........Wade Stith

33
34
35
37
39
40
41
42
44
45

h

49

if

51
53

Electric Warming Soi

55a

for Turf.................
W. H. Daniel

Training The Next Man

55
56
56
60

The Cereal Leaf Beetle - Turf Implications......

63a

PRESIDENT'S REPORT
Stephen L. Frazier, President, M.R.T.F.
Supt., Woodland Country Club, Carmel, Indiana

I always look forward to this Midwest Regional Turf Conference, the fellowship seeing old friends - exchanging ideas, but for the most part receiving the benefits of
the educational portions of the program. We all need to share the enthusiasm of our
speakers and take home with us some of this enthusiasm - the ideas - the stimulation
of imagination - and apply what we have learned.
There is always new interest in Midwest Regional Turf Foundation, and this is
evidenced by the 23 new members joining our Association this year. There are so many
people here for the first time, and we welcome you newcomers, and also the many loyal
supporters that we see every year. The total membership for 1963 was 362, and all
phases of Turf Management are represented in our membership. We continue to progress
and we can evaluate this by our well-attended Fall Field Days, and by nearly 600
people attending this Conference.
Midwest Regional Turf Foundation has released two grasses this past year.
Evansville bentgrass foundation stolons have been released to^growers to produce
certified stolons. This is the direct result of five years testing.
Midwest zoysia has been released through the Agricultural Alumni Association
to produce certified stolons for growers, golf courses and country clubs. Midwest
is the result of a ten-year research program - the first new variety for this area •
since the release of Meyer in 1950.
The turf program has been supported by membership dues, tax funds and facilities by Purdue University, and grants from industry. We canot forget the materials
that were donated by so many organizations. We extend our deepest thanks to Dr.
Daniel, Bob Seager, technician, and Kaye House, secretary, for their efforts in
keeping Midwest Regional Turf Foundation in its high state of excellence.
An honor has been bestowed upon our Executive Secretary this past year. He
was elected a Fellow in the American Society of Agronomy at Denver in 1963.
It has been an honor and a wonderful privilege to serve M.R.T.F. as President,
and I want to thank the Board of Directors on behalf of the Foundation for their able
assistance through the year, and for their capable handling of the educational
sessions during this Conference.

Abstract for
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY'S REPORT
W. H. Daniel, Dept. of Agronomy, Purdue
Each Conference and Field Day is a portion of a report for you. Our program
is going well - some changes, but gradual enough. Last year we had less graduate
students, but expect normal next year.

Our undergraduates are doing well - send us all the good ones you can find.
Your Board of Directors and Officers have been most kind. I especially appreciate your kindness in providing a gift - through donations - for my boat trip expenses. It was most surprising.
Your President mentioned a second highlight of the year for me. I was chosen
as one of 22 elected as a Fellow in the American Society of Agronomy for 1963. This
recognition for a worker in turf was acknowledgement of your interest. I thank you
for making such possible.

REFLECTIONS ON AMERICA'S IMAGE ABROAD
Harvey F. Baty - Coordinator, International Programs
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana

Americans are an international people. If we look back two or three generations, most of our parents and grandparents will have come from some other country.
Few of them were native Americans. Many of us have traveled or worked outside the
United States. If, when we go abroad, people are friendly and welcome us, it is
not because of anything we have done personally. Someone who looks like us or
speaks our language had been there before and make a good relationship. We "cash' in"
on it. If, when we go abroad, people are hostile, it is not because of anything we
have done, since we will have just arrived. But, someone who looks like us has hurt
them and we inherit the resentment.
Wherever we go, people have an "image" of America and Americans. What is
this image, how is it formed, and how can it be improved? These are the questions
I wish to discuss with you.
1. What is the American Image Abroad?
It is a composite of many things. It is a cumulative residue of the impacts of
all the impressions people have received from or about America and Americans.
It is colored by the experience, the national aspirations, hopes, and disappointments of the people in countries abroad. It is distorted out of proportion by
the pressures of passing events. It is a changing thing, from country to country
and from time to time.
^ - How is the American Image Created?
By Americans going abroad. This year, right now, over a million Americans
are living or working abroad. Over a million others will go abroad this
year as tourists. Everyone of them receives and gives some impressions.
Everything they say or do helps to create the image of America in the minds
of people in other countries.
b)

By American movies. Unfortunately, many movies which are not fit for showing
in U. S. theaters or on television screens - and many which are shown here find their way abroad. People who see these "western" movies, where the 2gun man with the fast draw is the hero, think that is a picture of American
life. They also get the impression that the love stories shown on the
screen are typical of American family life.

c) By American history. Most people growing up in foreign lands - especially
those which have been struggling to be free from colonial rule, have studied
American history. Our national struggle has been a source of inspiration for
them. They may know more about the Boston Tea Party and Lincoln than we do.
They have read about our Revolution and somehow expect us to be with them in
theirs«
d) By American newspapers, television, et cetera. We do not have to go abroad to
make an impression. Our newspapers, picture magazines, such as Look and Life,
go abroad to represent us. Just as the unusual and the sensational is played
up in our press, so it is abroad - that news and pictures of race tension such
as Little Rock, Montgomery, Washington, are sent abroad and given editorial
treatment - in most cases to our discredit. The worst things that happen here
will become the headlines abroad.
e) By foreign students and visitors coming to the United States. This year, over
60,000 students from other countries are studying in the United States. Most
of them come from Africa and Asia. Many of them experience hardships, anxiety,
discrimination. Their observations and experiences shape their attitudes
toward the United States.
How can America's image abroad be improved? All of us help to make the American image abroad. All of us reap the benefit or suffer the hurt which comes from it.
How can we improve it? I believe we can create a better American image abroad and
at the same time have a part in shaping the world of the future toward something that
we want to live in. In fact, I think this is going on now. Beyond all contacts, incidental or accidental, with cultures of the world, there is presently coming into
being something which is new to this generation and which, in my judgment, has great
promise. This new development has been called a "third culture." Nations can live
in isolation and ignorance of others - without any contact.

But, by education and travel, cultures tend to overlap.

OTHER CULTURE

The area of overlap may grow to become a "third culture."

This year, 300,000 students are studying abroad in countries other than their
own. When they go home, they will never be the same again- Many American universities have developed "Area Studies" programs. Their aim is to understand another
culture. Many people are going abroad - e.g. in U. N. FAO - as international civil
servants. In accepting such employment, they pledge themselves not to promote the
interests or advantage of their own country above that of other countries. They do
not forget their own country in becoming a part of a new culture, but they become,
in a sense, a part of this "third culture" where their concerns and efforts are for
mankind.
The relationships built in the colonial period were between dominant cultures
and subordinate cultures. In this present era of development, the relationships are
more of appreciation, understanding, and working with peoples on a basis of mutual
respect and equality. In the colonial period, the authority and rank of the administrator (French, British, Spanish) was strong. And even though we Americans were not
building colonial empires, we fell into the colonial trap of paternalism. In the
"third culture," we work to help indigenous people develop their own institutions to
meet their needs. We are no longer the managers. We increase their capacity for
authority, responsibility, and management. This demands the growth of a whole new
set of attitudes and relationships. Today, there are perhaps 100,000 people in the
world who are living a large proportion of their lives in this "third culture" and
millions who experience something of it. Their number is increasing at a rapid
rate. To some of us, this may appear as a threat to our position in the world.
But, I believe it is a good thing and that it will increase. This will not help us
to preserve the world "as it was." It will not make everyone love us. But, it will
help us to bring a new era which, we hope, will increase the areas of mutual respect, agreement, and cooperation in the world and decrease the areas of distrust,
misunderstanding, and strife.
I realize that this has little to do with this audience's interest in Turf.
But, it does affect our lives and the lives of generations to come. In your industries and in your work you get better products through research. I believe it is
possible to apply the same research methodology to the larger human problems of the
world and to create better human relationships. Looking back fifty years, who
living then would have dared to dream or believe that the technological advances
which have come,would be possible? Looking ahead fifty years, is it possible that
there is something as far ahead of what we now have as the Boeing 707 is ahead of
the horse and buggy? I believe that technological advance will continue, and that
this will force us and inspire us to apply the same creative reason to the human
and social problems of the world.
To create not only a better American image abroad, but a new era in human relationships across cultural barriers, I would like to suggest that we set up somewhere in the world a Research Center for Creative Interaction. That we bring to it
the most creative people of the world and charge them to work with intensity in the
area of human problems and international relations. They would work for a break
through into an era of peace, prosperity, international understanding, and cooperation .
Could we not charge them to think ahead and to discover what is possible for
mankind? For example:
1) What are the next steps in the evolutionary process? If in the past, we have
had human and social evoluation with little conscious human planning, what
could happen if man becomes a conscious cooperator in the process?
2) What is the human potential in terms of genetics and how do we realize this

potential?

How can we increase the quality of life and control the quantity?

3) What is the earth's potential in terms of nutrition and how can we realize
this potential? How can we create a world in which no one need lack sustenance?
4) What is the economic potential of the world and how do we release or organize
human energies so that human beings in all societies will not suffer from want
or waste? Then no one would live in a shack unless he wanted to.
5) What is the potential in the international dimension, in our relations among
nations and what needs to happen to realize this potential? How can we make
it possible for human beings to plan their lives in confident dedication to
the well-being of humanity and not spend their resources of mind, energy, and
material in acts of fear, hate, or destruction?
6) What is the incubation period for hatching a great idea?
great ideas to be born and to grow in the world?

How can we cause

Finally, we need to realize that a better world for all mankind can come. No
one can give us such a world! It has to be built, and the people who are living in
it will have to build it. It must be constructed in our own thoughts, attitudes,
patterns of behavior and relationships. Indeed, we must be the world we want! It
has to be built into the very fabric of our lives!
I believe that such a world is possible and that we know enough to create it.
It may be realized in our lifetime - or it may have to wait for future generations.
But it will come. When the new day has fully come and men have learned to use the
material resources of the earth and their own productive powers for the well-being
and not the destruction of mankind, the epochs of history will be revised. The
period of the "Dark Ages" may be extended to include our own time. Then the emancipated and enlightened humans of the new earth will look back to the people of
today with tenderness and regret that we were so close toa-.great idea that would
have transformed our lives, but couldn't quite grasp it.

PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE
Bruce Kendall, Assoc. Prof, Speech Dept.,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

Most organizations, at one time or another, become discouraged with the amount
of time they consume in conducting routine business. Meetings frequently become
bogged down by the indecision of a presiding officer who does not understand parliamentary rules of procedure. The confusion is increased if a few members know more
about such rules than the president. Frustrated members in this situation are likely
to blame the rules themselves. "If we weren't tied down by rules," they say, "we'd
get along all right."
Actually, if one can guarantee anything about rules of procedure, it is that
where officers and members know them, business can be conducted with dispatch. Parliamentary rules are designed for two basic purposes: to insure efficiency in the
conduct of meetings; and to safeguard the democratic rights of the membership. The
-6a-

mere the members of an organization know about the rules under which they should be
operating, the closer the group will come to realizing these objectives.
My purpose in this paper is to present to you some basic rules of parliamentary
procedure to help you improve the conduct of your meetings.
First, any organization must decide how formally it wishes to operate. A good
rule of thumb is that the larger the membership, the more rigidly the organization
should adhere to the rules. With ten to twenty members, an organization could operate
more as a committee, striving for unanimity rather than majority rule. With more
than twenty members, such informality becomes impossible, and to insure efficient
and democratic operation, rules of procedure should be carefully followed.
Once an organization has determined its degree of formality, the second rule
should be enforced. Unless you intend to operate strictly as a committee, the presiding officer should allow no discussion or debate unless a main motion has been
moved and seconded. Unless this rule is followed endless amounts of time can be
wasted during a meeting. Without a main motion, discussion can continue without
limit, and when it is over, no action can be taken because there is no motion to
vote upon.
third rule is that any motion of importance, particularly any main motions
and amendments should be submitted to the president in writing immediately after they
have been made from the floor. Any substantive motion must be specific in wording and
should be entered in the minutes. Time will be wasted if the member making the motion
is asked to dictate it for the secretary to write down. Above all, no member should
ever be allowed to make a short speech which concludes with, "Mr.Chairman, I so move."
After debate has been concluded, the time for voting arrives, and the fourth
and fifth rules apply. Rule 4. To improve the conduct of meetings is that all
motions requiring a simple majority should be voted on by voice. Counting votes consumes much time, and anytime a vote is counted, the count must be entered in the
minutes. This time can be saved by having the vote by "aye's and no's." (Never
have the negative vote by "the same sign.")
The fifth rule, which also applies to voting, is that all votes are computed on
the basis of the number of people voting unless the constitution of by-laws specify
otherwise (such as for amendments to the constitution of by-laws). In most organizations, no member is required to vote or even to register an abstention. Thus, regardless of the number of members in an organization, if a quorum is present, a vote
of two votes for a motion, and one against, would constitute either a majority, or
a two-thirds vote.
If an organization were to follow these five rules, its operation would be
greatly improved. Of course, more knowledge would improve it even more. It is a
good idea to have some member who knows parliamentary procedure appointed as
parliamentarian to advise the president on procedural matters. In addition, member
need to learn as much as possible about the various motions, their purposes, and
when they can be used. The following chart, which has the motions arranged from
bottom to top in the order of their precedence, is a good place to start learning
and has proved to be a help for both president and members in improving the quality
of business meetings.

TABLE OF TWENTY-FIVE MOST FREQUENTLY USED
PARLIAMENTARY MOTIONS*

oS
HO
MOTIONS

PURPOSE

IV. Privileged Motions (arranged from bottom
25. Adjourn to specific
to arrange time of
t irne
next meeting
24. Adj ourn
to dismiss meeting
23. Take a recess
do
for specific "length
22. Raise a question of
to make a request
privilege
during debate
21. Make a matter of
force consideration
special order
of specified time
20. Call for the orders
force consideration
of the day
of postponed mo tien

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VOTE REQUIRED

to top in order of precedence)
yes yes no majority

no

yes no
yes yes
of time
no
no

no
no

majority
majority

no
no

no

decision of chair

yes

yes

yes

yes 2/3

no

no

no

no

yes

decision of chair

!

III. Incidental Motions (no order of precedenc e)
19. To appeal a decision to correct or reyes no
yes majority
yes
of the chair
verse chairman
18. To call for a diviyes
no majority if
to correct or reno
no
sion of the house
verse chairman
chair desires
17. To raise a point of
yes
to correct a parno
no decision of chair
no
order.
liamentary error
16. To object to
to suppress
no
no 2/3
yes
no
consideration
action
15. To divide motion
yes yes no majority
to modify motion
no
14. To modify or withto modify a
no
no
no majority or unani- no
draw a motion
mous consent
motion
13. To suspend the rules to take action con- yes no
no 2/3
no
trary to standing
rules
II. Subsidiary Motions (arranged from bottom to top in ordei of precedence)
12. To rescind
yes yes yes majority with
to repeal
no
notice; 2/3 without notice
to consider again
yes majority
11. To reconsider
yes no
yes
10. To take from table
yes no
to consider again
no majority
no
9. To lay onihe table
to defer action
yes no
no majority
no
8. To call for the pre- to force into
yes no
no 2/3
no
vious question
immediate vote
7. To limit or extend
yes yes no 2/3
to modify freedom
no
limits of debate
of debate
6. To postpone to a
to defer action
yes yes yes majority
no
certain time
5. Refer to committee
yes yes yes majority
no
modify a motion
4. Amend an amendment
yes no
yes majority
do
no
3. Amend or substitute
yes yes yes majority
do
no
2. Postpone indefinitely
suppress action
yes majority
yes no
no
Principal Motion
I.
1. A main motion

introduce business

yes

yes

yes majority

*Based on Robert's Rules of Order. Arranged by Leroy T. Laase

no

THE PICTURES YOU MICE
Howard R. Knaus, Ag. Visual Aids,
Purdue University
Whether a person is a scientist, educator, technician, or laborer, he can use
photography to further his cause. It is gratifying to the teacher, for instance, to
know that with pictures his information has been conveyed to and received by all of
his students in a clear, concise form with no possible chance for misunderstanding.
The development of the single lens Reflex camera and the remote control slide
projector have made it possible for everyone to make and use his own communication
tools. What do we mean by single lens Reflex camera? It is simply that the viewfinder is incorporated with the lens so that we are actually looking and focusing
through the lens when lining up our picture. What we see in the viewfinder is exactly what will be in the picture. If the image we see in the viewfinder is sharp,
then the picture will be sharp. This type of camera has been on the market for a number of years, but has been expensive. To buy any other type of 35mm camera today is
to not take advantage of one of the best features developed by the camera industry.
Why? Because, of what it can do for us. For instance, there are many illustrations
in magazines that we can readily convert to usable slides by simply taking pictures of
them. Inexpensive close-up lenses and the direct viewing and focusing make this
possible,
Close-up pictures of all types, flowers, grasses, weeds and seeds become a simple procedure with the single lens Reflex camera and inexpensive close-up lenses.
There are two main types of shutters available—the focal plane and between the lens.
Both have distinct advantages. If most of your pictures are outdoors in natural
light and you want a variety of lenses, the focal plane is good. If you take many
flash shots, the between the lens type has some advantages.
For black and white or larger than 35mm photography, the double lens reflex
has become quite popular. They are fine for most work, but are not as good for
scientific photography as the single lens reflex, again because viewing and focusing
are not accomplished through the taking lens. Single lens reflex cameras using the
larger film (2-4-" wide) are still expensive and there are only a few manufacturers
making them. I foresee a rapid change from the double lens to the single lens type
as soon as the manufacturers can get the costs down.
What about filters? The main use of filters today is to change the brightness
of one part of the picture in relation to another. Darken the sky for instance so
the clouds will show on the print as they do to our eye.
The general rule is - to make a subject show lighter on the print - use a
filter of the same color as the subject. To darken the subject, use a filter from
the other side of the color wheel. Thus, to darken a sky we use a yellow filter,
or to darken green grass use a red or orange filter. In general, in black and whim
photography on pan film, the yellow, green and red filters are the ones most comr
ly used.
In color photography it is entirely different. We use filters to match the
type of light to the film we are using. Sunlight is more blue than artificial lie*
so colored films are made to use with each type of light. When we want to take
"outdoor" pictures on film made for artificial light, we must put on a salmon colored
conversion filter so the correct color light will be recorded on the film. A blue
filter would convert daylight film to artificial light, but is not recommended since
the blue filter is quite dense and the exposure must be increased to properly expose
the film.

To solve the entire problem, use outdoor type film outdoors and a blue flash
bulb or strobe light for interior pictures.
Speed of the film determines the exposure for any given light situation. Use
of an exposure meter to determine the exposure is the surest way to consistent results for proper exposure and good prints or slides. Two general types are in common
use. The reflective which measures the light reflected from an object, and the incident type which measures the light source. The incident type is generally preferred, especially for copying and critical work. Manufacturer's instructions should
be carefully followed to make use of the features built into the instrument.
All good pictures have three essential qualifications:
interest or impact, and good composition.

good technical quality,

What is composition? Composition is a pleasing arrangement of objects, mass,
lines, contrasts, and colors to form an harmonious whole. General rules for composing pictures are as follows:
For what use are you taking the picture:
Pictorial, publicity, educational
Record, popular appeal
Arrangement and placement of main center of interest:
Compact arrangement to cover picture area
Center of interest slightly off center
Placement, center of interest with regard to background:
Avoid conflict of main point of interest with vertical or horizontal lines.
Place livestock away from fences, vertical and conflicting diagonal lines.
Backgrounds (make them plain):
Look beyond the foreground
Avoid confusing, cluttered background
"Put" background out of focus if conflicting
Avoid strong vertical and horizontal lines
Place horizon on upper or lower third of picture
Keep horizon line level
Framing:
Use people, trees, buildings, etc.
Focusing attention toward center of interest:
Try to use pointer, or
Use of facing people
Facing people:
Have people facing into picture;
Not facing camera
Strong lines:
Bending of body
Direction of arms
Roads, fences, trees
Lighting center of interest:
Black and white, 45 degrees, front, back
Color, flat lighting
Shade or cloudy days

Film manufacturers are constantly working to provide us with faster, fine
grain films to open up new opportunities and possibilities. Kodak has two new color
films in Kodachrome X and Ektacolor X; Ansco has three new color films, and the new
Agfa film is gaining converts every day.
Photography is fun and it can work for you. Put some of this new film and
equipment to work and I am sure you will be amply repaid by satisfaction of producing
pictures instead of snapshots.

AN EXTENSION AGENT LOOKS AHEAD
Wilbur L. Bluhm, Graduate Student,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana

As with many professions, today's County Extension Agent is faced with the
task of keeping informed in an age of rapid change. To help him do so, most State
Extension Services are granting sabbatical leaves of from 6 to 12 months for study
in fields related to the Agent's job.
After corresponding with nearly half of all Agricultural Colleges in the U.S.,
I chose Purdue because of its special study program for County Extension Agents.
The "interdisciplinary" program here permits study of agricultural subjects, and
others which help the Extension Agent more effectively present information. Thus,
I have taken courses in plant physiology, plant pathology, soils, land economics,
agricultural policy, statistics, and corrmunications.
For the past seven years I have been Urban Extension Agent at Salem, Oregon.
I've been responsible for the turf and ornamentals program, working with both homeowners and commercial and professional interests. Ten years ago it was mostly servicing the "flood" of office and telephone calls. These took nearly all of one's
time, allowing little opportunity to plan, prepare and conduct necessary meetings,
demonstrations and programs.
Since then emphasis has shited to "leader training" type programs and to
"mass media," and away from individual service. In leader training programs we work
closely with organizations and groups of people who serve as "leaders" in passing
information along to homeowners. Typical of these are garden centers, lawn and landscape contractors, and service companies, parks and school grounds managers, golf
course superintendents, nurserymen, landscape architects, garden clubs, and various
professional, civic and social groups.
We use mass media—newspapers, radio, television, newsletters, timely mailings, publications, exhibits, etc. — to pass on information to those who want and
need it. With leader training and mass media programs, we are directly and indirectly helping many times more people than we could by personal service—phone
and office calls and home visits—alone.
Upon my return to Oregon, emphasis on leader training and mass media type
programs will continue in an effort to "reach" more people. The training here at
Purdue will be quite helpful in getting this job done.

Many turf activities are planned. Demonstration plots can provide useful information on turfgrass varieties; weed, disease, insect, and rodent control; proper
mowing; thatch removal; aerification; and fertility. Meetings and diort-courses will
be held for the "leaders," previously mentioned, on many turf topics. Field days
provide much useful information. Turf people will be encouraged to participate in
turf conferences and field days, such as you are here at Purdue.
Comparable programs will be developed for persons interested in ornamentals.
In Oregon many problems arise from using less desirable plants, and from a lack of
knowledge on how and where to use plants. Programs on ornamentals must emphasize desirable plant use.
We would be doing the turf industry a favor, in many cases, if more plantings
of trees, shrubs, and groundcovers were encouraged in the home landscape as replacement for some of the grass, The lawn would become a more important part of the landscape then. As such, this smaller lawn area would likely get more attention. It
would cease to be just something to cover an expanse of "dirt," often grudgingly
cared for.
A few problems of the "Urban" Extension Agent have been cited, others inferred.
Still others bear some attention. Most Extension workers have a commercial farm
orientation. They think, talk, and act in terms of acres, tons, and gallons instead
of square feet, pounds and teaspoons—a must in working with homeowners, and with
others who work with homeowners. It is not always appreciated that today's homeowner,
and the public generally, is concerned with convenience—that price, although important, is relatively less so than formerly. The interests and background of urban
people need to be well understood.
This field is relatively new to most Extension personnel. Adequate information
on turf and ornamentals for those who want and need it is not always available. Other
times this information is available, but not in a readily usable form. It must first
be interpreted. Information on fertility is an example. The Extension Agent has a
wealth of material on this subject, but not always in a form directly applicable.
An Extension Agent in this field must adapt himself to interests and needs
quite different from those of the farmer. We have learned, developed and used
methods of getting information to rural people with acknowledged success. In working with urban people, we're just beginning. He must develop some business acumen
and an appreciation for it, if he's to work with garden dealers, nurserymen, and
other business people. He must learn to play golf if he is to work with golf
course superintendents. He needs to garden and care for a lawn if he is to be of
most help to the homeowner. He must.learn the uniqueness of the professions and interests of the people with whom he works.
In the future we will be of increasing help to you and your interests. Specialized Extension Agents will be working more in the field of community development. This will involve, among other things, the orderly growth and development of
our urban and rural communities. It will be concerned with urban sprawl, renewal,
land use, beautification, and a host of other problems and situations. You will be
vitally involved in this program when it comes your way.
\
Even now your Extension Agent has more to offer than you're probably aware of.
He is quite knowledgeable on many matters relating to soil fertility, irrigation,
disease and insect control, weed control, and other areas of interest to you. Much
of this information can be readily adapted to your turf problems. He is in a
position,too, to call on specialized help when you need it. As Extension Agents'become better acquainted with your turf interests, it should be mutual1 helpful. Do
what you can toward this end in your county.
j

THE MASTER PLAN FOR GOLF COURSE IMPROVEMENT
Edward Lawrence Packard, Golf Course Architect
La Grange, Illinois

In every trade and profession, there are always individuals who are perfectly
satisfied with the status quo. Many either do not have the knowledge and ability to
see any opportunities for improvement, or they do not wish to create any disturbance
in the calm, quiet routine in which they are working by suggesting conditions can be
improved. In every profession also, there are a small handful of individuals who
not only can see opportunities for improving existing conditions, but these individuals also have the desire, the discernment, the temerity, or the audacity, call it
what you will, to make an attempt to prove them.
The fact that the golf course superintendent's meetings, both regional and
national, are so well attended year after year, attests to the fact that an extremely high percentage of all golf course superintendents are genuinely interested
in the steady improvement of their courses from year to year. It is a fact, also,
that as each superintendent grows in his experience, visits the golf courses of
others, observes the ease, or the difficulty with which certain routine maintenance
is accomplished, compares maintenance costs, and in general grows in his ability to
evaluate the quality of his own maintenance practices, he will begin to see that
certain improvements on his own golf course can be made.
This brings us then to the question, what does constitute items which can be,
and which frequently are the object of an improvement program on an existing golf
course? High on the list of items which can result in an improved golf course are
items which receive considerable maintenance. These include the size, shape and
elevation of tees; the size, shape, contour and drainage of greens; the size,
shape and contour of sandtraps; the location and the condition of the edges of any
ponds, creeks, or streams on the golf course; the existing condition of the water
system; and finally the placement and condition of plant material on the golf
course. Let us consider each of these items briefly.
In regard to tees, these should be as large as it is possible to make them.
It is probably not advisable to recommend the cutting of fine old trees in order to
extend tee surfaces. Sometimes moving a tee 50 or 100 feet in one direction or
another will enable a new tee of adequate size to be built. Where possible, tees
should be at least 7,000 sq.ft. in area. The correct relocation and enlargement of
existing tees is one of the easiest and cheapest things which can be done to improve an existing golf course.
In regard to greens, all too frequently even brand new greens are constructed
with bumps and back slopes which are entirely unmowable except by hand maintenance
methods. A good average size for greens is 6,500 sq.ft. In my opinion it is possible to have greens built which are too large. Of course, there are thousands of
greens which have been built too small. It is not an easy thing to revise, or remodel a green to enlarge it because it means in many cases reconstructing a good
part if not all of the old green. Nevertheless, it is; possible to so add to an old
green as to keep the existing surface intact, and to add to this existing surface
sufficiently to obtain a green of the proper size. It goes without saying that the
surface of all greens should be made to drain and in more than one direction. All
undulations of the green and contours of the shoulders should be mild enough so that
there is little danger of scalping with mowers. This means that the back slopes and
side slopes must be carried out sufficiently far to permit machine mowing, whether
it be by means of fairway units, or the more precise mowing of the three unit riding
type mower.

In the matter of sandtraps for easy maintenance, the trend has been toward
milder convolutions of the edges of the traps, and more gentle rise from the bottom
of the trap to the top edge. The edge of the sandtraps should be mild enough so
that a power mowing unit can follow them without leaving areas which must be mowed
by hand. It is also perfectly obvious that in order to be able to maintain sandtraps with power mowing units, that the back slopes and the side slopes of the traps
must be gently contoured so that scalping does not occur.
In connection with the location of ponds and creeks, not too much change can
be done economically. However, the edges of these natural features are often so
steep that a ball going over the edge cannot be played and sometimes is difficult to
retrieve. In addition, areas of this kind are frequently very difficult to mow properly and to keep maintained in an orderly fashion. If it is possible to gently
slope these areas down toward the edge of the normal water level, a much more easily
maintained area will result. This will improve the appearance and also reduce the
maintenance cost.
In regard to the water system of the golf course, this should be as fine a system as the owner can afford. The importance of this item cannot be over-emphasized.
Where existing water systems are inadequate, and this means either from the standpoint of the water source, or from the standpoint of the size or condition of the
piping, or from the standpoint of the capacity or pressure of the pumping unit, recommendations are definitely in order on the long range improvement plan for rectifying
these deficiencies.
There is frequently inadequate planting, either from the standpoint of safety,
or just from the standpoint of beauty. It is advisable to furnish a detailed planting plan for the replacement of elm trees and for the supplementing of existing
plantings by additional new trees, small trees and conifers. The foregoing items,
therefore, are some of the considerations of the master improvement plan viewed
from the perspective of better maintenance.
From the standpoing of better architectural quality, the following items
should be given careful consideration. First of all, the general playability of
the golf course is a rather broad term. Safety on the golf course means not only
as full and complete visibility as possible from the tee through the fairway to the
green, but also the relationship of one fairway to another, and of one tee to an adjoining green, or to another tee. Although there are hundreds of blind golf holes
in the country in play today, none of these can be characterized as safe. Of
course, golfers are under a legal responsibility for their acts if they strike
another player with a ball. The cost of moving dirt today is quite economical.
New construction, in particular, should never have a blind hole deliberately laid
out. Existing blind holes should by all means be scheduled for elimination in the
master plan.
A fine 18 hole golf course should be laid out on not less than 160 acres of
ground, that is usable ground, exclusive of deep ravines, water or other obstacles
which cannot be developed into fairways. Reduced acreage for a golf course greatly
reduces the safety of the course. This also results in uninteresting back and forth
parallel holes, and the consequent loss of interesting, or challenging features to
the golfer. Therefore, where additional land is available, the master plan may
recommend acquiring areas to spread out the course.
Closely related to the acreage of any given golf course is the length of the
course. Most players will agree that a middle yardage of 6,500 yards will furnish
a challenging round of golf. A course of this kind can be shortened or lengthened
by 500 yards. This permits the use of red, white and blue tee markers; thus,

spreading the wear on tees, and providing for the short hitters as well as the scratch
players.
Fairway sandtraps should be placed far enough from the tee so that tee shots
by the average golfer will not reach the sandtrap, while at the same time, the shot
by the expert player will have to be carefully placed in order to avoid, or to carry
the trap. In addition to the very precise location, the number of traps to be used
also affects playability. Sandtrap should be situated around greens so as to pose a
greater or lesser problem in regard to the length of approach shot to that particular
green. Many times a golf course architect is asked to retrap an existing course so
as to make it more interesting, but at the same time not to make it more tough. This
is one area in the golf course master plan for improvement where the most substantial
showing can be made, and for a reasonable cost.
Vie have considered how a golf course can be improved from the standpoint of
maintenance, architectural quality and safety. Let us now consider briefly a system
by which a golf course master improvement plan can be achieved, and the specific
items required.
The first step in obtaining the information necessary for preparing a master
improvement plan is to obtain a vertical aerial photograph of the existing golf
course. This photograph should be enlarged to a scale of 1" equals 100'. It is best
if the photograph can be a new one. It will then show all of the latest work which
has been done on the course and any and all existing conditions.
A copy of this vertical, aerial photograph is utilized to produce a base map
of the existing condition of the golf course. In other words, a black line print is
prepared, showing the exact location of the clubhouse, entrance drive and parking
space, features such as swimming pool and bathhouse, and the golf course including
tees, fairways, sandtraps, and greens and all existing plant material. This base
map is then brought to the golf course, and the entire golf course is carefully inspected by walking from each tee, through each fairway to each green. Careful notes
are made in regard to topography, drainage, size and condition of tees, sandtraps,
and greens. Notes are especially important in regard to the visility of all sandtraps and greens.
In addition to the physical inspection of the golf course, the golf course
architect will confer with the owners and with the golf course committee, and with
the golf course superintendent in regard to desired changes and revisions. Not until all of this basic existing condition information has been obtained can a proper
evaluation be made of the existing course and proposed improvements. Vie now have
factual information upon which to base our decisions and our proposals. Therefore,
from the information thus compiled, we will now prepare a preliminary master improvement plan, incorporating as many of the improvement features as it is possible
to make commensurate with the preservation of valued existing features. This preliminary master improvement plan is now brought to the club for evaluation by the
committee and superintendent.
From this conference in regard to the preliminary master plan and the suggested changes or revisions to it, will emerge the final drawing of the master improvement plan. This plan will now show on one sheet in light lines the existing location
of tees, fairways, greens and sandtraps, and in heavy lines the proposed changes and
improvements. A colored rendering of the master improvement plan will be furnished
which can be used for presenting the improvement program to the membership. We have
now arrived at a point where the total improvements can be tabulated and a cost estimate made for each item. These can then be assigned priority numbers so that certain
items can be selected to be done first and others at subsequent periodic time intervals .

The specific blueprints for any new greens can now be drawn for any particular
hole with the full knowledge that this green will be the proper size, shape, and
located in the proper position in relation to the master improvement plan. Design of
additional sandtraps, addition of a new or enlargement of an existing pond, changes
in size or location of tees, additional tree plantings, can all be specifically provided. Modification in the existing water system, or if needed, a new system can be
designed in accordance with the proposed master plan.
Getting a program of this kind accepted in your club is not a simple, or easy
procedure. Careful ground work must be laid and carefully drawn master improvement
plans prepared, then your greens chairman and committee will be thoroughly prepared
to furnish effective answers to all members who are concerned with the proposed improvements. Once approved there is absolutely no substitute for complete preparation
such as I have outlined. A master plan can protect your schedule and provide effective cont inui ty.

RESEARCH REPORT
W. H. Daniel, Turf Research, Dept. of Agronomy
Purdue University

This audience realizes that our turf program has four components: research,
teaching, extension and administration. This/travel, speaking, observing, writing,
grading tests, lecturing, taking data, maintaining records, writing reports and
keeping budget and records straight. It means being busy, but it's my favorite job.
I love it and appreciate the chance to work with you*
Current work on bluegrass varieties is being pushed very hard. We are going
in two directions. We are wanting the close-mowed, the petite for front lawns and
fairways. At the other extreme we need the vigorous, the aggresive for roadsides,
athletic fields, and hard-wear areas. We have a good start and lots of work to do
yet.
We have the machinery operating for certified Evansville bentgrass stolons.
It takes cooperation of the six producers and five state certification groups to
keep the process in order. But, for your protection a system is in use. Do yourself a favor and use the system to assure purity of vegetative strains of Evansville bentgrass.
We, with Ag Alumni doing thé merchandising, sold Midwest zoysia to 52 purchasers in 15 states in 1963. Adequate supplies are available in 1964. It will
be available from April 1 at $ 4.00 per square foot.
Only initial work is being done with a perennial ryegrass, originally observed by Lou Trapp of Dayton Country Club. It is most persistent and looks very
encouraging.
Currently we are not doing much on Poa annua control. We have repeatedly
told our arsenic toxicity story - that bluegrass and bentgrass tolerate arsenic,
while Poa annua and crabgrass do not. I am encouraged by the possibility of
light (1/2 lb. active, or 1 pint formulation/acre) use of Maleic hydrazide for
reducing seedhead formation and excess vigor of Poa annua. Much more research

is needed.
For years we have had continuing crabgrass control series of about 1000
plots/year. Weekly applications of standard rates proved that 6 weeks are normally
available to apply the ten basic formulations now available from eleven chemicals.
Recent progress on knotweed control is excellent. Banvel-D at 1/2 to 1 lb.
active/acre has given excellent selective control with good grass survival. It
should be a boom to athletic and fairway areas.
Using repeated liquid Zytron sprays to slectively control nimblewill
(muhlenbergia) continues to be the best available.
We need more work on creeping bentgrass killing in bluegrass lawn turf.
Paraquat seems to be the best chemical to combine with vertical mowing.
Don Schuder has done extensive work in Entomology on sodwebworm control.
He finds Dieldrin to be a preferred control.
Finally we have a spreader for experimental work that does a fine job.
Empties completely, feeds uniformly, and by diluting a known volume we get 3 - 4
passes over the plot.
Nitrogen testing continues with five companies having experimentáis - mostly
soluble N blended into slow deteriorating pellets.
Continued work on calcined clays as a part of rootzones is needed. Our
earlier data has served as a basis for widespread calcined clay trials and use.
More new work is needed.
Always we work closely with machinery manufacturers to observe and test to
some extent new machinery. Thatch control is getting a good discussion at this
Conference.
Finally our interest in soil warming under turf is quite genuine.
next step for some stadiums and special areas.

It's the

Research - Yes, briefly I mentioned 16 research areas where we have activity
and results. It's our way of working with and for you.

REVIEW AND PREVIEW
Purdue Stadium
W. H. Daniel, Turf Specialist
Purdue University

In the early part of 1961 Red Maclcey, a personal friend of many of you and
Athletic Director at Purdue, asked me to develop an improved stadium turf. Well,
two years before (in 1959) I had said "no" to the same request. This time new
ideas were available.. These included: vertical slitting, calcined clays, Newport
bluegrass for fall vigor and vertical mowing. After spring practice in 1961 we

planned to vertical slit, aerify intensely and over seed, but instead of 3 items we had
14 to do. Our subsoiling was too rough on the surface so we:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12 .
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

subsoiled and vertical slit on 36" or 18" centers,
top-spread about .5" of calcined clay on surface,
roto-tilled twice over,
raked and dragged and rolled,
and hauled off loosened grass,
and seeded on June 1, 1961,
and rotary hoed, over the seed
and surface spread calcined clay,
and kept moist,
and got weeds and turf,
sprayed to kill sedge and crabgrass 3 times,
and overseeded thin spots
and kept mowed high,
and then vertically mowed closer,
and mowed to 1.5" in September,
and got wear of games,
which sealed them
then mud - for vertical slits were roto-tilled/, so put in more vertical
slits on 3' centers after season,
18. and spread crushed corncobs - 10 tons on field to aggregate soil and
reduce crusting,
19. and got a good turf (2.5"/hr. infiltration at saturation) for 1962 and 1963,
20. then excavated to lower field for 1964.

Series of Rootzone Building Steps to be done
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18 .
19.
20.

after excavating 8' down
slope silty clay subgrade 1%
cut tile lines 18" - 24" deep
place 4" tile 30' intervals
fill trench with pea gravel
place 2" sand over pea gravel
rip and loosen compacted subsoil
back in trucks - spread 6" sandy topsoil
subsoil and till to partially mix and remove compaction
spread 6" more sandy topsoil
and fertilize with 12-4-8, 800# acre
and peat (brown coarse) 500 cu.yds. (1")
and calcined clay 80 tons on 60,000 sq.ft. (1")
and till and disk in
and smooth to 1" slope 10" crown center to sidelines
and irrigate heavily to water settle
and when dry re-slope as needed
and sod
later fertilize with Ureaform 300 lbs. on 60,000 sq.ft.
and use arsenic toxicity to prevent crabgrass and to kill Poa annua that germinated in nursery.
We started sod with plugs in May 1963 as
alternate rows of Midwest zoysia pluts, and
vigorous bluegrass plugs
then, later fall overseeded with Merion, Delta, Newport blend. But, we had volunteer Poa annua, so started building arsenic toxicity in September 1963.

We would like to install automatic watering as built - not decided yet. We
expect to put in vertical slits to remove excess water in late fall of 1964. We
expect to put in soil warming cable in spring of 1965 . There's lots to do - it is
my hope to do the newest and most modern possible.

BASICS IN PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
M. R. Teel, Director of Research, American Farm Research Association
West Lafayette, Indiana

The request for a short lecture on "Basics in Plant Physiology" for this distinguished Conference reflects the changing times. We are moving rapidly from the prescientific to the scientific age. Turf managers are moving their attention from the
art to the science of grass management. They recognize the need for a more basic
understanding of cell metabolism. In order to discuss "Basics in Plant Physiology"
we must strip away the vines and branches which hide the framework of the system in
question. We must penetrate to the depth of the cell and examine its components.
The most obvious of the cell's interior is the cytoplasm. A slimy substance
adhering to the cell wall. In plants there are usually many fluid-filled droplets
with distinct membranes called vacuoles. These droplets may be raw material, excretion products, water, or pigments. The vacuoles are thus important to the cell.
The nucleus plays an important role in cell activity. It contains the chromosomes —
thread-like bodies of protein and nucleic acids intimately associated into complex
substances called nucleo-proteins. There are two principle nucleic acids nicknamed
DNA and RNA (deoxyribonucleic acid and ribo-nucleic acid) which have attracted
scientists in this century. DNA seems to be the director of the operations, and
RNA the messenger boy. These acids thus play important roles in cell duplication
and inheritance since chromosomes carry the genes.
The nucleus is considered to be the control center of the cell, while the cytoplasm is the executive center. However, there is so much interdependence that we
should not take this division too seriously; one cannot exist without the other.
What is so essential about the cytoplasm? This jell-like substance is highly
organized — containing many smaller bodies, variously shaped which perform many
essential functions. We cannot discuss all of them, but we should become acquainted with the mitochondria. There are as many as 1,000 per cell. They are in
constant motion. Recently Dr. Fernandez Moran, University of Chicago, dedigned a
diamond knife so thin and sharp that he could cut human hair into 10,000 longitudinal slices (Science, May 27, 1963). "With this device, he was able to cut a mitochondron in such a manner to expose the inner cavities. Their membrane is a double
layer, the inner being greatly folded. The folds extend deeply into the interior.
On these folds we find millions of tiny particles resembling small mushrooms on
short stalks. These are presume to be packets of enzymes which carry out respiration reactions, releasing energy to the cell.
Another particle called the ribosome should be mentioned. It is so small that
it appears as a mere dot under the elctron microscope. These bodies are believed
to be the principal factories for protein synthesis. Both the mitochondria and

ribosomes can be isolated by high speed centrifligation. By adding proper nutrients
and raw materials to the suspensions, it is possible to study their roles.
There are
many other particles which might be mentioned, but due to space and time limitations
we shall omit them, and consider briefly how some of the pieces of our puzzle fit together .
Life processes start with energy. The sun is the ultimate source. Carbon
dioxide is trapped in photosynthesis and stored as sugars and starch. Thus, we have
light energy converted to chemical energy. The plant has the unique ability to release this energy slowly ... in a form which cells can use. In this regard there
are only minor differences between man and the grass he mows. Both take carbohydrate
as a basic material and through a series of reactions involving complex phosphorylation reactions, convert the sugar to a sophisticated substance nicknamed "PEP"
(phosphoenolpyruvic acid). This three-carbon sugar derivative is destined to be combusted to carbon dioxide and water in respiration. We are thus dealing with the
mitochondria. To the mitochondria, present in practically every cell, flow the
necessary raw materials, and from them emerges usable energy
slowly - carefully
regulated so that heat does not become a dangerous by-product.
The slow release of energy results from bonds between carbon atoms being
broken one at a time. Without going into thermodynamics, let us trace the path of
carbon from PEP to the mitochondria.
We note from our simplified scheme that PEP occupies a pivotal position.
If the proper nutrients are supplied it is converted to pyruvic acid (pyruvate).
With adequate thiamine (Vitamin B^) and magnesium, pyruvate is reduced to a twocarbon fragment called acetate. This fragment is attached to another enzyme and
delivered to the family of enzymes which act cooperatively producing the Krebs
cycle. In this cycle the acetate is combusted to CC>2, the chief by-product of
respiration. Water and heat are also by-products.
In order for the mitochondria to accomplish their work they must be
healthy. Recent work in Australia with barley seedling root tips shows that they
are sensitive to nutrient balance. For example, manufactured materials accumulate
within their membranes under a potassium deficiency. Other research shows that
their surfaces become encrusted with protein fragments. It appears that we have a
new method of studying the influence of fertilizer ratios on plant growth.
Most of our knowledge of the mitochondria has come from studies with bacteria and simple plants. Can we extend this knowledge to higher plants? Can we
predict metabolic events when we withhold certain essential nutrients from our fertility treatments? It appears that we can.
There is evidence that under a potassium deficiency, PEP is shunted preferentially toward oxalacetate .... a reaction external to the mitochondria. When
this occurs we should expect asparagine to accumulate under high nitrogen fertility,
and malate to accumulate under low nitrogen fertility. The plant fixes COg nonphotosyntheti cally.
Would a man suffering from a thiamine deficiency get energy from sugars and
starches? Indeed he does not. He'll live on stored fat, but will soon show signs
of fatigue. He must get acetate from other sources .... ethyl alcohol often becomes a common source of energy for such people after they once try it. The number
of alcoholics which suffer nothing more than a mere thiamine deficiency should be
everybody's business.
Albert S. Gyorgi, famous biological scientist and Nobel prize winner, wrote

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the prefatory chapter in the current issue of the Annual Reviews on Biochemistry.
He suggests that the difference between the pre-scientific age and the scientific
age is well illustrated by the story of the two stones involving Aristotle and
Galileo. Aristotle, who lived about 2000 years before Galileo, felt that a large
stone would fall through space faster than a small one. It never occurred to him
that he could test this reasoning by experimentation. To suggest such a thing
would have been an insult. Galileo climbed the "leaning tower" and made history.
Later on he discovered how to extend his eyesight by inventing the astronomical
telescope. Dr. Gyorgi makes a great issue out of the fact that on the one hand
we have a pre-scientific thinker, and on the other we have one of the first modern
scientists. One had en humble attitude which forced him to challenge himself by
experimentation.
Today we need both types of men as never before. We must have some devoted
to thinking and some devoted to testing and developing. Each must be an humble man
with a realization of our imperfections.

TURF STRESS - COOL AND COLD CONDITIONS
James B. Beard, Assistant Professor in Crop Science,
Michigan State University, E.Lansing, Michigan.

With the advent of fall weather, gradual cooling of the earth's atmosphere
and soil occurs. This cooler environment results in a slowing down of plant metabolic
reactions and growth. During this period from late fall to spring, when soil temperatures are below 40° F., there are a number different causes of turf stress which
can result in winterkill.
Winterkill is a term encompassing a large number of types and causes of injury. It is used loosely to include any type of injury that occurs during the fall,
winter and spring period. These general types include the following:
A.

Desiccation. This is a condition in which water loss from leaves exceeds
water uptake from the roots. This is most common during periods when the
soil water is frozen but the above ground portions of the plant are thawed
and actively transpiring. Brown dried leaves and crowns are more prominent
during open, mild winters, and especially on elevated, exposed sites.

B-

Heaving. It is not a severe problem in turf compared to field crops. However,
it can produce significant injury to newly planted areas where the grass
passes through the winter in the seedling stage. In this situation the grass
crowns are elevated above the soil and exposed to drying conditions.

C*

Disease. The most common winter diseases of turfgrasses are pink and grey
snow mold. They can cuase severe injury to turf, but are easily prevented
by following a wise fungicide program.

D. Direct Low Temperature Injury. In this situation either extracellular, or
intracellular freezing processes occur which result in fatal injury to the
plant cells. This type of injury is common in annual ryegrass and perennial
ryegrass in the Midwest.

E. Injury
common
It has
States

Associated With Ice Sheets, Winterkill associated with ice coverings is
in areas where sleet storms predominate and in poorly drained locations.
been of major concern in the north central and north eastern United
.

A number of possible causes can be divided into two major groupings.
Type I. The grass is dead at the time of spring thaw.
Type II. Grass appears healthy, but subsequently dies.
The possible causes of Type I injury include:
1.

Oxygen Suffocation Under the Ice Sheet: The respiring plant requires oxygen
for maintenance of plant tissue even at extremely low temperatures. The ice
sheet could impair oxygen diffusion to the extent that, in time, it might become limiting.

2.

Carbon Dioxide Under the Ice Sheet: Even at below-freezing temperatures a minimum respiration rate exists. Thus, it is possible, in time, for killing concentrations of carbon dioxide, or for some similar toxic breakdown product to
accumulate. Injury of this type has been reported in Wisconsin on alfalfa.

3. Outward Leaching of Vital Cellular Constituents While Submerged in Water
During Thawing: On sunshiny days light rays will be transmitted through the
ice and be absorbed by the opaque grass surface. It is possible that these
absorbed light rays could heat the grass sufficiently to melt the ice surrounding them. This would result in a condition in which the leaves are incased in
water with a heavy ice sheet still existing around them. This condition would
be favorable for severe leaching to occur, and has been observed in small
grains.
4. Outward Diffusion of Water from Leaves Incased in Ice: When lea.ves are incased
in ice the relative concentrations of solutes is higher outside the leaf than
internally, due to water existing in the solid phase. This could result in
outward diffusion of water from the leaf in an attempt to attain equilibrium.
If sufficient water is removed from the leaf, desiccation could occur. However, when the vapor pressures of water and ice are compared it appears that
at equilibrium, sufficient water would not be removed to cause plant desiccation .
5. Direct Low Temperature Injury by Freezing Processes to the Cell Protoplasm:
This is a mechanical injury to the brittle protoplasm caused by the formation
of large ice crystals. This type of injury will be less in plants that are
permitted to properly harden through dehydration or reduction in water content.
Over-watering, excess fertilization, or any process which stimulates tender
growth in the late fall, should favor susceptibility to damage.
Possible causes of Type II injury include:
6. Direct Low Temperature Injury by Freezing Processes to Plants which are in a
non-hardened State Due to Premature Spring Initiation of Growth: The grass
may survive the winter in excellent condition. Subsequently, the weather may
turn extremely warm for three or four days, resulting in a premature loss of
hardiness and increased hydration within the plant. If this is followed
immediately by a severe drop to below-freezing temperatures, direct low temperature injury may occur.

7.

Injury to Vital Crown and Root Tissues of the Plant from Mechanical Injury by
Ice Crystals: The original injury would be destruction of the cellular protoplasm in the lower crown tissue due to ice crystal formation. Crosssection of the grass crown shows a browning of the lower crown and roots. The
grass plant will appear on the surface to be normal. Plants with severely injured crowns may not be capable of producing a new root system fast enough to
meet the water uptake requirements of transpiration. Under these conditions
the plant will die of desiccation as drier, warm days come.

Characterizing The Injury
In the spring of 1962 detailed studies of injured turfs in Michigan showed
most injury occurred to Poa annua with a minimum of injury observed on the creeping
bentgrasses, or Kentucky bluegrasses. The grass appeared healthy and green at the
time of spring thaw, but with the advent of higher growing temperatures severe injury occurred.
Microscopie examinations of individual plants showed severe injury to the
lower portions of Poa annua crowns. The original cause of this injury was destruction of the cellular protoplasm particularly in the vascular bundles of the
lower crown tissue due to ice crystal formation.
Causal Studies
In the fall of 1962 studies were initiated at Michigan State University to
determine the actual cause or causes of winter injury associated with ice sheets.
Common Kentucky bluegrass, Toronto creeping bentgrass and Poa annua were permitted
to harden naturally in the field. On November 26 four inch plugs were collected
and placed in wax-coated cartons. Five treatments were applied.
a. Flooding followed by freezing. The treatment was designed to simulate conditions of a heavy rain and the accompanying flooding which was followed by
immediate freezing. The resulting ice cover was 1/2 inch thick.
b. Freezing then layering with ice. This represented conditions of a freezing
sleet storm which gradually produced a 1/2 inch thick ice layer over the
frozen turf and soil.
c. Freezing and layering with ice over snow. One-third inch of snow was applied
to the frozen plug followed by 1/2 inch of ice.
d. Freezing in an ice block. The vegetation was sealed in an ice block by completely submerging the carton containing the grass plug in a gallon container
of water and freezing.
e. Submerged in water. The carton containing the grass plug was submerged in
one gallon of water and held at 35° F. rather than freezing as in the above
treatment.
The first four treatments were held in a 25° F. cold chamber for the duration of the experiments while treatment 5 was held at 35° F. At fifteen day intervals, during the 90 day period, replicated samples from each variety and treatment
were removed from the chamber, thawed, placed in a 75° F. growth chamber, and
evaluated for injury.

Results of this study showed bentgrass to be highly resistant to the three
types of ice cover for the 90 day duration of the experiment. A significant amount
of injury was produced by ice sheets on annual bluegrass and Ky. bluegrass from the
75th to 90th days, but exceeded 50% in only one instance. Where injury had occurred
in the field in association with ice sheets complete kill has usually resulted, while
in this study complete kill was not even approached by the various types of ice cover
ings during the 90 day period. The increasing injury from the 75th to 90th days to
Ky. bluegrass and annual bluegrass indicates that oxygen suffocation, or toxic accumu
lation may produce more severe injury from periods of ice coverage longer than 90
days. However, under field conditions ice coverings in excess of 60 days are rare.
In addition, no significant injury was produced from submergence in water,
indicating that outward leaching of cellular constituents into the water was of no
importance at near freezing temperatures ,
Table I. Survival of Grasses after having been Subjected to Five Treatments.
Treatment
observation
days

Observed
after
flood,then
freeze(25°F )

100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100

-

30
45
60
75
90

Freeze
in ice
block (25°F)

Bentgrass
100
100
100
95

Submerge in
water (35°F;

%
100
100
30
10

100
100
100
100

60
0
0
0
0

100
90
90
85
80

100
0
0
0
0

100
100
100
95
90

Bluegrass
100
100
100
100
75

100
100
95
70
40

Table III. 15
30
60
75
90

Freeze then
layer with
ice over
snow (25°F)

%

30
60
75
90

Table II.

Freeze then
layer with
ice (25° F)

100
100
100
90
75

Poa annua
100
100
100
90
50

100
100
85
60
50

100
100
100
98
95

These results suggest that certain combinations of freezing and thawing, especially in association with high tissue moisture contents during the thawing of ice
covers, may be of more importance in winter injury of turfgrasses than the more
direct effects of ice sheets, such as oxygen suffociation, or toxic accumulations.

Factors in Freezing Injury
Under field conditions the grass plant can survive winter conditions as long
as the vital meristerratic tissue of the crown is not injured. Severe injury can
occur to the leaf tissue, but it is of no great consequence. Much kill occurs during periods of freezing and thawing when the grass plant is in a reduced state of
hardiness. It is caused by destructive freezing processes within the plant. Six
factors control the frost killing temperature in grasses.
1.

Degree of plant hardiness. A hardy plant is one which is in a reduced state of
hydration, or water content. The processes occurring within the plant during
hardening include a reduction in growth, a conversion of insoluble carbohydrates
to soluble sugars, an alteration of the proteins, and a subsequent reduction in
the water content.

2. Rate of freezing, Killing may occur at a higher temperature if freezing is
rapid rather than gradual.
3.

Rate of thawing.

Greater kill occurs if thawing is rapid.

4.

Length of time frozen.

Greater kill may occur after long continued freezing.

5. Number of times frozen. Kill may occur after two or more freezings at a temperature which fails to produce injury after one freezing. However, repeated freezing and thawing does not always cause injury.
6.

Post-thawing treatment. Kill may increase after thawing if the plant is exposed to unfavorable conditions, particularly drying. Death may not occur'
until days, or even weeks after thawing.
Management Factors in Freezing Injury

Bentgrasses can survive temperatures 5 to 10° F. lower than Poa annua. In
addition, they are more resistant to injury from ice covers. Other factors which
increase the chance of injury include:
Poor surface drainage. It has been observed that where concentrations of
water occur kill is greater. Also, removal of ice sheets from putting
greens has reduced kill.
^•

Poor internal soil drainage. It has been noted that killiis greatly reduced
where the cups were most recently changed and on newly constructed greens.
Kill was most frequent on the heavily compacted areas. Here again poor internal soil drainage impairs removal of water from the immediate area of the
plant cro\m; thus, increasing the hydration level and the chance of kill.

3. Excessive thatch. Thatch, where excessive, elevates the vital plant crown
above the soil. In this condition theplant crown is subjected to much lower
temperatures than if it were in the soil, Also, thatch holds excess moisture
near surface.
4. Potassium deficiency. It has been reported on a number of crops that potassium increases the winter hardening characteristics, including the grasses.
5. Close mowing in late fall. Individuals who permitted their fairway turfs to
grow some during late fall noted less injury. This practice may aid proper
hardening of the grass plant through accumulation of carbohydrates as well as
serving as a protective mulch.

6.

Late fall nitrogen fertilization.
Late fall fertilization at temperatures
which permit grass growth will stimulate late vegetative production and in
turn reduce the level of hardiness through increases in the plant water content.

7.

Premature spring nitrogen fertilization. Applications of nitrogen fertilizer
too early in the spring will stimulate vegetative production; thus, increasing
the chance of kill should a severe, late freeze occur. It will also adversely
affect the plant's survival should it's root system be severely injured by
earlier freezing processes.
Excessive late fall watering. Have adequate, but not excessive soil moisture.

Additional research is needed to clarify the conditions which do produce injury to bentgrasses and thus assist in completing our understanding of winterkill
causes in turfgrasses.

WETTING AGENTS - THEIR ACTION & EFFECTS
Robert Moore, Pres., Aquatrols Corp. of America,
Camden, New Jersey
This opportunity to explain the action and effects of soil wetting agents
should tell what a wetting agent is, some of the differences between them, and how
they affect water in soil. A wetting agent is a surfactant — a peculiar group of
materials that are very active at surfaces (1). In this group are detergents,
emulsifiers, and, of course, wetting agents. Their difference is primarily moleeular
weight and chemical structure - much like a Chiquaqua and a St. Bernard are quite
different even though they are both of the canine family. One very important difference in these materials is that they can be ionic, or non-ionic. The original research showed that non-ionic materials were preferred because of their safety to
living plant materials and micro-organisms. As an example, many ionic materials are
used as scouring compounds and germicides, and others are very toxic to plants.
The non-ionic wetting agents usually consist of an alkyl, and an aryl group
of differing molecular weights, either as an alcohol, an ester, or an ether. These
materials act in such a way that part of the molecule is water soluble and part is
water insoluble. This strange behavior causes the attractive forces of water, which
are exceptionally large, to be tremendously reduced. A few thousandth of one percent will reduce these forces by more than 607o.
To first explain their action in and on sp^^r^iet us look at a flat surface
with a drop of water standing on it. The attractive forces of water tend to pull it
up into a ball. We've all seen this on the leaves of our grass. A wetting agent
lowers these forces, and increases (if the insoluble portion is correctly chosen)
the spreading attraction of the water over the surface (2).
Now let us look at a small pore in the soil - untreated soil that is! We
will see that the attractive forces of water will cause a bridging over these pores
and inhibit downward or sideward movement. It then becomes necessary to increase
the weight of water (fillinBythe large pores or saturating of the soil) before
enough pressure is created to rupture this tension and force the water through the
pore.
/

j

What happens in treated soil? With very little attractive force, bridging
does not occur and the water readily wets the sides of the pore and moves downward
and sideward without saturating. Data from Penn State University (3) shows that
water passed through the entire profile at field capacity in one hour in a loam
soil treated with a blended soil wetting agent. In contrast, the untreated soil was
wetted to only one-third its depth and was above field capacity in this limited area
After 80 hours this untreated soil still had excess water now located in its lower
profile due to a perched water table effect.
So much for the action of soil wetting agents. Let's have a look at their
effects! Recent work from Texas A & M ( 4 ) bears out that there are vast differences
in commercially available x^etting agents. Some materials were only effective for
one irrigation; some only worked in one soil; some didn't work at all. What is desired is a material that lasts for many irrigations and works in all soils and soil
mixtures. The improved infiltration and movement through treated soils contrasted
with water backing up in untreated soils reduces infiltration, and decreases the per
centage penetrating with time. Core samples show this effect on treated and untreated halves of a green. A picture taken the day after irrigation showed better
and more wetting. Note the depth and uniformity of moisture in this core from the
treated area (15 inches versus about T?r inches).
Infiltration alone is not the answer. Letey of U.C.L.A. (5) pointed out:
"
the soil treated with the (soil) wetting agent became wet much more uniformly
throughout the entire core compared to the untreated soil in which moisture moved
through in channels rather than in a uniform pattern." In this slide we see deep
but very channelled wetting on the untreated half of another green, as compared to
the deep and uniform wetting of the treated half. Infiltration was good, but uniformity was poor without the soil wetting agent. These drier areas can lead to
poorer roots and localized drying, or disease under times of stress.
But once again infiltration and uniformity are not the complete answer.
Soils treated with a blended non-ionic wetting agent hold water at a much lower
tension. Another paper from Texas A & M (6) showed moisture content versus tension
in the soil. The area under the curve represents the energy the plant must exert
to obtain water (and, therefore, nutrients) from the soil. We feel that this conservation of energy is related to some of the cell structure improvements in the
plant leaves that you'll see a little later. The immediate andcfefinite benefit is
an increase in the time between irrigations. Penn State (7) and Cornell (8) data
with tension blocks showed a 100% increase possible — we suggest only a 50% increase. In a year's time these lower tensions can save considerable water and
labor (generally estimated at 30%>).
So far we have seen an improvement in the infiltration, transport, uniformity, and availability of moisture in soils treated with a soil wetting agent. Let
us now go to the recent work done at Yale University by Harry Meusel (9). This work
studied the effects that soil wetting agents, watering practices, and fertilizers
had on the wilting, appearance, internal cell structure, and stomatal openings of
Poa annua. A color slide from this work shows the pots from one of the replicas.
A closeup showing the more compact growth and slightly better color with the
wetting agent is shown in the next slide. Minus "W" means no wetting agent - the
one refers to infrequent watering (once a week) and the N-l refers to one pound of
added nitrogen per month. A top view even more clearly showed the good tight turf
and darker color in the wetting agent treated soils. Incidentally, these tests were
conducted using a mixture of sand and vermienlite in an effort to avoid introducing
added variables from the soil.

These treatments were all allowed to naturally wilt. General conclusions from
this work showed that frequent watering (6 times a week), representative of a rainy
period, increases wilting. Fertilization at this time aggrevates the situation. The
use of wetting agents gave a very significant increase in resistance to wilting. You
may wonder at the length of the grass. The grass was clipped at 1/2 inch twice
weekly for 12 weeks, and then allowed to grow for 8 days.
The wilting characteristics of these grasses was also checked in a wilting
chamber where effects of light, humidity, temperature, and air movement were studied.
The order of wilting was verified with those that were allowed to die naturally, ie.,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Frequent watering and fertilizer
Frequent watering
Frequent watering, fertilizer, and wetting agent
Infrequent watering
Infrequent watering and fertilizer
Frequent watering and wetting agent
Light watering, fertilizer and wetting agent
Light watering and wetting agent

It is evident again that frequent watering, or a rainy period, increases the
susceptibility to wilt, and that fertilizer tends to aggrevate the situation. The
soil wetting agent, on the other hand, has the effect of slowing wilt under all conditions .
From each set of pots of grass, blades were picked at random before the
wilting test for leaf impressions and cross sectional studies. By studying the
cell structure of the grass blades under the microscope, it became evident as to
why the plants reacted as they did. We will now look at a series of these cross
sectional slides.
The first slide shows infrequent watering, no added fertilizer, and no wetting agent. We see a very compact cell structure, very little intercellular air
space (about 1%) and small epidermal cells.
Next slide shows the cross section of frequently watered grass, no fertilizer, no wetting agent. Note the less compact cell structure, the increase in intercellular air space ( 2 0 to 307o) and the larger epidermal cells.
The final slide in this group shows the frequently watered grass, plus fertilizer, but no wetting agent. Note the very poor cell structure, large intercellular
air space (50 to 70%), and large epidermal cells. Actually, these mesophyll cells
were so weak that many were torn by the microtone blade. Try to remember these pictures as we now move to the next group.
The infrequently watered grass, with no added fertilizer but with wetting
agent in the soil, gave the same good looking compact cross section, with very little
intercellular air space {1%) . Though the cellular structures were the same, the soil
wetting agent increased the time before wilting by 100%. This is due to the low tension and more available (lower energies) water that was discussed earlier.
The next slide shows the cross section for frequent watering, no added fertilizer, but with the wetting agent. Note the continued good compact cell structure,
almost no increase in air space (5 to 10?o) and fair epidermal cells.
The final slide of this group shows the frequently watered grass, plus fertilizer, plus the soil wetting agent. Note that we have lost only a little of our

cell structure. The mesophyll cells are still quite turgid, little or riot-fearing is
evident. This extra turgidity of the cells was very evident in all samples of grass
where the wetting agent was used. Again, intercellular air space has increased, but
only to 20 - 30%*
The next four slides show these same points again, but at a higher magnification. Here we see the weak, easily torn cells and large air space for frequent water
ing , plus fertilizer and no wetting agent. Next, we see the same, but with the wett
ing agent and we see more turgid cells, less air space, better defined epidermal
layer and a very definite improvement in cutin layer. Next is infrequent watering,
plus fertilizer, and no wetting agent. With the soil wetting agent we again note a
more turgid cell structure and a heavier cutin layer. This opening here in the epidermal layer is a stomate, which brings us to the closing part of our story.
As you know, or may have surmised by this time, water is lot from the mesophyll cells into the intercellular air space (hence the desire to keep this at a
minimum) and then evaporates from the blade of grass through a mouth-like opening
called the stomata. Leaf impressions of the underside of the grass blade from frequently watered shows large size epidermal cells with respect to the stomata. Impressions of infrequently watered grass show stomata of the same size, but the epidermal cells are more compact — actually twice as many per stomata. Fertilizer had
no effect on this ratio. The wetting agent tended only slightly to further increase
the number of epidermal cells per stomata (a move in the direction of decreasing
wilt). A chemical control of this stomatal opening was recently found. On an unirrigated fairway in July, after 25 days of no rain, the Poa has gone out, the bluegrass is going dormant, the fescue has stopped growing. On the treated half grass
still had to be mowed.
In closing, I would like to summarize by listing the following points:
1. Soil wetting agents lower the tensions of water and permit a more rapid and
more uniform infiltration, transport, and drainage.
2. Soil wetting agents lower the soil moisture tension and, thereby, increase
the availability of water and nutrients.
3. Lower tensions decrease the frequency of watering; and less frequent waterings improve the wilt resistance of grasses.
4. Soil wetting agents decrease the intercellular air space in grass, and, thereby
improve the wilt resistance of the grass.
5.

It is significant to note that the poorest grass wilting and cell structurewise was the second best looking grass. The best grass was grown with infrequent waterings, added nitrogen, and soil wetting agents.

References
(1) Covey, W. G., Jr., Bloodworth, M.E. — Some Effects of Surfactants on Agricultural Soils 1 and 2. Texas A. & M. MP 529, July, 1961.
(2) Letey, J., Pelishek, R.E., Osborn, J. — Wetting Agents, California Agriculture
October 1961.
(3) Nuss, J. Jr. — The Affect of a Non-Ionic Wetting Agent on Rooting and Root Development in Selected Species. Master thesis Penn State Univ., December, 1962.
(4) MLstry, P.D., Bloodworth, M.E. - The Effect of Surface-Active Compounds on the
Suppression of Water Evaporation From Soils. Texas A & M, August, 1963.
(5) Pelishek, R.E., Osborn, J., Letey, J. — The Effect of Wetting Agents on Infiltration. Soil Science Soc. of Am. Proceedings, Vol. 26, Pages 595-598, 1962.

(6) Law, J. P. - The Effect of Fatty Alcohol and a Non-Ionic Surfactant on Soil
Moisture Evaporation in a Controlled Environment. Agronomy Abstracts (Denver,
Colo.) Sept., 1963.
(7) Lamphier, F. — Unpublished Student problem.
(8) Boodley, J. — Unpublished student problem.
(9) Meusel, H. - What Makes Grass Wilt. Paper presented at the 35th International
Turfgrass Conference and Show, February 1964, PhilacSphia, Pa.

SEED - A CHANGING STORY
Gager T. Vaughan, Pres., Vaughan's Seed Co,
Downers Grove, Illinois
A few years ago I spoke to this group on the subject of the supply and prices
of the various turf seeds. As you know, price of seed is higher in 1964. It goes
without saying that if the supply or crop is poor that the prices will be higher, and
if in surplus they will be lower than a year ago, but in either case there is not much
you can do about it. It may be nice to know why exactly, but you probably won't remember the production figures anyway. And you will be pretty safe if you tell your
Grounds Chairman that you are paying higher prices than last year for seed because the
crop was poor. And, if prices are lower it's because you are a good buyer and shopped
around and saved the club money. What I thought might be of interest to you was the
changing of production areas, varieties and specifications of seed that you might purchase.
First of all, let's take the most famous of all grasses, Kentucky bluegrass.
It was only some 30 years ago that almost all of the seed came out of a small region
around Lexington, Kentucky from pastures that were let go to seed. Seed was stripped,
cured in drying yards and threshed and then sent to cleaning mills. Purity of this
seed generally ran around 80% with germination of 70% and a weed content of 1/2 to
1%. I believe it was in the late 30's that harvesting started to move into the Iowa,
Missouri and Nebraska area, and it wasn't long before that region dominated the production because of generally higher yields. The Midwest regions have yielded up to
40 million pounds of bluegrass seed per year. In recent years much of this area has
been declining in production, and the main production in the late 40's and early 50's
moved into South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota and surrounding areas. Here the
seed was generally heavier in weight and generally of higher purities, and by this
time a purity of 8570and germination of 75% was considered standard seed.
The big problem in Midwest production has been the tremendous variation in
production with figures on production varying anywhere from 2 million to 40 million
pounds in different years, and you can, of course, see why we have had quite some
gyrations in seed prices from year to year. The yield on seed from pastures in the
Midwest generally averaged only around 50 lbs. per acre, so the cost of gathering this
seed is relatively high in labor cost.
With the advent of new varieties of bluegrass it was necessary to produce
seed on land that had had no bluegrass grown on the land, so, of course, it was
necessary to find new areas. This is how the West Coast, particularly Oregon and
Washington, got into the bluegrass business. The first large acreage started with
Merion bluegrass and yields in the Northwest have averaged around 250 lbs. per acre.

Instead of a by-product of a pasture, seed of bluegrass in the West is generally grown in rows and cultivated as are most crops. In this manner weed content is
generally much lower for West Coast grown seeds. Also, because of special handling,
germination is generally higher - anywhere from 807o to 907> with an average of most
varieties at around 857>. There are now, of course, many new varieties being grown on
the West Coast and production has been estimated this year at around 1 2 to 1 5 million
pounds with a larger acreage coming up next year.
g
The heaviest/producer at the present time is the variety Newport on which a
thousand pound per acre yield is not uncommon compared to, as I said previously, a
50 lb. per acre yield in the Midwest. I believe you can see where the production is
going to end up unless something unforeseen in the way of diseases or insects shows
up in the next few years. Because of the weather conditions and more moisture out
West, in these regions production is much more stable on the whole, so we will probably not have as wild gyrations in price as we have had in the past.
Because of the way the seed is grown the standard seed coming off the cleaning mills generally runs to a purity of 9 5 to 9 8 7 o . Withso.much seed coming from
these regions the difference in price between 857o purity and 987o purity has narrowed
down considerably in recent years, and I predict that before not too ong the standard purity on bluegrass, except Merion which is much harder to clean and by its
nature lighter in bushel weight, will be 987o with a germination of 807o or better in
comparison to our present standard of 857o purity and 757> germination.
Actually today the best buys in bluegrass are the higher purities. To find
which are the best buys you should use the pure live seed basis of figuring, i.e.,
multiplying the purity times the germination, and then using that old algebraic
formula — For instance, if an 8 5 purity and 7 5 germination bluegrass is offered at
$ 4 5 . 0 0 per 1 0 0 lbs., it has a pure live percentage of roughly 647o ( 8 5 x 7 5 = 647o) .
Seed of 9 8 % purity, 807o germination has a pure live seed content of 787o ( 9 8 x 8 0 =
7 8 7 o ) > Then, if you use that old formula most of you I'm sure rememb^. i.e., if
647> seed is worth $ 4 5 . 0 0 , then 787o seed is worth X - ( 6 4 : 4 5 = 78:X), / 6 4 X = 3 5 1 0
and X = § 5 4 . 8 0 .
In other words, the higher purity seed is worth about $ 9 . 8 0 more
per 1 0 0 than the lower purity seed. Today you canbuy this higher purity at less
than that spread - generally at not more than Cp 6 . 0 0 per 1 0 0 lbs. You will also
generally receive a much lower weed content and stronger seedlings in the higher
purity seed.
Now going back a step, while the West Coast was building up in production, we
also had a new factor on the market - European production. Production in Europe rose
drastically because of low production costs and high yields in Holland and Denmark.
This year these countries will export to the United States close to 1 5 million pounds
of seed. Generally this seed runs from 8 5 to 907o purity and 8 0 to 857o germination.
We have one or possibly two main problems with European production and this is the
problem of annual bluegrass with both the Dutch and Danish seed, and Poa trivialis
with the Danish seed. There are also some areas on the West Coast where annual bluegrass is a problem, but in most areas it is not too serious as yet.
Frankly we need more test work before saying how serious a problem a 1 / 4 of
l / 2 7 o of annual bluegrass in a seed is. There are those that argue that Merion, or
Kentucky bluegrass will crowd it out in average lawns, and those that argue that
the amount of Poa annua seeds already in the soil are so profuse that a little more
won't hurt. I<'11 let Dr. Daniel answer this one for you. If you want seed without
it you should so specify when ordering. In most states the analysis will have determined if Poa annua is present, but the label will not show the presence of Poa
annua because it is not recognized by law as a noxious weed and doesn't have to be
listed.

Even Blue Tag Merion can be loaded with Poa annua as it is not noxious. If
you want seed without it you would have to specify Blue Tag without Poa annua, or
bent, and insist on analysis. Sod growers and large purchase landscapers may be
particularly interested in pure seed stocks for use as overseeding on infested golf
courses.
What varieites of bluegrass will finally dominate the market is too early to
say at present as it takes many years of testing to be sure, but there are many varieties coming on the market. Probably only 1 in 100 will get very far and most will
fall by the wayside. Currently several turf researchers recommend a blend of bluegrasses. Our Company and several others blend Merion, Newport and Delta; plus maybe
Park, common, or private varieties. As far as other turf seeds are concerned, the
changes have not been so dramatic as with bluegrasses.
The
much of the
there seems
tainly room

biggest change in production has occurred with Creeping Red Fescue as
West Coast production has gradually switched to Pennlawn fescue. So far
to be nothing coming along to challenge Pennlawn, although there is cerfor improvement here.

Penncross bent, has, of course, increased greatly in production this last
year, and the price at present is the lowest we have seen, so its use will undoubtedly
increase.
As far as the ryegrasses are concerned, there are a few new varieties coming
on the market and Dr. Daniel will have to appraise you of their qualities from time
to time.

NOTHING HAPPENS UNTIL SOMEONE SELLS SOMETHING
Wade Stith, Manager, Lynde & Rowsey Nursery
Muskogee,Oklahoma

For several years our good friend, Dr. Bill Dnaiel, and I have visited together at turf meetings over much of the U.S. He has asked me to speak on this program about some of my experiences of trying to sell the ideas, programs and systems
for turf improvement by vegetatively planting new grasses.
We find most people want a turnkey job. They feel they need a guarantee.
Often they have failed in their own attempts to plant grasses. Many times undesirable grass selections have been planted. And, they want to have quick results.
In selling an improvement program much time is involved. Repeated calls must
be made. Individuals of the board must be sold, and sometime well-meaning club members can "sure muddy the water." During the planting there is much phone calling and
hand-holding necessary, and as a manager it is very frustrating to have planting jobs
sold and then be unable to complete work in a satisfactory manner.
In our experience Bermuda is least difficult to transport. Bemtgras is quite
hazardous. Often for our work the bid seems high. Often there are no specifications
which are common knowledge to those purchasing and those installing. Nevertheless,
all of these problems have led to many satisfcying experiences. It has not been

easy to take the ideas available from research, to develop your own equipment, and to
incorporate these into a contract production program for the varying conditions found
on golf course.
There have been outstanding successes. We find we must seek business over a
wide area because of the special nature of our contract planting. Again may I say,
nothing happens until someone sells something.

NITROGEN: YESTERDAY AND TODAY
H. B. Musser, Professor Emeritus, Penna. State Univ.
Executive Director, The Pennsylvania Turfgrass Council
The importance of nitrogen in the economy of turfgrass management demarcb that
every possible effort be made by those who must use it, not only to understand its
function and use as a fertilizer, but also to be alert to every development which may
affect the fertilizer program that has been adopted.
Recognition of the need for a systematic program for the use of nitrogen on
turf is evidenced by published observations and reports of critical tests over half
a century. The earlier efforts were confined almost entirely to the use of a limited
number of materials, most of which contained nitrogen in a soluble, quickly available
form. Because of the quick response of grass to such materials, the practical problems in using them, and the almost total lack of critical studies of their effects,
wide variations occurred in early recommendations and programs advocated for their
application.
Recognition of the difficulties and limitations involved in the use of these
materials stimulated a continuing search for products better adapted to turf production. As a result of careful observations and interpretations of performance
under practical conditions, the natural organics (seed meals, manures and processed
sewage sludge: came to be recognized at an early date, as valuable additions to the
group of materials available as sources of nitrogen.
The development of the Ureaform plastics, following the 2nd World War, made
available a third class of materials which differed in certain characteristics from
those used in the past. This created added problems in attempting to devise good
programs for nitrogen use. And, it further emphasized the need for critical studies
of the characteristics and best methods of handling the various materials, and stimulated the development of projects at Agricultural Experiment Stations and other research institutions to obtain the needed information on them.
The progress and accomplishments of these efforts are illustrated in the
accumulated results of 5 series of experiments conducted at the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station over a 10 year period. These studies, together with
similar ones at other places, have provided much needed basic information on the
response of turf to the various forms of nitrogen and have helped to provide a
better understanding of how they can be used most efficiently.
Today's most effective programs for the use of nitrogen on turfgrass recognize the basic differences in the total nitrogen content of different products, the
rate at which it normally becomes available from each, the conditions which may

modify its action, and the necessity of correlating all of these things with rates and
frequences of application. The development of a good program for its use will take
into account the influence of such things as the kind of grass and intensity of management, soil and weather conditions, severity of wear and other sources of injury, irrigation practices, and other factors which are likely to affect normal turf growth. All
of these things have a bearing on the way grass will respond to any given material.
And, adjustments of specific programs always will be necessary, regardless of the type
of material that is used.
The increasing popularity of and demand for the more slowly available forms of
nitrogen have resulted from recognition that their use entails a far less delicate
adjustment of applications to the many conditions affecting nitrogen supply than is
required when programs are based primarily on the use of quickly available forms. But,
at the same time it whould be recognized that each class of materials has its limitations. Although we recognize that even moderate quantities of the quick-acting forms
may act too fast; in contrast, the response to natural organics and ureaforms may be
so slow, that, unless large quantities are applied, there will not be sufficient
growth stimulation from them to produce the desired results.
Recognition of this fact has led to the use of combinations of slow and quick
acting materials, to compensate for the limitations of each. At the present time
many fertilizer manufacturers are offering products of this type. They are receiving
general acceptance, and when mixtures are in the right proportions, they are doing a
good job. The best information available at the present time indicates that the total
nitrogen they contain should be in the ratio of about three parts coming from slowly
available sources and one part from quick acting materials. There is some modification of this when mixtures are prepared which contain only natural organics and ureaforms . In such cases the ratios used are about one part of nitrogen from the organic
material to two parts from ureaform. It should be emphasized that any program for the
use of such materials must be based on definite knowledge of the exact proportions of
each type of nitrogen they contain. Products labeled only as "containing organic nitrogen" or "ureaform" are always subject to suspicion.
The most recent development in the field of nitrogenous fertilizers is the
attempt by the fertilizer and chemical industry to control the rate of release of nitrogen from the cheaper inorganic materials by the use of coatings, or by combining
them with substances that resist decomposition. Some of these are being produced
commercially in limited quantities, and several Agricultural Experiment Stations are
making critical tests of them. At the present stage of our knowledge of their performance they should be used with caution. Their ultimate value will depend on
whether they can give us the gradual release of nitrogen which is becoming so generally recognized as being desirable for turfproduction, and whether they can do it
more economically than the materials available at present.

KEEPING A TIGHT BENTGRASS TURF
Norm Kramer, Supt., Point 0'Woods C. Club
Benton Harbor, Michigan
I have been asked to present my program of trying to improve our fairway conditions at Point O'Woods Golf and Country Club near Benton Harbor, Michigan. Briefly,
here is what brought about the change and what we did about four problems.

1- The main problem "was compaction
2. Air and light drainage
3. Fertility level
4. Strain of grass
1. COMPACTION. We grew crops of knotweed and crabgrass like you have never
seen before. What brought on the compaction? This piece of property was in most
places a solid wood, with tall trees, underbrush and vines. This resulted in clearing, with large equipment; 69 acres for farways, tees and greens. Besides clearing
and leveling with large equipment, the most damaging work was rotating to a depth of
from 10 to 14 inches mixed in the blue clay and subsoil. After this we had cement not topsoil.
What did we do? The first year program of aerifying with coring spoons was
started in 1958, and we used the same program as in 1959. The third year we did the
same, but we were not able to improve on our establishment of bent. Meanwhile, we
had worn out two aerifiers and 8 sets of coring tines - it s'eemed an impossible task.
By the spring of 1962 we could see some definite results from the aerifying program,
but not enough.
Let's go back to #2 - AIR AMD WATER DRAINAGE. Due to the fact that it was a
thick woods with underbrush, we started to clear out all brush and vines. Then, the
man above took over and the elms started to die, and up to now 800 or more have been
removed to further reduce the shade and air drainage problem. We still have many
trees, but comparatively good air and light drainage, which has helped reduce compaction problem for the soil can dry out now.
3. THE FERTILITY LEVEL was low. After a soil test I went to a typical
12-12-12 analysis at the rate of 400 per acre in the spring of 1959, and followed
this through the season with urea 45% at the rate of 100 lbs. per acre during June,
July and August, and back to 400 lbs. of 12-12-12 in the fall. This program remained the same in 1960 and 1961. In 1962 the levels of potash and phosphate were
built up, so I changed and went to a 2:1:1 ratio fertilizer at the rate of 350 lbs.
per acre, continuing xvLth urea and back to the 2:1:1 in early October.
My program
was the same in 1963.
Now, this brings us to the one thing that was hard to sell to the board - the
strain of grass which I wanted to change. When constructed the entire course, except the greens, was planted in Highland bent - even the roughs. Due to the soil and
drainage problems the Highland did not adapt to the area. The greens had been seeded
with Seaside bent, which was doing a very fine job of adapting to soil conditions.
After proving my point with the board, the next step was to find a tool which would
prepare a seedbed, plus cultivate and help break up compaction. After looking at the
machines that were available and making sure it would do the job, I decided to purchase an Aero-blade and a sweeper. May I further remind you that this may not be the
program for your particular area, but I feel for incorporating the seed in established
turf, plus getting rid of any thatch problem you might have, this method seems to be
the finest available at the present, plus the slit will stay open during the winter
mon ths.
Time - 1962 - third week in August
1963 - third week in September - result - less wilt in September
1. Make certain soil moisture content is just right - reason - if too wet the
machine will not bring up any soil. If it is too dry the grass will tend to
wilt easily.

2. Mark the fairway valves with dolimitic lime so that valves are easily seen and
h f with the slicer.
3. Slice fairways with machine.
4. Broadcast seed over sliced area - we applied Seaside bent 30# per acre.
5. Drag mat with piece of chain link fence 22 ft. x 10 ft. long
6. Sweep fairway to pick up grass clippings
7. Mow
8. Water. The first time make certain you have soil moisture content as close to
full field capacity as possible when you finish watering. Continue to keep areas
moist to get good germination.

MAINTAINING A TIGHT BLUEGRASS TURF
Donald Clemans, Supt., Norwood Hills Country Club
St. Louis, Missouri

There are five points of significance in my maintenance program: fertility,
mowing and watering practices, selective herbicide program, fungicide program and
thatch removal.
Fertility: I seem to be prejudiced toward a 2:1:1 ratio fertilizer for my
fairway fertilization. A broadcaster type spreader has ease of application and is
time saving so that 18 holes can be fertilized in less than five hours. Since this
is possible, I can pick an afternoon, say before a weather front moves past with
rain, fertilize the fairways and have it watered in on the same day.
The first application of fertilizer is applied about April 1, and may or may
not need to be watered in by irrigating. At this time I apply about 1 pound of
actual nitrogen, plus
pound of P & K per 1000 sq.ft. Very shortly after spring,
summer arrives, rapidly warming the soil, but the air is now what might be termed
"hot." Neither situation is optimum for the growth of bluegrass, to say nothing of
the fact that this also is the most competitive part of the growing season.
The
the rate of
this time.
application

second application is applied about 8 weeks later, by about July 1, at
-|-7fN/l, 000. The soil moisture is very likely to be a critical factor at
Therefore, more than likely I will try to irrigate immediately. This
method takes longer, but it pays off in eliminating turf damage.

The early fall application is applied by September 1, and again may or may
not need to be watered in by irrigating. The soil has been warmed by the sun all
summer and will retain the warmth for some time. Now the plant has an environment
which is optimum for growth and should last 8 to 10 weeks.
My late fall application is 1-|- lbs. of N and i lb. P & K. I feel that the
plant has a greater ability to utilize the additional fertilizer best at this time.
This brings the seasonal total to 3 lbs. of N and lir lbs. of P & K.
MOWING: First, I feel that the mowing height should never vary from 1-J- inches.
I maintain this height by mowing fairways at least 5 times per week. The average golf
course 18 fairways should contain between 40 to 50 acres. I found that with two 7gang mowing units that my fairways could be mowed in about 4 hours. By mowing this

often I always had the grass plant maintained at a near constant height. Also, the
size of the individual leaf clippings are small and they will filter into the turf,
leaving little or no debris on the surface.. Another advantage of small clippings is
that it becomes possible for the clipped grass to get next to the soil more easily
and speed up the decay process and thus cause less thatch accumulation.
WATERING: Water, In my opinion, should be used as a maintenance tool to insure
against drouth and ths maintain active growth. Obviously, soil and water holding
ability of the soil on every golf course differs. But, in my case it was necessary to
water some fairways with good moisture retention only 6 times a season; yet, others
needed 12 or 15 irrigations. There is no way to say that you should water every given
number of days.
SELECTIVE HERBICIDE PROGRAM; The broadleaf weed control program was based on
a "home-brew" mixture of 2-4,D Amine and 2,4,5-T. I always use 1 lb. of 2,4-D per
acre, and vary the 2,4,5-T from none to 1 lb. per acre. And, I always treat both the
fairways and roughs. Dandelions and buckhorn are not too hard to control.
Khotweed is a different type of problem. By timing the application so that
knotweed is in the two leaf stage (in late April) satisfactory control can be gotten.
Meanwhile, the bluegrass was able to grow, thicken and begin to compete. In all
applications a wetting agent was used to enable greater leaf surface wetting, and
sprays applied with a 21 foot front mount boom.
The next phase of selective herbicide control was a crabgrass control program.
I prefer a Tri-calcium arsenate program because of its fine residual effect. Once
crabgrass control x\as established, annual additions were made at one-fourth recommended
rate in the spring with success. With control of broadleaf weeds, knotweed, and crabgrass, my fertilizer program was benefitting the desirable turf only.
FUNGICIDE PROGRAM: My attempt here is to control leafspot on bluegrass in late
spring and early summer. Anything that weakens the turf in the spring will undoubtedly
affect its ability to withstand the stresses of summer. One season two applications of
Parzate, plus iron sulfate, were used. This material was sprayed from a boom jet
nozzle covering 40 feet at a time. This allowed us to treat all fairways in 6 hours.
Another season I used one application of Acti-dione RZ, plus iron with the same equipment. Each season will determine the number of treatments needed. But, I feel confident even one application times properly is of great benefit.
THATCH REMOVAL PROGRAM: On bluegrass a thatch removal operation is preferred
before the early fall fertilization. This process allows the fall fertilizer to get
into the ground readily. It also makes watering and fall rains much more effective by
decreasing run-off. If there are any thin spots in the fairways they are seeded at
this time with a 50% Delta bluegrass, 50% Common Kentucky bluegrass mixture. Briefly,
the operation has been to thatch, broadcast the seed, drag with a chain-link fence mat,
and then remove the thatch. By fertilizing and watering immediately after I have had
good germination in 7 to 10 days. Even if seeding is not necessary, thatch removal is
beneficial. I have observed new growth and tillering from this severe vertical mowing
operation. I have been thatching as deeply as passible which in my case is about one
inch into the soil. This really does a root rhizome cutting job, and completely
covers the existing green grass with thatch and soil.
This whole series of programs have proven successful to me; yet, I'm always
looking for ways to improve them.

KEEPING TIGHT TURF - BERMUDA GRASS
Ernie Schneider, Supt., Bellerive Country Club,
Creve Coeur, Missouri

Several years ago most of your criticism regarding long or fluffy turf came
from your professional golfer. Today even the 100 shooter wants to play on closely
mowed, tight turf. We are spending more time and money maintaining tees and fairways
today than we are on greens. This was not true in the past.
I believe that a good mowing practice is essential to well-groomed fairways.
Our mowing starts early in the spring for we do have a weed problem, such as Poa
annua, chickweed, etc. These, of course, come on before the Bermuda greens up. The
height of cut is as low as the mowers can be set. This height is maintained throughout the mowing season, from April 1 to November. Cne of the most important things in
mowing Bermuda turf is to mow often, three to four times a week. I usually try to mow
when the grass is reasonably dry, to get a good scattering of the clippings. There is
nothing more unsightly on fairways or tees than a heavy cutting of clippings.
Three years ago I tried out a set of five-gang, ten-blade mowers. At first I
was unhappy. It had more clip per inch, pulling them at the regular speed as we did
our other mowers; it would raise up; the back roller would come up off the turf; then
when the roller came down it would bite into the turf, making an unsightly cut. After
we got rid of our thatch and slowed the speed of the tractor, it did a beautiful job.
This mower is much heavier, has more tension on the back roller, which enables it to
cut a little closer than a six-blade reel type mower. We pulled them a whole year before we bought them. I try to get over all the fairways at least once a week with
this ten-blade. This mower gets more of a workout than the six-blades as it is
cutting somewhere at all times.
To maintain good tight turf thatching is important. We had a very dry spring
in 1963, less than a half inch rainfall during April and May. June was normal; July
and August excessive moisture, and the fall was exceptiaally dry. I only thatched
three times this past season due to this unusual weather. I thatched in April, June
and August. When used the thatching machine is set as deep as possible. This enables
us to tear out thatch, dead as well as live material, and also cultivate too. We are
trying to create a healthier turf by slitting and tearing - you are making the grass
start new shoots. In the grooves where this cultivating action takes place the grass
is healthier and is a much brighter color. After thatching,all loose material is
picked up by a sweeper, and hauled away. Then, the fairways are cut with the tenblade mower and swept again. The following day they are cut again, and this gives a
real smooth appearance.
After the fairways are de-thatched, they are fertilized — the first time with
a 2:1:1 ratio, at the rate of 300 lbs. per acre. I fertilize three more times during
the season with Urea 45. Each application provides one pound per 1,000 sq.ft. - just
enough fertilizer to keep the grass in good color. With this fertilizer program I do
not get a lush, fast growth.
The winter of '62 and '63 was one of the most severe that Kentucky has ever had.
Also, we had below normal rainfall. Fairways at Big Spring County Club came through
in fine shape with less than 5% winterkill. Also, we had less spring deadspot than
noticed the previous year. Zoysia is plugged in damaged areas. At times I wish I
would have had watered fairways. To me this would have been very important last year
and this year both going into the winter season on the dry side.

Now that I have mentioned a fairway watering system, I think that I should tell
you that I do not believe in over-watering Bermuda. Once every three weeks, if we do
not have rain, is usually sufficient. This past season a water system would have come
in very handy when I wanted to spray for weeds. After I thatched and fertilized in
April, there was an invasion of crabgrass in some areas, but I had to wait for a
sufficient amount of moisture to do the spraying. From past experience, spraying when
it is too dry does discolor the grass and retards its growth. For control of the crabgrass I still have the best results by using disodium methyl-arsonate with 2,4-D, and
I have increased the amount of wetting agent. The rate used - "on the hot, dry side
for turf", and 4 ozs. of 2,4-D and 1/2 gallon of wetting agent to 150 gal. tank. I
try to spray on a Monday when the crabgrass has had a chance to get some leaf growth
over the weekend. Then, I usually cut these areas on Wednesday, and repeat the spraying on Thursday — I come back the following Monday with another spraying. With this
method I have always had real good results.
This may sound like a lot of work to you, but the members of Big Spring Country
Clud would not trade their U-3 Bermuda fairways for any other type of turf. Good
tight turf makes any golfer's game more enjoyable.

THATCH AND RENOVATION EQUIPMENT
W. H. Daniel, Professor, Dept. of Agronomy
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.

During this Conference you have had several presentation on thatch and its
control. Without a doubt there is still much to be learned.
Currently, over 20 models from over 12 manufacturers are designed to rake,
comb, pull, or cut thatch, old leaves, new leaves, runners, etc., from near the soil
surface. Our 1963 Field Day report characterized equipment into 3 groups, depending
on their action and speed of operation 1.
2.
3.

High speed - rigid blades - cuts whatever touched.
Sloxtf speed - rigid blades - combing and pulling.
Slow speed - flexible - combing and pulling.
Manicuring

Manicuring is the grooming of growing plant parts. It is usually light, frequent, partial and cautious. Manicuring should not interfere with the use of the
area. It may be intended to just thin out the crabgrass; thin back the creeping bent;
take out the old dead leaves of bluegrass; smooth up the uniformity of the area.
On bluegrass this is most frequently done in mid-fall.
it may be as the grass is growing vigorously.

On Bermuda and Zoysia

Rejuvenation
Rejuvenation could be similar to renovation, but is less drastic. In rejuvenation the idea is to provide room for new growth, remove competition, to give the

grass another chance. For this reason cutting into the soil may be desired, cutting
through the rhizomes, the runners, the thatch; bringing soil up on top of the existing grass. And, definite thinning - up to 50% removal of grass may be desired.
Generally fertilizing at the same time is also favored. Sometimes overseeding
may be added. Generally rejuvenation should be done under favorable weather conditionsnot when there is unusual plant stress already present. In either case above, there is
one key idea. There should be green growing points remaining after the renovation is
completed, otherwise brown areas may be too severe and extensive.

WHAT IS ENOUGH?
Ernie Schneider, Supt., Bellerive Country Club
Creve Coeur, Missouri
In 1959 my front yard was planted with a mixture of Tifgreen and Sunturf Bermuda. I maintained this as a putting green at a 5/16" cut. By the next spring this
was a beautiful piece of turf. That year I fertilized it as it needed it, but the
following year I kept the turf very lush, using 16 lbs. N. per 1,000 sq.ft. That winter I lost 90% of this putting green. I plugged it with the same kind of turf - by
August it was back in shape. From then on, I watched my rate of nitrogen. The winter of '62 and '63 was very severe,but there was no loss of turf. Every spring I
would de-thatch it very severely, removing all the dead grass and stems down to the
ground. This putting green received a lot of traffic from the neighbor children,
caddies, etc. It had six putting cups in it. I received a lot of newspaper publicity from this lawn, then many inquiries and calls from persons wanting a backyard
putting green. When I would mention that it had to be mowed every other day, this
would discourage most of them.
I try to encourage people to thatch grass at the proper time - bluegrass in
the late summer or early fall, and Bermuda and Zoysia grass during the early spring
just when it greens up. I know of an instance where a man thatched his Zoysia lawn
heavy in the fall and seeded it to ryegrass. The next year his Zoysia did not recover until late in the summer due to the severe thatching so late in the season.
On the golf course I thatch the Bermuda fairways on the average of three times
a year, but never later than August. I mow 3 to 4 times a week. I think that is
sufficient for well-manicured turf.
Whether you are a homeowner, or you make your living maintaining turf, the
problems are increasing. Some of the southern weeds and grasses are moving farther
north and vice-versa. In the past few years I have found creeping lovegrass and
dallisgrass on the golf course - one from the north and one from the south - where
they came from I do not know.
The cost of controlling weeds and insects in turf can be expensive. For preemergence material, the two which I have had the most success with on both small and
large areas, have been calcium arsenate and granular chlordane. I have areas on the
golf course where the residual was good for four years on Bermuda and bluegrass, with
one application of calcium arsenate at the rate of 10 lbs. per 1,000 sq.ft. on the
Bermuda and 15 lbs. on the bluegrass.

As far as granular chlordane, I have had wonderful success preventing goosegrass in greens.
I have used it on bent and bluegrass for the past four years, and
I have seen no damage - only near perfect control There have been some reports of
damage from other areas where this chlordane was used — I have not seen this myself.
I did have one puzzler. To control chickweed and crabgrass we applied calcium
arsenate to two lawns - one neighbor across the street and one next door to me. goth
were applied in September - one received no control, and the other was perfect. The
neighbor who received no control gives his yard good care with regular fertilization,
etc., and the other is rather haphazard about his lawn care. I do know the material
was applied properly as I put it on myself. (Editor's note: Heavy fertilization
builds up phosphorus to high availiabity which over-rode arsenic toxicity. On unfertilized lawn arsenic was toxic since less phosphorus was present.)
I often puzzles me as to how much realjris enough - whether it be fertilizer,
insecticides, or herbicides. I have had many excellent results, and some not too good.

GREENS - MY IDEAS
John McCoy, Supt., Cincinnati Country Club,
Cincinnati, Ohio
The theme of this morning's Conference is - "Turf, Ready for Use." From
the previous speakers you have heard thatch discussed and how superintendents keep
a tight fairway turf with different grasses. I have been asked to express my ideas
of keeping a tight turf on greens through management and the use of topdressing.
In the majority of cases today the golf course superintendent arrives at a
course knowing little of its construction or maintenance history. It has been designed by an architect, built by a constructor, and probably been maintained by one
or several different superintendents over a period of a few to many years. Whenever
a superintendent takes over a new or different course, he faces a breaking-in period
of two or more years before he intimately knows his new course. First, he must know
the type of maintenance the club desires, and then he must make his plan of operation.
Most golfers desire a putting green that is smooth, dense, or tight, upright
in growth, disease-free, uniform in color both as to individual greens and throughout
the season - one that is free of grain and one that will hold a well-played ball.
Putting speed of greens varies with different clubs,depending on type of play, or
rather players. With these requirements how are we to plan our maintenance program
to produce greens meeting these conditions and carry it out without undue interference with the players?
Watering is probably the hardest and yet the most important job to accomplish.
Grens vary much in structure, in soil, in contour and in type of grass. I prefer
hand-watering of greens in early morning. We use sprinklers also, but not in critical
weather periods. Water should never be applied faster than the soil will absorb it.
Too wet a green will cause the turf to lay flat, which is a start for mat or thatch
formation, as well as other troubles. I have never been able to solve over-watering
the center of a green when using sprinklers - that being the main reason I prefer
hand-watering.

Fertilization is another very important management practice. I do not belive in pushing greens to a fast growth in early spring when growth is naturally
fast. We hold off fertilizing the putting area until the early lushness is gone. I
prefer dry applications to liquid applications of fertilizer because I can secure a
more even application and use materials with slower nutrient availabiLity. I use
frequent light applications, the materials and analysis of my choosing. Sewage sludge,
ureaform, sulfate of ammonia, and muriate of sulfate of potash are the principal ingredients; the sulfate of ammonia being used in very light amounts.
The amount of elements used is varied to suit seasonal and weather conditions.
I believe that some readily available phosphorus is desirable for short cut turf.
Also, that it is better to apply ureaform fertilizer in several light applications per
season rather than in one or two heavy applications. Light fertilizer applications do
not promote rapid growth, but a very uniform growth pattern which is favorable in
keeping thatch from forming. May I add that our fertilizer applications are made with
a rotary spreader powered from a light garden type tractor. The spreader is very easy
to handle and gives a very uniform spread with our mix.
Vigorous brushing of greens is very important,and along with regular cutting
helps keep grain and thatch from forming by pulling up blades and runners. I do not
like brushes attached to a greens mower for this work. I prefer flat steel wire
brushes separately mounted on a two-wheel type tractor. Our brushes are 4 ft. in
width, 4" thick, with 5-inch long wires. The brushes are mounted behind the power
wheels. An adjustable castor wheel behind the brush controls the pressure put on the
brush, and also raises the brush for transport. The best brushing is done when the
wires are kept in a nearly vertical position. With this type of equipment one man
can brush greens faster than three can cut. Early morning brushing before cutting
removes dew and when fertilizing we try to do it immediately after brushing.
In my program topdressing is a must. Topdressing should be done frequently,
at least six times a season, with light applications and throughout all the growing
season. Topdressing will improve putting by keeping the turf tight. It helps reduce disease by applying fresh soil material at the soil surface. It aids in decay
of organic matter by giving soil bacteria a place to work as I don't believe they
work in organic matter above the soil line. Topdressing maintains present soil
characteristics, or can gradually modify soil structure, depending on the mixture
used. Root growth is deeper. There is less wilting in hot and humid weather. Also,
air and water penetration being improved.
I prefer about one eighth cubic yards of dressing per 1,000 sq.ft. of putting
surface per application; the material having been screened before applying so that all
material, can be worked into the surface with no tailings to be removed. With mechanized operations, a power spreader, power driven brushes to work the topdressing in
(the same brushes used for brushing at other times) twenty greens can be topdressed
in six hours. Cut after topdressing and lightly watered, the greens are in very playable condition. In cool weather greens are cut after topdressing and before watering;
in warmer weather watering precedes cutting. By using two brushes on a green and
varying directions of each operation, a mower is starting to cut a green as the
spreader is finishing applying topdressing to that green. Two or three times over the
green with the brush incorporates this amount of topdressing in a tight green.
Vertical mowing is a help in preventing thatch formation, but it does not work
into my program. It is a slower operation than brushing and I consider it a means of
correcting a thatch condition more than in preventing it. It may disturb putting to
the point that players complain.
Aerifying helps in maintaining subsurface soil conditions and thus aids in
thatch control through better growth conditions. Any method of aerifying produces a

roughened putting surface. To my mind the time greens need aerifying most is in late
May or early June after they have been compacted during the usually more moist spring
season by humans and equipment. This is also the hardest season of the year to accomplish this work. I have long felt that the best type aerifier for use in spring or
summer was the drill type as it disturbed the putting surface less than punch types,
either with open or closed punches or spoons. A light brushing and a cutting after
drilling left a good putting surface with little or no complaint from players.
Another management practice is use of fungicides and insecticides. Following
my program as outlined, disease and insect control are relatively easy. My main idea
here is to apply in concentrated form. I never apply over two gallons, generally less,
of a fungicidal and insecticidal mixture per 1,000 sq.ft. of green, including collor
or apron, and never water it in. I can see no reason for applying diluted solutions.
It is not difficult to train an employee to apply this amount if you select the proper
type of equipment.
The ideas I have mentioned have produced for me greens that the players like.
Our cutting height is a nominal 1/4 inch, a height my Chairman does not want changed
and the height remains the same throughout the season. Frequent light applications
of fertilizer maintain a uniform growth, and the grass has a healthy appearance and
good color at all times. Topdressing keeps a tight, smooth surface with good ball
holding and putting qualities free from grain and thatch. Disease prevention and control are kept at a minimum. All operations are performed with the player in mind so
that they can have an enjoyable round of golf at all times.

GREENS - SOME OBSERVATIONS
James L. Holmes, Mid-Western Agronomist
U.S.G.A. Green Section
The periodic loss of some turf on putting greens is becoming less of a problem
yearly. More technical data is being made available and golf course superintendents
develop superior maintenance skills. At most clubs in the Midwest, members can expect to play on adequate putting surfaces at all times during the playing season. We
have progressed considerably in construction methods of putting greens which include
design, soils, technical abilities and knowhow in using the information we have.
As a result of information derived from sound research and continuous observations, reputable and knowledgable architects and builders now insist upon constructing
greens so that adequate surface and subsurface drainage is accrued at all times. This
drainage includes both water and air. Specific information in this regard is available
as a result of work done here at Purdue with soil additives, and research sponsored by
the USGA Green Section.
In order to assure proper drainage, the relationship between capilary, noncapilary and total air space must be properly determined for each specific scil 'used.
Where greens have been constructed with drainage principles protected, turf has developed well and observations indicate that it will be possible to maintain adequate
putting surfaces at all times with a minimum of "headaches." It has been determined
that water infiltration rates between 1/2 and 1 inch per hour, when the soil is compacted, are optidmal by USGA Green Section recommendations when using only soil, sand

and peat. It is important to note that this infiltration rate must be assured even
when soils are compacted. This is paramount because putting green compaction is an
extremely serious problem and one which has caused the golf course superintendent considerable chagrin.
If one is to be assured of a proper infiltration rate, or an infiltration rate
which can be effectively controlled, a perched water table relationship is essential.
In perching water tables, one must be extremely careful that excess water is not held.
If so, the infiltration principle is destroyed. It has been my observation that if one
does not use the proper percentage of sandy materials, it is usually better to use no
sand whatsoever; but, rather simply use the soil present and construct greens so that
surface drainage is assured. I have observed repeatedly that greens built with native
soils produced excellent putting qualities for a number of years. Therefore, if the
entire concept of the sandy soil construction is not followed - exactly - I suggest
that the native soil present on the building site be used. Naturally, I am aware that
numerous authorities on this subject would violently disagree. Nonetheless, this has
been my observational experience.
Overwatering, or water-saturated soil conditions continues to be one of the
most serious problems in maintaining greens which cannot or do not drain. If all the
technical improvements currently known are incorporated when greens are constructed
or rebuilt, this serious factor will become less of a problem. When one considers
the tremendous amount of work done and equipment used to "aerate" green soils, he
immediately becomes aware of the necessity for and lack of drainage - both air and
water. Perhaps we are guilty of throwing out the baby with the wash water.
Developments in improved bentgrasses have been extremely slow since the results obtained from selections made in the pie green work sponsored by the Green
Section. At the present time the majority of grasses used for putting greens are
still those developed in this testing work. Developments in this field are limited
primarily to Penncross bentgrass. However, new selections, such as Evansville, are
being released and I believe it is only a matter of time until superior bents are
available.
Poa annua is "the last serious weed problem in putting greens. Of course,
there is always the question of whether Poa annua is a friend, or foe. I believe as
a result of the severe damage done to Poa annua during recent winters, this plant
must be considered a foe in this part of the country on putting greens. Presently
work is being accomplished in enzymatic control of various plants. Surely, it is only
a matter of time until we can eradicate Poa annua without running the chance of seriously damaging desirable bentgrasses.
Many golf course superintendents continue to apply lead arsenate, or calcium
arsenate to putting surfaces in an effort to retard Poa annua vigor as well as grub
and worm-proof the soil. It is my opinion that this is an excellent practice.

HOW BLUEGRASS DEVELOPS
Tim Ga^kin, Warren's Turf Nursery
PalosPark, Illinois
When a bluegrass seed falls on the ground, either naturally or through a
seeder, it starts the cycle of development of a bluegrass plant. There are various

stages of development of bluegrass from the seed to the flowering plant. There are
also changes through the seasons in a mature bluegrass sod, such as leaf development,
rhizome production, flowering, etc. All of these occur year after year. Each of
these factors contribute to the development of a bluegrass sod and to the appearance
of a bluegrass lawn.
Development of a Bluegrass
Most bluegrass seed, when it first fall from the seed stalk, or is harvested
in the seed field, will not germinate. It is alive, but dormant. That is, given the
proper treatment and conditions it will germinate and produce a seedling. These conditions are either letting the seed age for several months, or a period of alternating hot and cold conditions when the seed is moist. The reason for this is to prevent the seed from germinating as soon as it falls to the ground in July. Then the
conditions for germination and establishment of a seedling bluegrass are very poor
with hot weather and periods of drouth. When the warm days and cool nights of fall
come, the seed will germinate when conditions are the best for establishment of bluegrass plants.
When the seed germinates a" primary root is formed which penetrates the soil,
and first one and then later leaves will be formed. If the seed germinated in the
fall, the cold weather of winter will stop further growth. At this time, the young
seedling will consist of several tillers (usually three) each with 2 to 5 green
1 ea ves.
In the early spring additional tillers will be formed. Leaf growth will increase. Before June or July, the rhizomes will start to grow. The plants must be of
a certain size before rhizomes will be produced. Usually about two rhizomes are formed.
These will grow undergound and then come to the surface and produce new crowns. The
new leaves and these rhizomes will increased the density of a stand of seedlings which
may look thin in the fall.
The warmer weather in summer may slow down growth of both rhizomes and leaves.
This is one of the reasons why bluegrass lawns appear the poorest and why diseases
cause the most problems during July and August. Very hot and very dry weather will
stop growth completely and the grass will turn brown. Root growth is best when the
soil temperature is about 60° F. and stops at 80° F.
As the days get cooler, bluegrass beings to grow again. This a period of
less leaf growth as compared with rhizomes growth. New rhizomes are formed from the
old rhizomes. Many new rhizomes are developed during October of a normal season.
The rhizomes formed at this time do not form new crowns by growing upward to the surface, but stay below the ground until spring.
In the spring there is a flush of leaf growth, as described earlier, some
form new tillers and some from the new crowns produced from rhizomes developed in the
fall. Unless the shoots or tillers flower (as described later) the cycle of growth
of leaves and later rhizomes occurs year after year in bluegrass sod, although in old
sod fewer rhizomes are produced.
Leaf
The leaf of the bluegrass is the organ which comprises the most visible part
of turf. After all, a lawn is just a collection of grass blades and tillers. Each
tiller has about 3 green leaves. Leaves are formed in the spring about every 10 to 12
days. In the summer there is a new leaf every 17 days; the fall every 19 days; and
winter about every 81 days. These figures are, of course, easily altered by a change

in the weather. After the leaves first appear, they will grow during the summer for
3 weeks. After that, the leaf will be green for another 6 weeks in a normal season.
One can see why a bluegrass lawn takes so much mowing in the spring and summer. The
leaf blades in the spring grow successively longer, and in the fall the leaves as
they are produced are shorter than the next older leaf. This is apparently related
to the length of day.
Another effect of the length of day is that in the summer the shoots and
leaves are upright, while in the winter the leaves and shoots are spreading and decumbent. Also, the number of shoots is greater in the winter or shor days, even in controlled climate chambers. The length of day also will determine when the flowering
will occur.
Leaves may last 9 weeks in the summer. Shoots and tillers, which are composed
of leaves, grow until the shoot flowers in the early summer,and after the seed is ripe
the shoot will die. Since not all shoots will flwoer, those that don't will grow for
one more season - they rarely last longer.
Rhizomes
The rhizomes or underground stems have two functions. One is to allow the
plant to spread vegetatively. This occurs mostly in the spring and summer. The
second function of rhizomes is as a storage organ. Various studies have shown that
following leaf growth in the spring, there is storage of reserves in the rhizomes.
The same thing occurs in the fall when there is little leaf or shoot growth and food
is stored in the rhizomes for the winter. The rhizomes in the summer are longer, and
stay underground longer than those in the fall. It has been reported that rhizomes
will not grow to the surface if the air temperature is below 50° F., while the best
temperature for root and rhizome growth is 50° to 60° F. One half the rhizomes
formed in June will emerge by fall; the rest will emerge "the following year.

Flowering
Everyone has seen bluegrass flowering on roadsides and in waste areas, and
others have noticed flower stalks of bluegrass in lawns in May before the mower cuts
them off. These flower stalks are the result of a process that started in the previous fall. During the cool, short days (less than 9 hours of delight) the flowering stalk was initiated in some of the tillers of the plant. Only about one-third
of the mature tillers will produce flower stalks. Instead of a vegetative bud
which would produce more leaves in the spring, a bud is formed which will produce a
flower stalk. The time of the winter this flowering bud is formed depends on the
variety. Common Kentucky bluegrass usually has about half of the flowering buds
formed by the middle of December, while in Merion that stage is reached by the end
of January. Of course, Merion flowers in the spring later. As the weather becomes
warmer in spring, the flower stalks elongate and by May the plants are in flower.
If the plants are mowed the stalk is cut off and the base of the stalk, which is not
cut off, usually dies. These dead stalks and some short flower stalks, which for
seme reason or another are not mowed off, detract from the appearance of the lawns
at this time of year. Newport, a heavy seed producer, is noted for its numerous
seed stalks even under turf conditions.
Two weeks after the flowering stalk appears, the plants flower. These plants
shed pollen from 5 A.M. to about 10:00 A.M., unless unfavorable weather checks the
flower's opening. The seeds are mature when the flower stalk turns yellow.

The process of the development of the seed need not concern us here except
that in the improved commercial varieties of Kentucky bluegrass, the seed is produced asexually through a process called apomixis. This means that almost all of the
seed (95%) or more) is exactly like the parent plant. They are the same as if you
divided the parent plant into two plants. Thus, these strains are quite pure, much
purer than many field crop seeds.

Environmental Factors
There are several things that a person can do which will affect the number of
rhizomes and tillers, or shoots. Naturally, one would want the greatest number of
tillers for the best appearing lawn, while a large number of rhizomes will allow turf
injured by diseases or insects to recover quickly.
Fertilizing as is well known will increase the growth of lawns. As can be
seen by the chart, the number of both rhizomes and shoots increased with fertilization. However, nitrogen fertilization increases the shoots and leaves relatively
more than the rhizomes.

NO, SHOOTS AND RHIZOMES PER 1 SQUARE FOOT

Shoots

Rhizomes

*

No Fertilizer
Unmowed
Mowed**
279
1939 July
368
221
Aug.
395
300
306
Sept.
300
Nov.
294
285
1940 April
429 360 334
1939

July
Aug.
Sept.
Nov.
1940 April

254
286
236
252
256 255

279
321
306
294
333

Fertilized*
Mowed**
Unmowed
789
603
816
543
643
817
706
924
776 654 1405 950 Average
35
366
414
498
443 351

3 06

390
40-1
407
447
423 418 Average

NaNOg at 200 lbs. acre April and July 1939,

** 1 inch cut
From "Kentucky Bluegrass" Ohio Sta Bull. 681,

1949.

Mowing will also increase the number of shoots and will increase the number
of rhizomes where one doesn't fertilize. In fertilized lawns there is no increase
in number of rhizomes; in fact, close mowing (less than 1 inch) reduces the relative
number of rhizomes per shoot.
There are many other factors (rainfall and irrigation, disease, insects,etc.)
which will affect the growth of bluegrass. The kind of bluegrass is important too.
These must be taken into account in developing a lawn program.

RESEARCH FOR BETTER BLUEGRASSES
C. W. Lobenstein, Dept. of Plant Industries
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois
Much progress is being made in the development of techniques for maximum performance of presently available turfgrass varieties. However, for continued advancement in turfgrass culture, improved varieties are essential. This is especially true
in the case of Kentucky bluegrass. We could take the view that present varieties are
adequate if properly managed. We could also say that present model cars, tractors,
and mowers are adequate. This does not cause us to turn away from still better designs, or improved performance — there is always room for improvement.
One phase of our work at Purdue is seeking improved Kentucky bluegrass
varieties involved making some specific measurements of the rates of growth and sod
formation by several different selections. Most of the selections had come from
patches in established mowed turfs. They had formed denser, thicker turfs than the
common types. The principal question we tried to answer was, "What characteristics
do these types have which permit their superior performance?"
In some cases the selections were lower growing. Perhaps they flourished because of less injury from low mowing. Surely all potential varieties for fairways
should be evaluated for this feature. Some were not attacked as severely by the more
damaging fungous diseases. This remains a major goal in new varieties. Other selections were very aggressive and formed sods over larger areas much more rapidly than
common varieties inspite of severe disease attacks and upright growth habits. The
increased rate of spread and sod formation resulted from production cf greater numbers
as well as increased length of rhizomes.
In four separate tests nine test selections produced, by growth from single
shoots during periods of 120 days or more, an average of one new rhizome per day.
This represented slightly more than 3 inches linear rhizome growth per day. In the
same tests Merion and three Common types averaged only 0.3 rhizomes, or approximately
3/4 inch rhizome growth per day. Comparisons of the average number of newly emerged
shoots per day showed almost 3 times as many for the 9 vigorous selections. Differences between Merion and the other standard varieties were generally not significant.
Measurement of the area occupied by growth from single tillers during the
summer of 1962 showed an average for the 9 experimental clones of 16 square inches
for 120 days and 50 square inches for 180 days. Average for the Merion and Common
types were 6.3 and 28 square inches during the same periods. Initially the Merion
types had slightly larger numbers of shoots per unit area, but at the end of the first
year's growth, sods of aggressive types were generally as thick as Merion.
The observed differences in rhizome development appears to arise from variations in the physiology of the plants rather than from structural or morphological
differences. Results of this study suggest that such aggressive types have the capacity to accumulate greater energy reserves more rapidly and possibly with more
limited foliage area. Such possibilities need to be examined on a larger scale because of the implications regarding mowing practices and disease problems.
Studies of regrowth into barren areas in 3-year old sods showed that the virorous types maintain their aggressive characteristics even in mature sods. While the
measured differences were not as great, they were still threefold, or greater than
Merion or Common.
The superiority in rhizome growth and recovery potential observed in this

group of experimental selections could imply several possibilities for the future development of improved bluegrass varieties. Should not rhizome potential and rate of
sod formation be weighed more heavily in evaluation of new varieties? Does greater
rhizome development permit certain types to escape or recover more rapidly from disease attacks, or mowing injury? May satisfactory stands be established with lower
seeding rates? Will sod fields regenerate more rapidly after cutting? If apomixis
and other plant breeding problems prevent introduction of greatly improved varieties
from seed sources, is the possibility of establishment by vegetative means completely
unrealistic for certain areas?

i

For the many varied turf situations and geographic locations in which Kentucky bluegrass is expected to perform, I personally doubt that one single variety can
ever be found to fill the entire bill. Maximum performance in most field and vegetable crops has usually been due in part to the use of specific varieties for certain
areas, or conditions. Why should we expect our crop of turfgrass to be different?
Finally, the results of this study and subsequent observations lead to the
conclusion that the potential for more satisfactory bluegrass varieties just from selections of naturally occurring Kentucky bluegrass ecotypes is still very great.

RESEARCH IN BLUEGRASS
Charles D. Berry, Graduate Student
Purdue University
The question is, "What should be done?" There are so many ramifications to
be considered that one must pick a phase and move forward with it.
Myself, being interested in genetics and in re-combining of attractive characters exhibited by various
sources, would like to approach it by controlled cross-pollination. Now, your comment
could be - "what good is cross-pollination going to do for everybody knows bluegrass
is highly apomictic." Most bluegrass populations are highly apomictic, but clones are
being found which reproduce sexually. When found these can be included in breeding
programs, possibly crossing with apomictic types in order to reclaim the apomictic
character to stabilize any segregates which are found having the desirable characteristics. We have set up an ideal circumstance, but how will we recognize these
plants that are products of cross-pollinations? For this one must have genetic
markers, or highly heritable characters which can be recognized in the individual
arising from such cross-pollinations. To do this, tests must be made of the heritability of various characters.
Ma st er's
In my/program during the winter of 1963, 15 selected seed sources were
planted in mass in greenhouse containers from which 100 individuals of each source
were selected at random quite carefully and planted in individual four inch pots.
The 1440 seedling plants were carried to the field on May 10, 1963 where they were
planted in an 8 replicated, randomized, block design, as space plants on 2 foot centers. These were then maintained at 2" cut to compensate for the soil mounding under
space planted conditions, with 1 lb. of actual nitrogen per month fertilization, and
with watering when the least drouth tolerant showed the characteristic black color
when wilting starts due to moisture stress. To round this out the grasses were maintained under as uniform and desirable management as was practical.

The width of the leaf on individual plants ranged from 3 to 7 mm. This was
done by selecting several mature leaves in the clone and recording the average of
the measurements. Next the plants were scored for growth habit, prostrate to upright; this measurement offering some idea as to the type rhizome emergence and type
of tillering. Leaf angle, using the third leaf down from the newest formed as a
standard, was scored from narrow to wide, narrow being about 10 degrees and wide
being about 90 degrees. Why?
In a dense stand of turf, leaves of a wide angle
shade other leaves ultimately causing some of the lower leaves to die. A very
narrow leaf angle will probably leave less leaf area following mowing, especially
close mowing.
A crude measure of total spread was then taken by calibrating a scoring device on which the maximum was the spread of the most vigorously spreading type; the
minimum was the spread of the least vigorously spreading type, and the length between was divided into equal increments. A measurement of spread for two directions
was then taken, averaged and recorded as the spread for each plant. This character,
of course, gives one an idea as to the extensiveness of rhizome formation.
Immediately following the above measurement the spread or area covered (that
could be considered dense enough for turf) was measured in a similar manner for each
clone; the correlation of which, with the total spread,score will indicate the relationships of total rhizome vigor with ability to fill in or produce a dense turf.
In early September an individual plant score for rust susceptibility, based
on 107o of the leaves having rust pustules being resistant to 1007o of the leaves
having pustules, was made. The value of such a score needs no explanation.
Now we have a bunch of data - what are we going to do with it? The data
has now been put on I.B.M. cards and an analysis of variance and correlations among
these characters will be computed. From the above analyses the broad-sense heritability of these characters can be obtained and some idea about whether any of
these characters are genetically correlated can be seen. As one can readily see, I
lack considerable work completing this experiment. I hope to be able to report to
you on the products of these analyses in the near future. Meanwhile, the research
on bluegrass is expanding. I'm building on the research work of Lobenstein and
Melkerson, former students.

SOD GROWING NOTES - DISCUSSION
Ray Freeborg, Acting .Secretary
Link's Nursery, St.^Louis, Missouri

Seeds and Seed Control
Seed dormancy in Merion bluegrass has been quite evident in harvested crops
the year of harvesting. It is suggested best to buy or have one year old seed.
There may be a slight loss in viability due to this one year storage period, but
this is offset by the greater total percentage germination.
New selections of bluegrass have developed new problems in sod development
and maintenance. An example would be the clumpy character of several new varieties

that have proven superior in disease resistance, etc. Their sod-forming character is
not so good that good dense sod would be formed. It may be necessary to include
several varieties in one planting to assure the proper sod density. Or, heavier
seeding may be required to correct this problem.
Sod thickness is always of concern to the sod grower. Work completed by Tom
Hodges (see Purdue work) has given support to the development of a sod thickness
that is 3/4" to 1" thick. This thickness permits the newly laid sod to become
attached to the ground more rapidly.
Plant patenting was discussed. The most recent subject is the Scott patent on
the Windsor variety of Poa pratensis. The abstract of this patent is as follows (taken
from government patent No. 2364). Victor A. Renner, Marysville, Ohio, assignor to
The 0. M. Scott 5c Sons Co., Marysville, Ohio, a corporation of Ohio. Filed January 22,
1963, serial number 253,234 1 claim (CI. Pit. 88). "The variety of bluegrass plant,
substantially as shown and described herein, characterized particularly by dark green
color and prolonged retention of color through summer and into fall, dense growth,
less vertical growth, high resistance to common grass diseases, and ability to survive
under drouth conditions."
Vegetative methods of planting some grasses are considered necessary.
grasses would include the Zoysias, hybrid Bermuda and bentgrass clones.

These

One approach to vegetative plants of Zoysia was proposed by Link's Nursery,
St. Louis, Missouri. This method involves the use of two Rogers units. First, the
Aero Blade, a vertical cutting unit, has blades set about 1" apart. This unit is
run over the established Zoysia sod set about 1" to 1-1/2" deep; then again run
over the turf at right angles. The resulting small 1" sod squares are kept moist
and permitted to remain attached to the soil for a one week period. Then, a sodcutter, set to cut about 1/2", is run over the area, skinning the ground and releasing the sod squares. These can be picked up with a shovel and placed in a hopper
spreader, or spread by hand over the area to be planted. The second unit has 3
parts - a tiller, vertical press disks, and a roller.
The small plugs should firmly set into the soil. Water to assure survival
and fertilize to push the grass as desired. Also, a good weed control program,
either pre- or post-emergent should be developed. There are many pre-emergents
that can be worked into this program. We prefer the post-emergent AMA + 2 , 4 - D
at 8 oz. + 1 / 2 ( 4 0 7 o active) 2 , 4 - D as a weed control on Zoysia. This rate may be
too phytotoxic for use on the bents, or bluegrasses.
Another method proposed was that of hydr-seeding, or actually hydro stolonizing. The stolons would be mixed with a mulch, a small amount of fertilizer, and
water. They are then sprayed over the area to be planted.
One problem that should be taken care of involves the mulch wrapping around
the stolons and preventing the stolons from touching the soil. They are then subjected to drying and subsequent loss. This can be corrected where light rolling is
practical. The wet mulch is definite benefit to the stolon establishment. Apreferred treatment was to use mulch after stolons were planted.
Some time was devoted to the discussion of a central body for the development and preservation of foundation planting stock that would be for sale to a potential consumer as sod growers. The need for this is apparent when you see the many
various strains of bentgrass that are sold as Toronto, Cohansey, and Washington.
This is true for the other superior strains of soloniied bents. The certification
program for Evansville Creeping Bentgrass is a desirable step.

An organization, The Sod Growers of Mid-America, formerly the Sod Growers of
Illinois, is interested in many of the problems we have discussed. This group is open
to membership. Information may be received from Mr. Ben Warren, Warren's Turf Nursery,
Palos Park, Illinois.

HUMAN COMFORT OUT-OF-DOORS
James E. Newman, Dept. of Agronomy
Purdue University
What are the conditions that produce human comfort out-of-doors? If you
should ask ten different individuals what each considered to be ideal weather for
being outside, you would probably get ten different answers. Often individual responses will vary according to his or her likes and dislikes for outdoor activities.
Also, there are real differences among individuals as to how each responds to the
weather elements.
To gain some insight, in a scientific way, as to when an individual is comfortable outside, let us examine what constitutes human comfort. First of all,periods
of rainfall can be eliminated, since most people prefer to avoid being all wet, both
figurately and actuvally. Secondly, one must ask what combination of weather elements
produces the kind of outdoor conditions that lead to human comfort and activity. From
recently reported bio-climatological research in Europe, we learn that human comfort
outside is related primarily to four environmental factors, or weather elements. They
are (1) the temperature, (2) the humidity, (3) the amount of sunshine or solar heat
striking a person, and (4) the amount of wind.
Figure I pictorially diagrams how these four major weather elements interact to produce an environment under which various out-of-doors human activities can
take place in comfort. Most individuals are comfortable in a shaded area, out of
the wind, with temperatures between 70 and 80° F., and relative humidity between
20 and 807o. These combinations of sensible temperatures and relative humidities, in
the absence of direct sunlight and wind, are kncwn as the "human comfort zone." This
zone is the same indoors and out. It is represented by a heavy, dark line surrounding the combination of temperatures and humdldities in both Figure I and Figure 2.
In fact, Figure 2 elaborates on some of the ideal pictures in Figure I.
As shown in both Figures, ideal human comfort in average household or street
dress covers a range of temperatures and humidities. This is proof that individuals
vary in their response to environmental factors both indoors and out. Some are socalled warm blooded, while others are more cold-blooded. Thus, each person may require somewhat different combinations of temperatures and humidities for comfort.
This is particularly true when the individual is at rest, or relaxing.
"When temperatures rise into the 80's and 90's a fan or air-conditioning is
needed indoors. Light winds add to human comfort outside when temperatures climb
into the 80's. In fact, a wind is necessary for comfort if humidity stays above 50?o
and the sun is shining. As temperatures drop below 70° F., heat must be added indoors and some direct solar heat is necessary outside for comfort. Temperatures between 50° and 60° under full sunlight are nearly ideal for active sports out-of-doors.

Further, the comfort zone in normal street clothing can drop as low as 45°F.
under full sunshine and little or no wind. Then, too, the comfort zone can shift up
to the low 90's at night under clear skies with light winds and low humidities.
Therefore, Figures 1 and 2 simply relate the proper combination necessary to create
range of environmental conditions out-of-doors.
Figures 3, 4, and 5 illustrates the average percentage of time during the
year that temperatures and humidity relationships can be expected to fall within the
human comfort range. Such illustrations, relating how temperature and humidity vary
throughout the year, are referred to as climographs. These three climographs portray
hourly temperature-humidity distributions during a ten year period for Indianapolis,
Indiana (Figure 3), Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota (Figure 4), and Jacksonville,
Florida (Figure 5).
The human comfort range, as outlined by the double dark lines, has been defined as any combination of temperature and relative humidity between 45 and 9 0 ° F.,
and 20 to 80%. Note the similarity to the percentages of time during the year falling within the defined comfort range at these three widely scattered geographical
locations. At Minneapolis-St. Paul, on the average, 38% of the time during the year
falls within the comfort range. At Indianapolis this value turns out to be 397>,
while at Jacksonville it is 467o of the time. Preliminary calculations show that
these figures seldom fall below the 357o, or go above 507o for any large geographical
location within the continental limits of the 48 states. Therefore, on a yearly
basis, the amount of time one can spend out-of-doors and be comfortable in normal
street or light work dress, does not vary appreciably for most geographical areas in
the United States.
In contrast climates differ greatly on a seasonal basis. It is the seasonal
difference between geographical locations that is so striking. For example, in Figure
4, nearly six months of the year (47 percent) is too cold, or both too cold and too
humid at Minneapolis-St. Paul. However, at Jacksonville only 67> of the year falls in
the same category. Yet, Jacksonville, being a sub-tropical location near the Atlantic
Ocean, has nearly half of the year too hot, or too humid for human comfort. On the
other hand, Minneapolis-St. Paul has only 157o of the time during the year falling in
these same categories. There is as much justification for air conditioning buildings
in Jacksonville as there is for heating systems in Minneapolis.
At Indianapolis (Figure 3) nearly 5 months of the year is too cold or too
humid; another 2 months are too hot or too humid. Yet, all of these seasonal climates
at these assorted geographical locations have between 4 and 5 months of the year falling within the ideal comfort range. For Jacksonville, the season of human comfort
occurs generally during the colder half of the year beginning in October and ending
in late May. At Minneapolis-St. Paul, the out-of-doors season generally begins in
mid-June and extends into late October. The enjoyable out-of-doors season at Indianapolis occurs over a 7 month period beginning in mid-April and lasting through midNovember, with much of July and August being too hot and too humid.
In summary, the nearly ideal human comfort range for out-of-doors weather
conditions occur mainly during the cooler half of the year in the southern areas of
continental United States. Such weather conditions are largely concentrated in the
warmest four to five months in northern continental United States. The ideal out-ofdoors season for comfort and activities are confined to a four or five month period
during late spring and early autumn in the mid-continental United States. The total
length of time during the year when an individual finds comfortable outdoor weather
conditions does not vary greatly from one geographical area to another within the
continental 48 states.

no

100

PROBABLE
HEATSTROKE

ABOVE

THIS

LINE TOO HOT FOR COMFORT,
EVEN WITH WIND

! ABOVE THIS LINE WIND N E E D E D
COMFORTABLE IN CALM SHADE
(INDOORS AND OUT)

<tr

BELOW THIS LINE SUN NEEDED

LÜ

60

BEYOND THIS LINE
- T O O DRY FOR
COMFORT

BEYOND THS LINE
TOO DAMP FOR — 1
COMFORT

BELOW THIS LINE TOO COOL FOR
E V E N IN F U L L S U N L I G H T

20
FREEZING

ÎÏTfVWW

fs Ss - f

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

40

50
HUMIDITY

60
(%)

Figure 2. Bioclimatic chart for determining human comfort conditions out-of-doors as related
to four environmental factors: sensible temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and
wind.

100

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

Figure 1. Heat balance and human comfort outof-doors .

WIND

30

RELATIVE

COMFORT,

SKY

HUMAN COMFORT RANGE
COOL

39 %

a

HUMID

16 '/.

a

TOO
TOO
a

DRY

TOO COLD

22 %

KEEN

10

20

30

40

RELATIVE

50
HUMIDITY

60

70

80

COLD

RAW

90

100

(%)

Figure 3. Climograph for Indianapolis, Ind.: the total distribution for 10 years of hourly
temperature and relative humidity values.

RELATIVE

HUMIDITY

(%)

Figure 4. Climograph for Minneapolis -St. Paul, Minn. : the
total distribution for 10 years
of hourly temperatures and
relative humidity values.

RELATIVE

HUMIDITY

(%)

Figure 5. Climograph for
Jacksonville, Fla.: the total
distribution for 10 years of
hourly temperature and relative humidity values.

T R A I N I N G THE NEXT MAN
Ted Woehrle, Supt., Beverly Country Club
Chicago, Illinois
(Moderator )
Why train the next man? Do you realize that in 1963 there were over 400 golf
courses constructed? It is predicted 'that in 1964 there will be over 600 courses
going into operation. Where do we find qualified men to fill these 1000 or more jobs?
In many cases these positions are not filled by qualified superintendents. It is our
responsibility to help train these men - yours and mine. The universities certainly
play a major role in helping us, but it is still the superintendent that puts the finishing touches on the product - the trainee.
In Philadelphia we were told that in 1970 there will be over 12,000,000
people playing golf. There simply will not be enough golf courses to accommodate
these people. Every club will be over-taxed. More and better ways of growing grass
and keeping it will have to be found. Our job is a big one. The next man does not
necessarily have to be a college man. He may be someone from your present ranks. He
may be a caddy, your son, or some other interested person. It is up to us as individuals of this profession to make sure that we keep our standards high by "training
the next man."
This morning we have the distinct pleasure to have with us three of the top
men in the job of "Training the Next Man." Taylor Boyd - Taylor began in this profession by working for his father in 1920 at the Highland Country Club, Indianapolis.
In 1924 he built the Meridian Hills Country Club in Indianapolis. In all he was responsible for building one 36 hole course and an 18 hole course.
In the middle of the thirties he moved to the Cincinnati area as a golf
course superintendent and remained there until 1962 when he moved to the York Country Club, York, Pennsylvania, as the superintendent. He has been active in this
organization since its inception. He has been a Director for a number of years, and
also served as the President of the Midwest Regional Turf Foundation. Taylor has
been active in the function of his local associations as well as the National. He
is respected by all of us and is looked up to by the younger generation of Golf
Course Superintendents as a man that knows his subject well.

No. 28

March 1964

N E W S A N D RESEARCH
DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY

Electrically Warmed Soils for Sport Turfs--a Progress Report
W. H. Daniel 1/, J. R. Barrett, Jr. 2/ and L. H. Coombs 3/,
Introduction
Under turf conditions most perennial
grasses, including Kentucky turfgrass, tend
to grow continuously except when limited by
climatic extremes. Research indicates that
the continuous use of turf areas is possible in
Indiana, which is within the cool humid region,
by applying supplemental heat to the rootzone
of turfgrass plants. This keeps the soil from
freezing, promotes root growth, keeps the
turf greener and melts snow. Improved turf
conditions would reduce injuries and increase
the precision of late season football and early
season baseball games. Numerous outdoor
activities such as horse racing and golf could
be extended beyond the normal seasons.

prior to sports events. The severe winter of
1962-63 has further stimulated interest in soil
warming in the United Kingdom. Soil warming
systems are used under a few areas for football, rugby, horse and greyhound racing in
England, Scotland and Sweden.
Early Work at Purdue

Investigations to determine the requirements for installation and management of
electric soil-heating cable systems to maintain suitable turf conditions for sports activities during cold weather are being made cooperatively as Agricultural Experiment Station
Project No. 1346 by the Purdue University Departments of Agronomy and Agricultural Engineering, and the Farm Electrification Research Branch, Agricultural Engineering
Escritt of the Sports Turf Research Institute at Bingley, England has reported on test Research Division, Agricultural Research
installations used to determine the feasibility Service, USDA. This research program is
endorsed by the Indiana Electric Association.
of using electric cables to thaw turf areas
1/ Turf Specialist, Purdue Department of
Agronomy.
2/ Agricultural Engineer, Farm Electrification Research Branch, Agricultural Engineering Research Division, ARS, USDA.
3/ Agent (Agricultural Engineer), Purdue
Department of Agricultural Engineering and
USDA (same as 2/ above).

Preliminary soil warming studies were
begun on a 20-by 50-foot plot in February,
1962, to examine the possibilities for a turfheating research program. Variations included (a) comparison of cable coverings including
aluminum, cooper and poly-vinyl chloride on
single conductor cables and poly-vinyl chloride
on dual conductor cables; (b) six different cable

spacings at one cable depth; and (c) use of a
clear plastic ground surface covering. Constant soil heating produced soil temperatures
of 65°F. resulting in excessive bluegrass
growth within a 10-day period in early March,
while unwarmed turf remained dormant on
frozen soil.
Second Phase of the Experiment
After reviewing this work, an improved
experimental facility was designed and installed in late October 1962. The main objectives were to prevent soil freezing and
maintain turf vitality without causing excessive blade growth. Because 20 to 60 watts
of heating capacity for each square-foot are
recommended to promptly melt snow on concrete, snow melting was not considered a
major factor in the 1962-63 studies. The
first winter of research to ascertain the minimum supplementary heat necessary to sustain a thawed soil under a bluegrass turf was
one of the most severe in more than 60years.

Figure 1. The warmer soil areas free of
snow as a February 1963 snow is melting.

Installation: Cable depth grades were
established by removing soil from an area
20 by 60 feet just west of the Agricultural
Engineering Building. Cables were placed
at 4-, 6- and 8-inch depths with spacings of
6,12,18 and 24 inches. This established
wattage densities ranging from 0.8 to 10
watts per square foot. The soil was replaced
and packed, moisture indicating blocks were
installed, soil thermostats were installed at
1-inch depth, power cables were buried and
bluegrass sod was laid over the entire area.
Temperature data was recorded to test
the effectiveness of the controls and to compare heating characteristics of the area covered with 4-mil clear polyethylene with the
uncovered turf areas. Energy consumption,
soil moisture content, rainfall, relative
humidity and snow melting information were
also recorded.
Controls: Soil thermostats installed just
below the sod, at 1-inch depth, did not give
adequate anticipation of changing weather
conditions to keep the turf thawed at all times.
Occasional soil freezing between cables
occurred and was related to a combination
of lack of sensitivity of controls and insufficient power capacity. Uncovered low heat
plots sometimes had one-half inch of frozen
surface crust, but this persisted only in continued cold periods. Late in the season, to
sense abrupt changes in weather, air thermostats were wired in parallel with soil
thermostats allowing either to operate the
cables.
Effect of Plastic Covering: The benefits
of a 4-mil plastic covering, to utilize solar
radiation in warming the turf and to reduce
heat loss by both providing an insulating air
layer over the turf and by acting as a barrier
to reduce wind action, are shown in Figure
2. The temperatures were taken from plots
with 12-inch cable spacings, 6-inch depth

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Covered with plastic
A - S o i l a t l" d e p t h
B-Thatch
Uncovered
C-Soil at 1 depth
D-Thatch
Air
E-At 5'
AM

1/12/63

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D-Thatch
Uncovered
B - S o i l a t I" d e p t h
C-Thatch
Air
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1/25/63
1/13/63

PM

Figure 2. Thatch, 1" depth and air temperatures
over electric soil-heating cables dissipating 1.2
watts/square foot at 12"spacing and 6" depths
during aperiod with no snow cover.
and 1.2-watt-per-square-foot power input.
These temperatures were measured from thermocouples placed on top of the grass mat(thatch)
on both the plastic-covered and the uncovered
plots, 1 inch deep inthe soil midway between two
cables on each plot and in the air at an elevation
of 5 feet. No snow cover existed on January
12-13,1963. Observed benefits of plastic
coverings were:
1. Grass blades did not desicate in cold
dry winds and remained essentially a normal
green even with-20°F. air temperatures. The
continued greeness is readily observable in
color pictures.
2. The plastic covering reduced energy
use on a 10-watt-per-square-foot plot toachieve the same 1-inch soil temperatures as
a corresponding uncovered plot. Energy consumption was not a major consideration with the
lower wattage densities. These cables operated full time through most of the winter .Cables
spaced up to 2 feet and wattage densities as
low as 0.8 watt per square foot kept the soil
thawed throughout the winter.
3. Rooting was earlier and more uniform
under plastic covering.

PM

am

1/26/63

py

Figure 3. Thatch, l"depth and air temperatures
over electric soil-heating cables dissipating 1.2
watts/square foot at 12"spacings and 6 "depths
during a period with 1 to 3"of snow cover.
4. The turf grows more readily as any warm
period arrives, responding much better to sunny
weather and rising air temperatures than control areas.
Some disadvantages of plastic coverings are:
1. Plastic prohibits casual and sight use of
the area.
2. Hot, sunny periods may force unwanted
excess growth.
3. The risk of damage to growing foliage is
increased when the plastic is removed in early
spring. Extra care in management is needed
to remove and replace coverings in variable
spring weather.
4. Disease (leafspot) incubation on leaves
may be favored by unusually high humidity and
warmth under covers.
Effect of Snow Cover: Comparison of
Figure 2 and 3 shows the insulating value of
the 1 to 3 inches of snow cover that was on
the plots during the period January 25-26.
Similar to Figure 2, temperatures for Figure
3 were taken from 12-inch cable spacing, 6inch depth and 1.2-watt-per-square-foot power

Figure 4. Temperatures at l depth and 5 in the air over soil-heating cables dissipating 10
watts/square foot at 6" spacing and 6" depth and cables dissipating 1.2 watts/square foot at
12 spacing and 6" depth with no plastic covering.
f,

1

M

input. Under snow the temperatures show that
both plots were less responsive to changes in air
temperature and solar radiation than without snow cover (Figure 2). Snow pressure
reduced the air layer under the plastic nearly
eliminating the heat saving benefits of this
barrier. The thatch temperatures under these
conditions were esseantially the same as the
frozen mass on top of the plastic.
Figure 4 shows temperatures at 1 -inch
depth in a 10-and a 1.2-watt-per-square-foot
uncovered plot, and of the air 5 feet over the
plots. The period from January 11 through
26 includes the times shown in Figure 2 and
3.
The poly-vinyl chloride insulated heating
cable in the 10-watt-per-square-foot plot was
at 6-inch depth and 6-inch spacing. The
thermostat for this plot was set to maintain
the 1-inch soil temperature at 45°-55°F.
Similarly insulated cable was used at 6-inch
depth and 12-inch spacing in the 1.2-watt per-square-foot plot. In the latter the thermostat caused the cable to operate full time

during the time interval shown in Figure
4.
Effect of Cable Depths: There was little
observed difference in soil or turf condition
above cables 4, 6 and 8 inches deep. Safety,
protection from mechanical damage and
cable laying methods would be considerations
in depth selection.
Turf and Rootzone Benefits: Soil warming
offers valuable rootzone benefits . A freshcut sod placed in non-warmed areas November
10, 1962 developed almost no new roots before
winter. On heated soil new root extension was
3 to 5 inches by December 31 and was uniformly 5 inches by the end of February. By April
1 the new white, active roots were 9 inches
deep in warmed areas, but only 5 inches deep
in unwarmed areas . Such extensions provided
new sources of nutrients and assured minimum damage from drouth or damage in use.
Continued top growth, well into late fall and
again in early spring, was readily noticed.
One watering of new sod on the heated area
was required during a dry period in early
December.

Temperatures barely sufficient to keep
rootzones thawed and porous did not produce
obvious top growth until early March, 3 weeks
ahead of unwarmed turf. Higher heat inputs
to maintain 1-inch soil temperatures above
45°F. favored top growth in winter and late
winter. Wattage densities of 10-watts-persquare-foot were adequate to keep the turf
unfrozen at all times. Soil temperatures
above 55°F. forced growth even during extended severly cold weather.

supported on the tips of the blades. The rate
of heat transfer through this region was re duced sufficiently to greatly slow additional
snow melting. As a general observation, removal of heavy snow by machinery would favor quick turf clearance, if needed.
Heavy-Use Area Installation--19 63-64

Five plots, each 10 by 120 feet, separated by 10 feet of unheated area, were
installed in the Purdue varsity football
practice field in August 1963.
Poly-vinyl chloride insulated, nylon jacketed, electric heating cables were laid 6 inches
deep under existing sod using a modified
sub-soiling tool. Wattage densities are 2.5,
4.5 and 9.0 watts per square foot with cables
spaced at 7-1/2 and 15 inches. Soil thermoThe additional root development and the
stats, air thermostats and time-clock switches
continued tiller and rhizome development
included in the control circuits. The indicate improved playability for warmed turf are
effectiveness
of the heat treatments will be
areas. The warmed areas were never muddy, evaluated considering
power consumption,
super-wet or slick from frost action. In
temperatures and turf condition of the five
fact, when snow melted on adjacent areas
plots and control area. The results of this
the warmed plots served as a drain to remove endeavor
to more effectively apply supple excess surface water from surrounding
mentary
heat
to turf using electric soil-heatfrozen areas.
ing cables with improved control systems will
The absence of observable disease or turf be reported later.
damage and continuous unfrozen soil condition under the sod are very encouraging considering the low-wattage densities under
most of the trial area.
Sharp drops to low temperatures caused
some tip damage to leaf blades of rapidly
growing grass. Interestingly, warmed turf
areas produced seedheads 6 weeks earlier
than unwarmed areas indicating crown growth
through the winter period. After soil warming was stopped, all uncovered turf areas
looked normal in density and uniformity.

Snow Removal: Although snow removal
was not a major factor in these studies, observations concerning this were made. In
the plots with heat applied at 10-watts-persquare-foot, the snow melted rapidly when
air temperatures were above 15°F. At lower air temperatures melting was slower, although the soil remained thawed and the turf re mained green. Bridging of snow presented a
problem in snow melting. Snow in the lower
blade region of the turf would melt, leaving
an air pocket with a crust of snow or ice

Figure 5. The Purdue varsity practice
field, January 1964.

Summary
Turf areas warmed with electric soilheating cables improved playability and had
increased root growth during the winter, had
extended growth period in the fall, had earlier
growth in the spring and, in high-wattage
areas, had growth throughout the winter.
Plastic coverings over warmed areas reduced
the electric energy required, maintained

__

,_

j .

Midwest Regional Turf Foundation
Purdue University
Lafayette, Indiana 47907

greenness in leaf blades and favored growth.
However, extra attention to remove and replace covers to avoid excessively high temperatures and disease buildup was necessary
during variable spring weather.
Having narrowed the design parameters in
earlier work, a 5 plot heavy-usç area installation in a Purdue football practice field is
now being studied.

Non-Profit Org.
u

s

P o s t a g e

PAID
Permit No. 121
Lafayette, Ind.

TRAINING A NEW MAN
Taylor Boyd, Supt., York Country Club
York, Pennsylvania

Training a new man as superintendent of a golf club is a two-way road. If
the trainer is qualified to train a young man in the art and profession of producing
the world's finest turf he will learn as much as the man he is training - sometimes
more. The trainer should make very sure the trainee is a gentleman first and foremost. He should be honest, have integrity, humility and a will to succeed.
The above statement is true more so today than ever before, because in the
highest places in government and business there seems to be a growing disregard for
honesty and integrity. This must not ever become a part of our profession. Also,
there seems to be too many men who take the "Let George Do It" attitude in their
xtfork.
The Agronomy Colleges today are doing a fine job of teaching some very excellent young men who learn the technical aspects of turf. Colleges, for the most
part, are not equipped to give the turf man the "on-the-job" training that is necessary. This can be done only on the golf course, under playing conditions, and in
the approximate area in which the trainee expects to work as superintendent.
The trainer always has the question of who is trainable. My experience has
shown me, over many years, that the trainee who gets to work on time or before, never
is in too much of a hurry to go home, works on Saturday, Sunday and nights without
grumbling is a good prospect. From there on, his personal appearance, quality of
work he does, seeing things to do, his general mental ability and attitude are very
important. I, personally, have never had any question as to whether a young man
could do the job if I recommended him. I have wondered if he would. So far I've
been lucky - they all have.
There are some - very few - college men who expect "the world with a fence
around it" on his first job as superintendent before he has proven he is a golf
course superintendent in the truest sense of the meaning.
Last and most important - the young college man is full of spirit and drive.
The teacher must very carefully control the young spirit and teach him not to go too
fast, but for goodness sake because you are cider and experienced don't kill his
spirit - you may learn something - I have.

TRAINING THE NEXT MAN
Robert M. Williams, Supt., Bob O'Link Golf Course
Highland Park, Illinois

Motivation
My education as a golf course superintendent has been aided through the training I received from such men as Professor Dickinson, Norm Johnson and John McCoy.
They had very strong convictions towards their own obligations to train superintendents

for the future. I feel most privileged, fortunate, and grateful for their assistance.
So, with such a background, it is only natural that I should assist others. In
addition, I feel that each of us should attempt to put something back into the wonderful world of golf to make this form of recreation even more attractive and regarding
in the future to both the golfing public and to those who will find careers in the
golf industry.
Statistics
We have had 31 in on-the-job training at Bob O'Link Golf Club over the last
15 years. The statistics on these 31 young men are rather interesting:
2
6
13
9
1

high school graduates, no university training
10-week short course students
2-year Turf Management students
4-year students with Agronomy degrees
Master's degree in Agronomy

Of these same 31, their present status shows:
11
9
3
4
4

Now hold positions as superintendents
Still in process of training, or in school
Are now assistant superintendents
In Military service
Related fields, industry, parks, etc.

Of additional interest is the fact that 4 of our student trainees have been the sons
of golf course superintendents.
Objectives
Our training program starts basically from four points. First, the club
needs a staff of good workmen. Secondly, the hopeful young students from the universities need practical experience under the older superintendents. Third, I have
a strong desire to return something back into golf, and finally fourth to try at
the same time to elevate the golf course superintendent's profession for the future.
Procurement
With these objectives in mind, I find a real harmonious and regarding relationship for the student, for the club, for the universities and for myself, by
participating in on-the-job training. This participation is initiated through close
contact with the various turf schools, such as Purdue, Iowa, Penn State, Massachusetts and Rutgers. This is usually accomplished through personal conversation
with men like Dr. Daniel, Dr. Duich and others at the International Turfgrass Conference, or at regional meetings. These teachers make recommendations to me on prospective student trainees and appreciate being kept in the picture of job placement
for their students.
We use students from any of the 10-week, 2-year or 4-year schools. The 10week boys are able to work with us full time except for January, February and March.
The 2-year students are available for work from about the 1st of April to the 1st of
October. The 4-year students are only available for work during June, July and
August. We have used as many as 6 students at one time, but found this to be somewhat topheavy and restricted myself and my assistant from giving the boys enough personal time in day to day discussions. In our present evaluation we feel that three
apprentice superintendents at one time is about the optimum for us.

Terms of Employment
The students receive an hourly rate the same as our regular labor, currently
$ 1.75 per hour. We also have a dormitory room available for up to four students,
although most of the young men prefer to live away from the club where they can enjoy
more personal freedom. Students are given the opportunity to work at the many various
tasks that are required in turf maintenance so as to give them a well-rounded acquaintance with all phases of the job. This includes everything such as mowing of all
areas, fertilizing,chemical applications, cup placement, trap raking, and all the 101
other jobs that need doing. As for night watering, each student works approximately
four weeks on this job for which he receives an additional 50$ per hour.
Management
Another area of primary concern in the training program is the administrative and management responsibilities they will have to face in the future. We employ
several means to teach this all important subject. First, we give each trainee copies
of all of our communications between the club and myself, such as our annual budget,
progress reports and financial reports. Each student also takes his turn as Recorder
for our daily maintenance diary which makes him more aware of the over-all operation.
We keep our planning charts and chemical application charts on the shop wall so that
everyone has access to them. Fertilizer records and records of expenditures are
available to the boys at any time. We also have large files of educational materials
so that the boys can check out a subject in after hours study. Another management
aid for the trainee is demonstrated by having our daily work schedule posted on our
shop blackboard with an explanation to the entire crew each morning before we start
work. Another daily ritual, prior to starting work, is a joint inspection of the
turf on a green and fairway affecting decisions for the day's operations.

Job Descriptions
We have had considerable success in having the students write out job descriptions for the various tasks that they perform. For instance, our procedure for
night watering, fertilizing, changing cups, and many other jobs has been completely
written up in story form to pass along to the next man. So, when new students start
with us they can review our procedure and techniques for most of the important assignments about the course. This saves in training and keeps improving upon the methods
used. I try to make a point of asking questions of the boys to see if we are getting
through to them. We encourage their questions as well.

Term of Training
We find that two years is about ideal for an apprentice to stay with us.
Then, the student superintendent should advance along to a position with more responsibility such as a foreman, assistant superintendent, or as a superintendent at
a club where the standard of maintenance is not too demanding. Even the four year
student graduates are not ready for a demanding position as a superintendent until
they have had time and experience in getting their feet on the ground.

Finding Future Employment
What about the procedure for these young men of finding employment? The
problem lies not so much in finding jobs as in training the student so that his
-58-

natural youthful impetuousness does not get him too far out on the limb before he is
ready, We have a greater supply of job opportunities at this time than we have qualified men to fill them. Consequently, clubs keep asking the universities to send them
their graduates. Fortunately, the universities are advising and expecting their students to get some practical experience before assuming the duties of a superintendent.
When a club is hiring a superintendent today they seem to go in one of two
directions - either they try to find a middle-aged man with a good reputation (for
which they are willing to pay a premium salary), or hire a young man who has attended
one of the turf management schools, received some on-the-job training, and who appears
to have a good potential. Of course, the student superintendent comes much less expensive and this is a factor with many clubs. Another point here is that when a good
club is hiring an experienced man, they usually have to "pirate" him from another
club. To avoid any local embarrassment on this score, clubs frequently will hire a
good experienced superintendent from some other area.
Getting back to our own students at Bob O'Link, we have more requests from
clubs than we can possibly supply. We can only count on about one each year being
ready to go onto additional responsibility.
Many of the boys must go into military
service, and also, some of them only spend one season with us and go on to complete
their training at some other club.
Results
Generally speaking, the results of improved training of the golf course superintendents are today quite obvious and our educational programs have gained considerable impetus since the war years. More superintendents are accepting more students
for training today. The golfers are playing on better golf turf and better managed
courses as a result of continued and improved educational programs for superintendents.
I notice, too, that the golfing public is much more aware of the general advances and
upgrading of our profession and the science of course maintenance.
Our training program at Bob O'Link has had enthusiastic reception by our
Greens Committee, Board of Directors and membership. Without any question, student
superintendents taking on-the-job training are a considerable asset to me personally
and to the club. At the same time it is quite evident that the students who have
trained with us have profited too. Most of you have had experience with teenagers
either as youw own sons, or as employees and you know that it takes a certain amount
of patience and understanding to get along with them. In a training program one
must expect to give time to explanations, questions and character building. This
effort on the part of the superintendent is well repaid with a higher calibre staff
who are much more versatile and capable than run-of-the-mill labor.
All of the students do not pass our requirements with flying colors. When
discharge has been the last resort, we have taken time to explain the reason to the
student. We try to impress upon him that basic principles are a must in any endeavor.
While there have been a few disappointments, there have been many wonderful successes.
There is a great deal of satisfaction for my assistant and myself in watching these
young men who will be the superintendents of tomorrow, as they come along through
the universities, then through on-the-job training and eventually proving themselves
on a job of their own.
Summary
Dr. Fred Grau ably summarized the whole training subject matter in the October '63 issue of Golfdom. It was so well done by Fred that it needs repeating and I
feel it appropos for my summary: "It seems that the few turf schools in the country

cannot possibly train enough young men eventually to fill the positions that are opening. It has been said many times that a man freshly graduated from a turf school is
not qualified as a superintendent unless he had experience before taking over a course
Most graduates need on-the-job training."
When a good superintendent moves to a new course where the salary is higher
and benefits greater, it still is common practice to advance the tractor driver, or
the mechanic to his position whether or not he is qualified to assume the responsibili
ties of a superintendent. To this day we do not have enough men who are comfortably
able to take gua±s to the clubhouse for lunch, to meet with the Greens Committee,
successfully defend their proposals and to command the respect of pro, manager and
club officials. Being a superintendent carries the responsibility of far more than
growing grass. He must train himself so well on every subject that he will have no
hesitation in "selling" a good program.
Let each man in this field ask himsejf: "Do I have a promising young man who
deserves to be trained for the profession?" We need not only to train our own replacements, but to provide for the hundreds of new openings."

TURF STRESS - WARM AND HOT CONDITIONS
James M. Latham, Jr., Agronomist
Milorganite Turf Service, Milwaukee, Wisconsin

This discussion involves a few of the known factors of stress on cool season
grasses during hot weather. We are all familiar with the various occurrences, but a
review of them can help us to better understand them and thereby reduce the hazard
to turf during the coming season.
It is well known that roots of cool season grasses become shallow during
hot weather. Wilt is familiar to all - both under moist and dry conditions. Just
what this relationship involves has prompted the research to be reviewed. Reported
in 1939, Brown's work in Missouri examined loss of roots in the summer. He reported that Kentucky bluegrass grew best north of the 60° Fahrenheit isotherm. It
shewed little vigor in July and August, whereas Canada bluegrass was less affected
by heat.
Brown noted good Kentucky bluegrass regrowth after defoliation at a temperature of 60° F.
At 80° F. regrowth "was poorer, and at 100° F. many plants died
within 6 weeks. Other workers were quoted that little growth occurred when, soil temperatures were below 42° F. Rapid growth occurred between 42° and 47° when adequate
nitrogen was present. Above 47° good growth was seen regardless of the nitrogen
level.
Carbohydrate storage is reduced as temperatures rise. This is due to continuation of respiration at temperatures too high for photosnythesis to take place.
Brown found that the best temperature for top growth was between 80° and 90° F.
The best rhizome development occurred at 60° F. Chlorophyll in leaves was lost between 40° and 50° F. After a week at 100° F. growth stopped. Roots made maximum
growth at 60°, declining at lower and higher temperatures. But, when air temperature was 100° and sroil temperature was kept at 70°, the plants produced good top
growth.

Stuckey (1941) working with Colonial bentgrass, made several references to
various plants that made good growth at high air temperatures, provided the roots were
kept cool. She reported that at high soil temperatures, roots matured more rapidly.
Her conclusion was that at lower temperatures plant roots matured more slowly and
hence remained more vigorous for a longer period of time. Plant death at high temperatures was due to maturity and death of the root system and the consequent stress
on plant tops.
Brown (1943) reported also that maximum Kentucky bluegrass root growth
occurred in April. In the fall, the most rapid growth began in September. After
mid-June few new roots formed and there was no appreciable growth of existing roots
until October.
Without irrigation bluegrass root growth reduction is soon followed by a reduction in top growth. Irrigation in mid-summer did not influence root growth, but
did accelerate decomposition of older roots. This seemed to exert a beneficial
effect, since these plots produced more herbage - even during the spring and fall
when moisture was abundant in all plots. Summer irrigation, naturally, produced
more clover and weed growth than in the non-irrigated plots.
He states that where summer drouth is short and not too severe, bluegrass
plants were probably protected from excessive depletion of stored food reserves. Fall
drouths were said to be altogether harmful because they inhibited root and rhizome
growth as well as food storage during periods otherwise favorable for such development.
Stored carbohydrate was decreased when turf was irrigated during the summer.
Mowing at reasonable height had little effect on carbohydrate storage. Storage of starch and sugar proceeded almost as rapidly during the autumn in the rhizomes
of closely (1") mowed grass as in that which was not cut at all from May until November. He summarized that storage of organic food reserves in perennial grasses is
essential to their normal functioning. Excessive carbohydrate production in the
spring and fall is stored in the roots and rhizomes. During the late spring and
summer there is a net loss of these reserves, Irrigation in the summer does not
help prevent this loss. Reserves are also used during foliation in the spring.
Stuckey classified forage plants into annual and perennial root system
groups. If the maximum production of roots occurred during the first year and they
remained functional for more than one year, they were called perennial. If new root
systems were formed every year, they were classes as annual.
Annual root systems

Perennial root systems

Timothy
Redtop
Meadow fescue
Poa trivialis
Perennial ryegrass
Colonial bentgrass

Kentucky bluegrass
Canada bluegrass
Orchardgrass
Crested wheatgrass

Beard's work reported at this Conference from 1958-60 showed similar root
growth patterns in creeping bentgrasses. He found satisfactory root growth at 80° F.
but only half as much at 90° F, Clipping reduced growth to more than half that in
uncut treatments.
60°
70°
80°
90°

-

Best top growth and root growth
Most root branching
Fastest initial root growth
Very slow root growth

Growth was temporarily stopped if tops were severely cut back.
He suggested that soil temperature at a 6" depth was a major factor in predicting variation in root numbers. This indicates that soil temperature is probably
the major factor in root development, or loss. It is the most consistent environmental factor controlling root growth. Light was secondary, but measurement facility
was questioned. Soil moisture was of poor correlation since putting green plots were
kept near field capacity at all times.
Jordan, reporting his work here in 1958 and 1959, showed that temperature was
a primary influence in plant sugar production.
If high temperature is a factor in reducing a root system, what happens when
other parts of the plant are subjected to demands for water? Since this is due to
transpiration, we should consider what affects the transpiration of water from plants.
Solar radiation, humidity, temperature, wind movement, soil conditions influencing
water availability, and atmospheric pressure all play a part in the amount of water
given off by a plant.
Solar radiation caused plant pores or stomata to open. Most moisture is
lost through these openings. They do not open at night. Humidity affects the diffusion of water vapor out of the pores. It is thought that the higher the humidity
the slower a plant will transpire. Temperature reaction is direct when in sunlight.
Wind effects are far from simple. We assume that wind movement increases
evaporation. This is true if, in a still atmosphere, vapor given off by a leaf remains in the surrounding air and slows transpiration by increasing humidity. In
nature, however, the air is seldom perfectly still. Another effect of wind movement
is its twisting and bending effect on leaves. This movement constricts and squeezes
leaf cells and forces the vapor from the leaf. A gentle wind is more efficient because high winds are thought to close sfomata. The cooling effect of wind also tends
to slow transpiration.
Soil conditions influencing transpiration are water availability, soil temperature, aeration and the solute concentration in the soil water. These may be
direct or indirect, and as we have seen, may be due to their effect on the root system.
Atmospheric pressure has a minor role, but could influence the rate of evaporation. Under reduced pressure, plants can be expected to give up their water more
readily.
Wilting occurs when plants lose their turgidity. This may happen in either
wet or dry soils, as a result of higher transpiration than water imbibition. The
totalvolume of water in the plant shrinks, although not equal in all tissues. The
greatest loss is in the leaf cells.
There are several stages of wilting. On some days visible wilting does not
occur at all, but incipient wilting is frequent. This corresponds to only partial
loss of turgor by leaf cells. It is during such periods of incipient wilt that damage can be done by spray applications of even faintly caustic materials. Irrigation
practices based directly on transpiration are syringing to cool the surface during
hot weather, and irrigating in the early spring when soils are still cold, but air
temperatures are high.
Roberts, reporting Iowa State work at the Wisconsin Turf Conference, said that
during high temperatures (120° F.) fertility played a major role in bluegrass health.

High nitrogen alone, with phosphorus, or both phosphorus and potassium, were detrimental. Potassium with high nitrogen had some stabilizing influence. This, of course,
is noted in all cool season plants that are allowed to become over-succulent during the
summer through uncontrolled fertilization practices.
Over-succulence and weakened plant cells are ripe for attack by many disease
organisms. It is during summer periods that Pythium, brownpatch and leafepot diseases
are most prevalent. Traffic damage during the summer may not be a primary problem,
but secondary. Both traffic and disease problems are more severe when the plants are
weakened than during periods of active growth.
Since we can do nothing (yet) about the primary cause of weakness due to reduced root systems, we can do many things to reduce damage from other causes:
1. Develop the best possible root systems during periods of maximum growth spring and fall. Aeration, adequate fertilization and proper mowing heights
are most important.
2. Keep moisture additions to a minimum on bluegrass during hot weather. It may
be best to wait for signs of wilt before irrigation. Merion bluegrass and
Penncross bent tees perform beautifully as long as moisture is not oversupplied.
3. Manage hot weather fertilization to prevent over-availability of nitrogen.
Nothing should be left to the vagaries of nature, or theoretical formulations.
Adequate applications of fertilizers should be used in the spring and fall, but
excess residual should be avoided. Periodic, light applications should be used
to allow the turf manager to remain in control of growth during the stress period.
4.

Maintain adequate, but not excessive levels of all other plant nutrients.

5. Assure good air movement across turf areas, especially putting greens.
6.

Provide adequate sunlight, especially in the morning, to promote optimum
growth of the grasses.

By making the most of the optimum growing periods, the plants will be better
able to withstand stress during hot summer weather. A capable turf manager will consider all facets of plant growth and not simply react to a specific condition that
crops up during a particular phase of growth. In so doing he is making his job easier
and removing some of the stress on himself.
References
1. Brown, E. Marion, "Some Effects of Temperature on the Growth and Chemical Composition of Certain Pasture Grasses." University of Missouri Research Bulletin 299,
April, 1939.
2.
, "Seasonal Variations in the Growth and Chemical Composition of
Kentucky Bluegrass." University of Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 360, March 1943.
3. Proceedings, Midwest Turf Conference - 1959, 1960, 1961.
4. Stuckey, Irene H., "Seasonal Growth of Grass Roots." American Journal of Botany
Vol. 28, No. 6, June, 1941.
5.
Bentgrass."

, "Influence of Soil Temperature on the Development of Colonial
Plant Physiology, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1942.

CEREAL LEAF BEETLE
A New Insect Pest in Indiana
M. Curtis Wilson and Glenn E. Lehker
Department of Entomolgoy
The cereal leaf beetle is Indiana's
newest insect pest. Not since the European
corn borer invaded the State over 30 years
ago has a new imported insect presented so
great a potential for damage to cereal grains.
Where did it come from? What crops
will it attack, and how serious could the
damage be? How will farmers be able to
recognize the beetle? What are its habits
and life cycle? And what can farmers do to
protect their crops from attack?
Research entomologists are finding
answers to these and other questions about
the cereal leaf beetle. This publication
briefly relates what we know at this time.
Chemical control measures that will protect a crop have been found and Purdue's
recommendations are given.
ITS INVASION AND SPREAD

The cereal leaf beetle is the first important insect pest to be introduced directly
into the Midwest from the old world. How it
got here is not certain--maybe by ship
coming down the St. Lawrence Seaway or
by trans-continental airplane flying directly
to Chicago or Detroit. In any case the fact
that the beetle reached the midlands first
causes entomologists to be concerned about
the potential effects "jetage" travel may
have on bringing in new insect problems .
DESCRIPTION
Adult
The adult is a hard-shelled beetle,
measuring only 3/16 inch long. Its wing
covers and head are metallic bluish-black,
while its legs and front segment of its thorax
(just behind the head) are reddish-orange.
i

Egg

The cereal leaf beetle, Oulema
melanopa (L.), has been a serious pest of
small grains in certain parts of Europe and
Asia for many years. In that time, it has
adapted itself to a wide range of climatic
conditions--from Siberia and the Scandinavian countries southward to Spain, Italy
and North Africa. Now the beetle has found
its way to North America, and more specifically, to southern Michigan and nothern
Indiana.

Newly-laid eggs are elliptical, yellow
and smaller than a pin head. Before hatching, they turn almost black. Eggs are deposited singly or in rows of up to three or
four, but never in clusters. They are
usually found close to the mid-rib on the
upper surface of leaves of a host plant. An
exception is corn, where eggs are often
laid on the underside of leaves.

It was first identified here in 1962,
in an area 15 to 25 miles west and northwest of South Bend. A year later, it was
found in 25 Indiana counties, 15 counties in
Michigan and even in 6 counties of northwestern Ohio.

The larva is slightly longer than the
adult and resembles a slug. Although its
skin is actually yellow to yellowish-brown,
the larva's black, slugs-like appearance
is due to a moist glob of fecal material

Larva

which it deposits on its back. The only
time a larva is found without this excrement is immediately after a molt.
Pupa
The pupa, or inactive stage, is also
yellow to yellowish-brown. However, the
pupa is rarely seen, because it is encased
under the soil surface in an earthen cell
which the larva builds before pupation.
LIFE CYCLE AND HABITS
Cereal leaf beetle adults over-winter,
usually in clusters, wherever they can find
shelter--under the loose bark of trees, in
old corn stalks leaves, in the cracks of
fence posts, in chaff on the ground. However, they are found in greatest numbers
in hedgerows or tree and shrub borders
surrounding cultivated fields.
In the spring, usually when temperatures get above 60°, the beetles come out
of hibernation to feed. They first attack
wild grasses, such as quackgrass and
orchardgrass, near their hibernation spots.
Then they fly to fields of winter wheat and
winter barley. (Cereal leaf beetles are
strong flying insects . They have been collected as high as 1, 000 feet above the ground
in traps attached to an airplane.) When
spring oats emerge, the beetles quickly infest the young plants, where they both feed
and lay their eggs.
This spring feeding period before egg
laying is normally about 2 weeks. With
warm weather, the eggs hatch in 5 days,
and the larvae develop in the next 10 days.
It is the larvae that do the worst crop damage.
Before pupating, the larvae rest for a
day or two on the leaves of host plants. Then
they descend into the top 2 inches of soil,
where they form pupal cases and change into

adults. The pupal stage usually lasts about
2 to 3 weeks before the new beetles emerge.
The new summer adults first seek
food. In Michigan and Indiana, they feed
mostly on corn, which at that time is about
knee high and the only grain that is young
and succulent. After feeding for about 2
weeks, the beetles go into summer hibernation for the rest of the season. As fall
and winter approach, they work their way
into deep cover for winter hibernation.
As nearly as research entomologists
can determine, the cereal leaf beetle has
only one generation per year in the field.
However, under caged conditions, fieldcollected larvae have produced adults
which, in turn, produced a second generation. Most of the spring adults die in
June after they lay their eggs. But in
Europe, beetles have been reported to live
through a second season.
Weather's Effect on the Life Cycle
Weather has a tremendous influence
on how fast the cereal leaf beetle goes
through its life cycle. This was evident in
the spring of 1963--a season of great
fluctuation for the infested area of southwestern Michigan and northern Indiana.
Temperatures were in the 80 s as early as
late March and fell to below freezing as
late as mid-May.
f

Beetles were observed coming out of
hibernation on March 27, and eggs were
found on April 6. But no hatch occurred
until May 2, and then did not reach a peak
until 3 weeks later. Egg laying continued
into June.
Both egg laying and hatching extended
over about an 8-week period. And larvae
were found in the field for the same length
of time, some requiring more than 3 weeks
to develop. In fact, all stages of the cereal

leaf beetle's life cycle--egg, larva, pupa
and adult--could be found as late as June.
Emergence of adults from the pupal
stage also occurred over an extended period
in 1963. The first beetles came out in early
June and were already going into summer
hibernation before the last new adults emerged. Peak of emergence was reached betweenjune25 and July 1, but new adults were
still found up to late July.
HOST PLANTS
The cereal leaf beetle appears to
feed only on plants of the grass family.
Though it will feed on wild and cultivated
grasses, such as orchardgrass, quackgrass
and timothy, it prefers the small grains -especially oats and barley. In the laboratory, it did not survive on sorghum or pearl
millet.
While corn is not a preferred host,
the insect can develop on it. However, in
the present infested area, corn is planted
too late to be threatended by the larvae.
Summer adults feed on corn, but the plants
appear to outgrow this damage.
The cereal leaf beetle also prefers
young, succulent plants. For example, in
Purdue research experiments, twice as
many eggs were found on oats 4 inches high
as on oats 8 inches high. This means that,
in Indiana, the beetle is a much greater
threat to the spring-seeded oats than to the
winter-seeded wheat or barley. However,
it will infest the latter two, and if abundant,
will cause loss in yield.
DAMAGE
Both adults and larvae cause damage
by feeding on the host crop. The adult beetles
eat longitudinal slits between the veins and
completely through the leaves, and may kill

the plant. The larvae eat only the outer surface of leaves, giving them a silver cast and
the whole field a frosted appearance before
the plants die.
In Europe, crop loss to the cereal
leaf beetle has been reported as high as 25
to 50 percent. In Michigan, damage was so
severe to several fields in 1962 that the
fields were plowed under. And in 1963, a
few fields in Indiana were plowed under because growers felt they weren't worth saving.
CONTROL MEASURES
Areas of Research
Michigan, Indiana, Ohio and the U.S .
Department of Agriculture are cooperating
to find ways of controlling the cereal leaf
beetle and preventing loss to small grains.
Through research, entomologists have already found chemicals that will protect crops
from attack. However, the scientists are exploring other control measures to limit the
need for chemicals.
For example, studies are underway
to develop resistant small grain varieties,
to find and import natural enemies of the
beetle, and to investigate the use of chemical
sterilants and radiation as means of bringing
the insect into balance with nature.
Insecticides Found Effective
In 1963, two insecticides were found
to give satisfactory control against the cereal
leaf beetle--carbaryl (Sevin) and malathion.
Carbaryl is preferred because it kills the
egg as well as larva and adult, and because
it retains its "killing power" for 2 to 3
weeks. Malathion is effective only against
the larva and adult in the field and only at
the time it is applied. Beetles flying into
the field 2 days after application are not
controlled.

CARBARYL (SEVIN) IS NOT REGISTERED FOR USE TO CONTROL THE
CEREAL LEAF BEETLE AT THE TIME OF
WRITING THIS PUBLICATION. However,
it is expected to be registered some time in
the spring of 1964.
When and How to Spray
Below are the malathion and carbaryl
formulations and rates to use and the recommended time of application for best control.
In most cases, one application of
carbaryl will be sufficient. However, in
areas of heavy infestation (presently, only
in parts of LaPorte and St. Joseph counties),
an early application on oats soon after
emergence may be necessary to protect the
seedlings from adult beetles.

More than one application of malathion is probably needed in heavily infested
fields. Wheat, oats and barley can be sprayed with malathion up to 7 days of grazing or
harvesting.
REGULATION OF INFESTED AREAS
To help prevent the spread of the
cereal leaf beetle, infested areas in Indiana,
Michigan and Ohio are regulated under
quarantines established in accordance with
state laws. This means that many commodities moving out of these regulated
areas must be certified as cereal leaf beetlefree. In Indiana, this regulatory action is
enforced by the Entomology Division of the
State Department of Conservation in Indianapolis .

Insecticide and
formulation

Amount to use

When and how to apply

Malathion
emulsifiable
concentrate

One lb. actual toxicant per
acre (e.g., 1/5 gal. of a 5 lb.
per gal. concentrate).

Carbaryl (Sevin)
50% wettable powder
OR
% flowable powder

One lb. actual toxicant per
acre (e.g., 2 lbs. of 50%
wettable powder or 1 1/4
lbs. of 80% flowable powder).
For best control, ADD sticker WC-130 (Union Carbide)
at 2 oz. per lb. of Sevin.

Spray infested crop when many
small larvae present or when
they average about one larva
per stem.
If using weed-type sprayer,
apply with 10 to 12 gals, water
per acre.
If airplane spraying, apply with
1 gal. water per acre. Low
level flying necessary when
applying malathion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank J. J. Favinger, State Entomologist, and others of the Entomology Division, Indiana Department of Conservation, for their assistance and loan of the
color plates used in this publication.
Much of the information presented here was obtained through cooperative research
with entomologists at Michigan State University.