PROCEEDINGS
of

TURF CONFERENCE
1966
Sponsored by the

and

PURDUE UNIVERSITY
LAFAYETTE, INDIANA

March 7-9, 1966

-

m

PROCEEDINGS OF THE
1966
MIDWEST REGIONAL TURF CONFERENCE

The 38 talks included in these Proceedings are condensations of talks byspeakers before sections and divisions of the 1966 M.R.T.F. Conference. We appreciated the willingness of the speakers to participate and prepare material for
your reading. See Table of Contents next page. Proceedings of each annual Conference since 1948 have been prepared. A limited number of 1962, 1963, 1964 and
1965 Proceedings are available at price below.
A copy of these Proceedings were mailed to:
1.

The 635 attending the 1966 Midwest Turf Conference.

2.

One person of each member organization within the Midwest
Regional Turf Foundation not represented at the Conference.

3.

List of those in educational activities.

Additional copies are available at $ 1.00 each from:

W. H. Daniel, Executive Secretary
Midwest Regional Turf Foundation
Department of Agronomy, Purdue University
Lafayette, Indiana 47907

Check beloxtf for special articles suggested for first reference as based on your
major interest.
For Lawns - first see articles starting on pages
4, 9, 13, 20, 24, 26, 40, 53, 62, 69, 89

For Sod Production - first see pages
4, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 40, 43, 53, 54, 62, 72, 74, 82

For Golf Courses - all including pages
4, 9, 13, 16, 34, 42, 62, 84, 86.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paq-e
President's Report .•....•...«.•.•••.•.•••.••.«.•..••*•

3
3

Does Your Turf Use Everything You Feed It?.
Turfgrass Research in the Pacific Northwest...........
British & American Turfgrass Disease Problems.........
Recognition & Control of Turfgrass Diseases...
Key to Common Turf Diseases - Field - Mycelium......
Key to Common Turf Fungi - Microscopic - Spores.....
Turfgrass Diseases - Suggested Controls.............

4
9
13
16
18
19
20
21
24
25

..Terrance Riordan
Research in Spraying Chemicals

.Edward Stoltz, Jr.
.........Bob
Rupar
The Proper Approach to Buying an Irrigation System....
..Richard B. Craig

Turf Fertilizers - From Plant to Plant................
..Raymond Freeborg
A Novel Estate Golf Course
..Raymond Freeborg

26
27
30
32
33
34
36
40
42
43
49

Notes on the Biology & Control of Sod Webworm......... .Donald L. Schuder
Large Area Soil Sterilization.........................
Sod Grower Associations - A Review....................
Replacing Weeds With Turf - 2nd Report

53
54
56
59
60

.C. Y. Ward

62
67
68
69
72
74

What is Grass Chemically..............................
Maintenance By Contract...............................
Maintenance By Contract

.0. C. Redenbacher
Fast Seeding and Mulching

Problems of People - World Food and Fertilizer Outlook ..Werner L. Nelson
Soil Warming and Turf Use - Third Report.............. ..... .W. H. Daniel
J. R. Barrett,Jr.
Sod Production in the South.
Watering Systems - So What?...........................
Design & Economy Comparisons of Turf Systems.......... ...R. R. Abernethy

76
79
82
84
86
89

PRESIDENT'S REPORT
Morgan Boggs, Bunton Seed Company
Louisville, Kentucky

Over the past century we have cut our work weeks, taken more holidays and vacations and increased our per capita output of goods and services by over 6 0 0 7 o . Hot too
many years ago the average man worked too much and leisure was the privilege of the
rich. Now, free time is widely dispersed among all classes of people, turning the traditional "leisure class" topsy-turvy, with the executives and professionals benefiting
least and working men most.
Americans as a group will take some 100 million weeks of vacation during 1966.
More holidays, longer vacations and a shrinking work-week, together have brought the
average worker an additional 155 hours of annual time off since World War II. Many
forces have played a role in these great gains in leisure time, including new state
and federal laws, and. our remarkable productivity - the ability of new machines, modern technology and a better educated work force to turn out more and more good in less
and less time.
An ever-growing population, which has more leisure time assures more usage of
turfgrass areas. Although there has been remarkable progress, concentrated effort for
appropriations to provide technical research must be expanded and intensified to stay
abreast of the need. Today, thanks to earlier effort, both public and private, turfgrass research and management are assuming the stature, the prestige and slowly gaining the financial support that has long evaded them.
"TURFGRASS IS A ?P4 BILLION DOLLAR INDUSTRY" was the headline of October issue
of Turf-Grass Times. The home owner with, annual expenditures of over ^3 billion,
Highways with $471 million, cemeteries with $363 million, golf courses with ^237 million, and on down the line of turfgrass users for a whopping total of over $4 billion.
Gentlemen, this is big business, and it challenges all of us to plan and work together to meet the demands for more and better turf areas for the "thundering herds"
of the future.
In closing, I want to express my sincere appreciation for the honor and privilege to have served as President of the M.R.T.F. for the past year. Also, to thank Dr.
Bill Daniel, his staff and students, the Board of Directors and all of you for your
continued participation in the M.R.T.F«, for your work and support continues to be the
"life blood" of this successful organization.

EXECUTIVE SECRETARY'S REPORT

Twenty years of successful M.R.T.F. Still going strong! Still a research
oriented University sponsored group I Still a focus point for idea exchange!
It continues to be a pleasure to work with turf in the Midwest. Our finances
have held steady - our needs gradually increase - but increased grant research funds
have kept the program strong. I would thank those who are members, 351 in 1965, and
ask more of you to join with them in continued support.

DOES YOUR TURF USE EVERYTHING YOU FEED IT?
Roy L. Goss, Dept. of Agronomy
Western Washington Research Center
Puyallup, Washington

It has been only a few years ago when we, as turfgrass manager, had a very
small selection of commercial fertilizers available for our fertilization needs.
Ask any older turfgrass manager what his fertility program was 30 years ago, and
you will be appalled when you compare it to our souped-up program of today. In my
own area am surprised to learn that back in "those good ole days" that they had
relatively few problems with grass production, both from the quality standpoint and,
also, from disease and other pest problems. Unless the memories of some of these
fellows have grown dim and their observations are still correct, then the obvious
answer to the question of how did they do it without our modern programs has to be
answered something like this:
1.

The soils were relatively new and probably had less deficiencies.

2.

Our turfed areas had less pressure from traffic and use.

3. We did not manage them as intensively then as we do today.
4.

Perhaps we settled for less all the way around back then.

5.

Have we then depleted some of the reserves we had at that time and are now
operating on sub-marginal fertility levels?

These Questions are some that we had in mind at the time we established our research
program at the Washington State Experiment Station, Puyallup, Washington. We hoped
that we would be able to answer Questions about how much fertilizer should we apply,
in what form should we apply it, what ratio of plant nutrient should we be recommending. We also hoped to provide information to our Soil Testing Laboratory that
Ttfould help interpret soil test results. The fertilizer studies that I am reporting
have been in progress for over six years. Both lawn and putting green turf have been
under investigation, and I would like to share some of the results of this research
with you at this time.
Experimental Procedure
In 1959 we planted Colonial bent on a Puyallup fine sandy loam soil. The
area that was to be used for putting green studies was fumigated with methyl bromide, but the lawn investigation areas were not fumigated. In addition to Colonial
bent, the lawn area had as its other mixture Rainier red fescue. Experimental results reported in this paper were obtained from the putting green turf area, but we
have every reason to believe that the lawn area would respond in a similar manner.
In fact, this is being investigated at the present time.
The putting green area has been subjected to 18 different fertilizer treatments and one check plot. (Table I). Nitrogen has been applied at 3 levels, phosphorus at 2, and potassium at 3. Urea (46% N), treble superphosphate (45% P2O5),
and muriate of potash (60% K^O) w e r e used for sources. The plots were fertilized
every 2 weeks throughout the growing season, and all materials, with the exception
of superphosphate, were applied in a water dilution through a small plot boom and
sprayer.

All clippings have been removed from these plots from the beginning. Before
any treatment was made every plot \ias tested for pH, organic matter, phosphorus,
potassium and calcium. They have been tested periodically.

Table I.

Initial and Soil Nutrient Levels after 6 years.

Treatment/1,000 sq.
ft. per season
N
P
K
lbs. lbs. lbs.
1.
2.

3,
4.

20
20
20
20

0
4
4
4

i

° \

Goss, Wash. Exp. Sta,

Present (1965!

Initial (1959)
p_

K

Ca

15
16
15
15

500
491
481
488

2650
2600
2500
2375

12
24+
24+
24+

K

Ca

215
/145 •

1930
1790
1790
1790

; 2oo

\ 350 /
v >

5.
6.
7.
3.
9.
10.

Check
20
0
20
0
12
0
12
0
12
0

4
8
0
4
8

15
16
14
14
15
16

481
500
498
500
482
400

2430
2200
2400
2450
2300
2410

14
10
9
13
13
12

255
280
435
200
270
475

2210
800
1265
2070
2070
1930

11.
12.
13.

12
12
12

4
4
4

0
4
8

16
17
17

500
500
500

2385
2350
2280

24+
24
24

170
250
385

2210
2210
2210

14.
15.
16.

6
6
6

0
0
0

0
4
8

17
18
18

500
500
500

2180
2195
2120

16
16
17

195
330
500

1930
1930
1790

17.
18.
19.

6
6
6

4
4
4

0
4
8

19
18
18

500
500
500

2130
2180
2100

24+
24+
24+

190
380
440

2070
2070
1930

What Has Happened to Phosphorus?
It is obvious from the table above that phosphorus soil levels have decreased
during the last 5 years where no phosphorus has been applied- Wherever phosphorus
was used it accumulated as shown by increased levels- Where none was used after six
years the availability was over 80% of original.

What Has Happened

to Potassium?

This is probably the place where the greatest change has occurred- Table I
shows that potassium levels have decreased in every case, regardless of the amount
applied. The heaviest potassium treated plots received 8 pounds per 1,000 square
feet per season and had 87% as much available as original level. Adding 4 pounds
annually let the supply drop to less than 6 0 7 o , and not adding any allowed the supply
to drop to less than 40% of original.

Calcium?
Soil calcium levels have consistently lowered during the 5-year period;
hoxtfever, none are critical with the possible exception of treatments No- 6 and 7.
It is interesting to note here that these are the only two plots not responding to
20 pounds per 1,000 sauare feet nitrogen treatment. All other plots, regardless
of pH, are responding to N applications.

The Effects of Fertility on pH
In 1959 the average soil pH level was 5.7. Within the plot area the variation was no more than 0.1 pH reading. By the end of 1963, however, the pH values
itfere being segreated out on the basis of the intensity of nitrogen application.

Table II.

Nitrogen applied and pH Changes.
Nitrogen applied/annual
lbs.
20
12
6
initial

pH (average)
4 .0
5.0
5.3
5.7

Since the calcium levels initially ranged from 2100 to 2600 pounds per acre
and in 1963 ranged from 1790 to 2210, we cannot infer that there is a calcium deficiency. For our purposes we still class this as high available calcium in turfgrass areas. It was interesting to note, however, that treatment 870-0-145 and
870-0-290 (lbs./acre/5 years) showed calcium levels of 800 and 1265 pounds per
acre, respectively. These two plots, likewise, had low phosphorus levels. It is
evident then from this pH data that when we apply high amounts of nitrogen, particularly from certain sources, we can expect a rapid decrease in soil pH values.

How Do We Interpret These Data?
About the only conclusions that can be drawn from the above data are that
large amounts of plant nutrients have been applied but are not now available in the
soil. Such variables as how much leached, became fixed in the soil, was removed in
the plant tissue, or was mineralized from the soil are not considered. If we knew
how much the plants removed this would control one important variable. Therefore,
studies were set up to investigate plant removal.

Tissue Studies
Since the analyses of plant parts for N, P, and K can become expensive, only
6 treatments out of 19 were selected for tissue studies. These were: 20-4-8-,
12-4-3, 12-4-4, 12-0-8, 12-0-4-, 12-0-0. Experience has shown that 12 pounds of N
is more practical for putting turf; hence, the reason for . more of the 12 pound N
treatments.
Clipping samples were collected from these plots approximately once each

week, dried arid weighed as a measure of yield, Over a period of 29 weeks during
the year the turf was cut about 85 times, and 14 representative clippings were
selected for tissue analysis (Table III).

Table III,

Dry Matter Yield and Nutrient Recovery as Estimated by Tissue Analyses,
Goss, 1965

Treatment
1,000 sq .ft.
acre
N - P2O5 lbs.
lbs.
20
12
12
12
12
12

-

4 - 8
4- 3
i
4 - 4
0 - 8
0 - 4
0 - 0

Mean Dry Matter
Yield per acre*

M

870 - 174 - 348
522 - 174 - 348
522 - 174 - 174
522
0 - 348
522
0 - 174
522
0
0 -

lbs.
5,472
6,288
5,406.
4,608
4,746
5,675

Nutrient Recovery
acre*
N
P
K
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
279
299
273
233
243
278

19
22
18
15
15
17

158
172
144
130
124
138

* Figures extrapolated from 14 weeks dry matter and nitrogen yields to 85 weeks.

It may be surprising to some to note that the 12-4-8 treatment resulted in
a significantly higher yield of dry matter, N, P, and K, than the 20-4-8 plots.
There may be two significant explanations:
1.

The grass cannot assimilate this much nitrogen, allowing it to be leached
away

2.

A combination of nitrogen and potassium at these levels definitely caused
turf injury, especially during the hotter months of July and August.

It is felt by the writer that tissue analyses are the best measure of nutrient status, with the exception of tissue and lysimeter studies. Of course, we
cannot ignore the standard chemical soil test as an excellent tool, also, since
this gives us a measure of what is available in the soil.
Clippings from the best treatment 12-4-8 contained only 32% of N, 30% of
P, and 60% of K applied. This leaves 68% of N, 70% of P and 40% of K of the total
applied either left in the soil, tied up (fixed), or leached - at least not in the
clippings. It is reasonable to expect that a large amount leached away with ex*cessive rainfall and irrigation water.

What About Nutrient Ratios?
For sometime we have indicated that plants remove nutrients in about a
3-1-2 ratio of N, P, and K. If we consider that the 12-4-8 treatment above is the
best one, then we find that potassium averaged about 6 0 7 o of nitrogen in the tissue.
Furthermore, soil test results indicate that a 3-1-2 ratio is maintaining adequately
high soil levels of K2O.
These data also indicate that 4 pounds of P2O5 is ample for excellent quality turfgrass. Also, it is found that over 8 times as much potassium is removed
-7-

from the soil in the 12-4-8 treatment as phosphorus. Therefore, when we put one
part of phosphorus in a 3-1-2 ratio fertilizer, we are being extremely generous.

Some Considerations of Seasonal Removal
It was interesting to note that in the early part of the year and again in
the late part that tissue nitrogen levels were the highest. During the peak of
the growing season, however, nitrogen levels were considerably lower. This sounds
reasonable since little growth occurs early and late, and the plants are making
maximum growth in approximately May and June. The total amount of nitrogen removed,
however, still occurred in May and June, and this indicates that nitrogen removal
is strictly a function of yield.
The seasonal tissue analyses, however, revealed one important factor when
we consider potassium. Tissue potassium level was found to be low in the early
and late part of the season,but rose to its highest level during the period of maximum yield, which was in May and June. It is a well-known fact that turfgrasses will
utilize potasium to the point of luxury consumption, if it is available. This probably then accounts for these extremely high levels in the amount removed in the
tissue. What would happen then if insufficient potassium was available to the
plants during this period of maximum growth? Our data have consistently shown that
the plots receiving the highest levels of potassium are rated highest in quality
during this period of time. It is my feeling, also, that plots receiving little or
no potassium during this maximum growth period may be deficient, and we may be sacrificing turf quality at the period of time that we need it most. Our observations
have also pointed out that heavy applications of potassiunu during the hotter months
of July and August have caused excessive turf injury in some cases due to fertilizer burn. It has been our experience, therefore, to make our larger potassium
applications in spring and fall, then just lighter rates during hot weather, then
reduce them drastically to maintain availability.

Summary
1.

Avoid excessive applications of nitrogen.
per season appears to be ample.

2.

Maintain a 3-1-2 ratio of N, P, and K.

3.

Try to get most of your potassium on the turf during the cool months.

4.

Periodically use chemical soil tests to help determine the available supply.

5.

Heavy N applications tend to lower the pH; therefore, watch this as well as
your calcium levels.

6.

Fertility programs alone will not control turfgrass diseases. Be sure to follow
good fungicidal programs.

(Editor's note:

Twelve pounds per 1,000 square feet

In the Midwest it appears ratios of 6-1-4 should maintain ample
phosphorus under turf).

TURFGRASS RESEARCH IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST
Roy L. Goss, Dept. of Agronomy
Western Washington Research Center
Puyallup, Washington

Climatic and Geographic Variations
The Pacific Northwest has two distinct and dissimilar climatic areas. The
interior, or area east of the Cascade Mountains, has a climate more continental in
nature and has rainfall varying from near zero to 22 inches per year. The winters
can be as cold as -30°F., and the summers as high at 110°F. Snow cover is usually
moderate, but can be heavy. Bluegrasses are the dominant turf in this area. Grass
seed is widely produced in this areaThe area west of the Cascade Mountains from Vancouver, British Columbia,
south to Eugene, Oregon, are more densely populated and have the most highly managed turfgrass areas. Here the winters are very mild due to the influence of the
Japanese Current and the Pacific Ocean, and are extremely wet. Rainfall is quite
variable and ranges from 13 inches (in a few isolated rain shadows) to over 160
inches near the ocean. The average metropolitan areas average close to 45 inches
per year and most of this falls from October through April, just when we don't need
it. The summers are excellent for outdoor recreation due to little rain between
July 1 and September 15, and temperatures rarely exceed 85°F. with low relative humidity. This is bentgrass/fescue/Poa annua country and some grass growth occurs all
winter. This climatic and geographic description may help to explain some of the
problems we encounter in our research programs.

Summary of Pacific Northwest Research
Some research (fairy ring investigations) was commenced as early as 1948,
but the bull: of our program was initiated after 1955 . Most of the research in western Washington was directed toward diseases until 1958, when our main agronomic
turfgrass research areas were developed. At the present time, our combined agronomic and pathologic (cooperative) area is in excess of 3 acres of plots. The area
is about evenly divided between lawn type and putting green turf.
The chief pathologic investigations, both at the Experiment Station at
Puyallup and on outlying areas, have been concerned with fungicidal controls of our
most important turf pathogens. The agronomic program has been chiefly concerned
with fertility studies, especially the proper rates and nutrient ratios. Soil and
weed studies have been conducted at the Experiment Station and outlying areas for
the past eight years. The following research summaries represent part of our research
program and may be of value to your area:

Disease Research
This program has been under the direction of Charles Gould and in cooperation .with Roy L. Goss and H. M. Austenson, Agronomists, and V. L. Miller, Chemist.
Fusarium Patch (Fusarium nivale) - Experiments were conducted in the field
from 1956 until the present time in search of fungicides that give the best control

of Fusarium patch disease (pink snowmold) caused by the fungus Fusa rium nivale,
Many experiments and hundreds of materials have been tested at various rates and
timing in order to come up with the best program for control. Only three materials,
phenyl mercury acetate (PMA), Calo-clor, and Cadmium compounds were found to be
highly effective against this disease. During the seasons of most disease (predominantly fall), recommendations are to spray every 10 days to 2 weeks at 3/4 liquid
ounce of PMA, 2 ounces of Calo-clor, or 1 ounce of Caddy in 10 gallons of water per
1,000 sauare feet. In off seasons, sprays are recommended once per month as preventative. Alternating schedules of PMA and Caddy, or Calo-clor have given best results up to present.
Red thread (Corticium fuciforme) . This diease is cruite prevalent in the
Northwest and can seriously reduce turf auality when heavily infected. It produces a scorched appearance and an abundance of small, red threads (stromatia)
which gives an off-color. Late summer and fall have been the periods of greatest
infection. Fungicidal research has shown that a good Fusarium control program will
also control Red Thread. Under lawn turf conditions, it has been found that two or
three Cadmium applications will stop the disease. Sometimes Red Thread occurs in
the same infected area as Fusarium, making control a little more difficult.
Ophiobolus Patch (Ophiobolus graminis). This diease was identified and described at our Station in 1960. It occurred in our research plots and attempts to
control it with the usual fungicides were not successful. Completely dead areas of
a few inches to several feet in diameter occurred. Since we have had considerable
experience working with it now, we realize that it has been with us for sometime in
various parts of our state, but has been casually diagnosed as fairy ring, Fusarium
patch, snowmold, or just plain burning injury.
The roots and crowns of bent and Poa annua are killed by the fungus and the
centers of the spots fill in with weeds and eventually Poa annua. Again, Kentucky
bluegrass seems to be resistant. There is usually a zone of activity of one to 3
inches at the perimeter of the spot of a coppery color. Tests with fungicides have
proven unsuccessful so far, even with soil injections. Irrigation tests during the
summer of 1964 indicated that excessive watering greatly increased the infection,
as well as turf puffing and scalping. Fertility effects play an important role and
are reported in the following discussion.
Snowmold (Typhula itoana). Snowmold occurs only in areas east of the Cascade
Mountains. It is especially devastating on bentgrass/Poa annua turf when lax fungicidal programs are followed. Management programs that discourage Kentucky bluegrass
and encourage bent and Poa annua, such as over-watering and excessively close mowing,
result in heavy losses to this disease. Essentially, a good program of applying
mercury fungicides, either organic or inorganic forms at the proper timing, has
proven very effective in disease control. As little as 2 or 3 treatments have given
good control, provided the last one was applied as close to snow cover as possible.

Agronomic Research
The Effect of Fertilizers on Fusarium Patch Disease. Results of studies conducted over several years indicate that if phosphorus and potassium are not limiting
factors in plant growth, then nitrogen source and level play an important role in
Fusarium patch development . After minimum levels have been exceeded, the higher the
rate of N, the more severe the infection. This is probably more closely related to
softer tissues, allowing easier infection and, also, it is possible that higher N

levels may induce certain chemical changes in plant cells which permits greater infection. Only minor correlations were observed between phosphorus and potassium
and Fusarium development.
The source of N plays an important role in Fusarium patch development. Our
studies show that high rates of N from urea cause much more disease than from other
sources, including most organics. Here again, the exact cause has not been determined, but more work is being planned.
Sulfur had a decided suppressing effect on this disease in preliminary tests
in 1964. We observed a 3 0 0 7 o reduction in the number of disease spots from the appli
cation of 1-1/2 pounds of wettable sulfur per 1,000 sauare feet and, also, a decided
greening of turf, especially in the highest N plots.
The Effect of Fertility on Red Thread Disease. In brief summary, nitrogen
rates of 4 pounds per 1,000 square feet or more for lawns and 8 pounds per 1,000
square feet or more for putting greens overcome the effects of this disease during
the growing season. The principle involved here is simply one of making the grass
blades grow faster than infection occurs and removal of infected parts. Nitrogen,
however, does not solve the problem in the fall, when growth rate of the^grass slows
hence, the need for fungicidal controls. All fine-leaved fescues seem tofmore severely attacked than other grasses; however, some infection has been observed on
nearly all grass species in western Washington, even orchardgrass (Dactylis
grlomerata) in pastures. At this time no other fertility elements appear to be as
closely associated as nitrogen.
The Effect of Fertility on Ophiobolus Patch Disease. This disease infects
young turf much the same as Fusarium nivale, that is, the higher the N level, the
greater the infection, but as the turf becomes older N seems to help overcome infection. This effect was especially observed on our area after fumigation with
methyl bromide.
In 1961 phosphorus applications had no effect on this diease. This is probably due to the fact that soil levels were high, but by 1964 phosphorus appeared
to be the controlling factor. Thos plots receiving 4 pounds of P2O5 (1.76 lbs. P)
averaged only 157o as much disease as those receiving no P. Photographic records
show that the disease is sharply confined to plots receiving no P. The interesting
problem here is that soil test values indicate P to be adequate for good turf
grov/th.
Potassium exhibited a suppressing effect on the amount of disease in 1961
and 1964 regardless of P levels. It was less than the effect of phosphorus, but it
did have practical significance.
Post-emergence Herbicide Research. As we all recall, it has not been many
years ago when the control of mouse-ear chickweed, pearlwort, Japanese clover, crabgrass, etc., just to mention a few weeds, was very difficult. Today, these present
practically no problem to acknowledgeable turf managers. We can attribute this to
the chemical industry for developing good herbicides since World War II and to our
research programs determining r their effectiveness and safety.
Turf weed research at Washington State University, as at many other locations, has been concerned with those which are more difficult to control and can be
summed up as follows:

Mouse-ear chickweed (Cerastium vulgatum)
English lawn daisy (Bellis perennis)
Japanese clover (Trifolium dubium)
Pearlwort (Sagina procumbens)
Crabgrass (D,sanguinalis & ischaemum)
Poa annua (seedlings)

Di camba, MCPP, Silvex
Silvex, Di camba
Silvex, Dicamba, MCPP
Silvex, Dicamba
Dacthal, Beta san, Azalc
Dacthal, Betasan

The weeds and controls shown do not represent the total list by any means,but are
examples that gave us trouble a few years ago- We still recommend good management practices (fertility, etc.) as being one of the best control measures. Our
research today shows that we have far fewer weeds with optimum as compared to low
fertility, especially nitrogen. We have also found that 3/4 inch mowing height
of bent/fescue turf produces fewer weeds and less thatch than 1-1/2 inches. There
are many other points which could be mentioned, but would probably only be repetitious .

Other Research
Other problems on which we have conducted some research over the past few
years can be listed as follows:
1.

Soil fumigants for pre-plant weed control
a. methyl bromide
d. mylone
b. calcium cyanamid
e. vorlex
c. vapam

2.

Studies regarding mowing heights and nitrogen levels and their
effects on shoot and root production *

3.

Nematode investigations.

4.

Soil mixture studies for golf courses and athletic fields.

5.

Mechanical soil compaction studies.

6. Wetting agent (surfactants) studies.
7.

Turf renovation studies

8. Light intensity studies.
We feel that we have helped solve some of the immediate problems in turfgrass management in our area, but we also know that we have scarcely scratched the
surface and must continue our programs in both the fundamental and applied areas.

BRITISH AND AMERICAN TURFGRASS DISEASE PROBLEMS
Noel Jackson, Dept. of Plant Pathology
University of Rhode Island, Kingston, R.I.

4

As an introduction to the subject it is proposed to spend a little time in
racing the development of turf culture in both countries, and also in describing
Ae climatic differences which have an important bearing on turf disease incidence.

With a climate admirably suited to the growth of grasses, it is probable
that lawns have been part of the organized scenery in Great Britain for many centuries but intentionally or otherwise, plants other than grass often formed the
swards. The all-grass lawn gained in popularity during the 1800's, but the invention of the cylinder mower in the 1830's was the most important single factor in
lawn history giving impetus to the lawn vogue by the provision of an efficient and
less exacting alternative to mowing with the sickle or scythe. The problem of producing and maintaining a turf surface suitable for a variety of recreational activities was eased,and as the mowing process became mechanized in the early 1900's,
then the area devoted to lawns and sports turf increased considerably.
About 52 million people now occupy the 94,000 square miles which comprise
the United Kingdom, something like 550 to the square mile. There are around
14,000,00 houses (and an estimated annual need for 200,000 to 300,000 new ones over
the next 20 years), the majority with garden lawns. This acreage of turf added to
that devoted to sporting facilities, parks, etc., must place ornamental and sports
turf as one of the most widely cultivated crops — and with ever increasing leisure
time available, the demand for more and better recreational facilities involving
turf continues to grow. No figures are available but the amount now spent each
year on turfgrass in Britain must run into millions of pounds per annum.
Though commencing a little later, much the same story probably can be
traced for the development of amenity turf in the U.S.
However, in a country
over 30 times the size of the U. K., and embracing wide climatic variation, it is
understandable that the problems of turfgrass management are often vastly different and more complex. The British Isles have a marine climate characterized by
moderate temperatures both winter and summer, rainfall light but often, between 20
to 40 inches annually. One would have to move south almost 20° latitude, i.e.,
south of latitude 35°N, to find winters in America as mild as they are in Southern
and Western Britain. The climate of the West American coastline from Vancouver
Island, Canada, down to Northern California approximates most closely the English
climate. Oregon and parts of Washington, for example, can grow most of the plants
grown in Britain, and it is interesting to note that two turf diseases common in
Britain are also common to the above mentioned states and nowhere else in the U.S..
The comparative ease with which grass grows in the marine climate of the
U. K. is still accepted unconsciously by most residents. This "for granted" attitude may have some bearing on the fact that the first attempts to apply scientific
principles to the cultivation of turf began in the U. S. back in the 1890's! However, the first three decades of this century saw increasing interest in the study
of turfgrass management in both countries culminating in the development of centers
for research and advisory work. While there is still only one independent organization in the U. K. (in fact, the only one in Europe), many research centers now
operate in the U. S. serving a fast-growing industry variously estimated as repre-

senting a four to nine billion dollar annual investment.
In both countries turfgrass is an
ing to the introduction of new management
mechanical equipment, the breeding of new
grass seed, make advances in turf quality

important crop. Continuing research leadtechniques, herbicides, fertilizers, and
grass varieties and production of quality
possible.

It seems ironical, however, that as the standard of turf improves further
problems arise, not the least of which is the problem of turf disease. Intensive
management techniques undoubtedly provide turf of increased susceptibility to disease
but it should be remembered that the high quality turf now demanded ensures that any
blemishes are more readily noticeable than they would be on a less perfect sward.
These diseases are most commonly the result of fungal infection, or incorrect growing conditions (functional or abiotic diseases). Both here and in the U. K., bacteria and viruses are not recognized at the moment as important turfgrass pathogens,
though their possible importance should not be overlooked. Similarly, attention is
being drawn to the numerous species of nematodes which can parasitize turfgrasses,
but the extent and nature of the injury is often difficult to assess. Hence, at the
present time, with the possible exception of functional diseases, parasitic fungi
must be regarded as the most common cause of serious turf diseases in both countries
Functional diseases - the overdose of weedkiller or fungicide, fertilizer
scorch, incorrect watering, mower scalping, pollution damage, gasoline and urine
scorch, deliberate vandalism, etc., are truly international and occur with tts
same annoying frequency wherever turf is cultivated. The hundred or more species
of fungi known to be capable of causing disease do differ somewhat in their world
distribution, but a particular disease may be absent from an area (even if the causal fungus is present) due either to lack of suitable environmental conditions, or
the lack of a susceptible host. In Britain almost all of the better quality fine
turf both for private lax'jns and sports turf, mown at 1/2 inch or less, is based on
mixtures of Browntop bentgrass (Highland Colonial) and chewings fescue (from Oregon or Holland). This mixture, usually 7 parts fescue to 3 parts bentgrass, when
established, will withstand mowing down to 3/16 inch. The bentgrass eventually
dominates the sward, wears well, and maintains reasonable winter color. Nitrogen
fertilization on such turf seldom exceeds 1-1/2 to 2 pounds actual nitrogen per
1,000 square feet per annum.
Creeping bentgrass with its higher nitrogen requirement, abundant thatch
production, poor winter color, and vegetative means of propagation has to date not
found much favor in the U. K., but the seeded variety Penncross is in trials there.
As in this country, annual bluegrass (Poa annua) is a common volunteer species in
fine turf, often comprising a considerable proportion of the sward. It contributes
in no small way to the susceptibility of these swards to disease, of which the
commonest and most damaging in the U. K. is Fusarium patch disease. (This disease
is not to be confused with Fusarium blight, a high temperature summer disease of
Kentucky bluegrass caused by F. roseum and confined largely to the U. S. Merion
bluegrass, in particular, has suffered considerable damage in the Washington, D.C.
area in recent years).
Fusarium patch disease is caused by the fungus Fusarium nivale, a fungus
that is encountered in the U. S., but most commonly as a low temperature "snowmold." Only in parts of Washington and Oregon, where conditions resemble those in
the U. K., does this pathogen cause the typical early spring or early fall patch
disease. Conversely, it is seldom that snowfall is sufficiently deep and persistent in Britain for low temperature injury by this fungus. The severe 1962-63

winter proved an exception in this respect, since Fusarium nivale and also another
low temperature "snowmold," Typhula incarnata, caused widespread injury- Typhula
blight is a common winter disease on the North American continent, but prior to
1962 it had not been reported previously on turf in Britain.
Fine turf in Britain is subject to summer infection by Corticium fuciforme,
the cause of Corticium patch disease, commonly termed red thread or pink patch.
This disease is widespread in the U. S. and, as in the U. K., is particularly common
on turfgrasses in low vigor. Sclerotinia dollarspot, also a summer disease of low
vigor turf, is common to both countries, but it is much more extensive in the U. S.
and affects a wider range of grass hosts. Whereas most of the turfgrasses in the
U.S. may succumb to dollarspot disease, in Britain it is confined almost exclusively
to red fescue, in particular creeping red fescue of sea marsh origin. Lawn bowling
is a popular recreation in Britain and, since the majority of bowling greens are
sodded with sea-marsh turf, Sclerotinia dollarspot most commonly is associated with
these turf areas. No explanation is available as to why bentgrasses and bluegrasses
remain free of infection in the U. K.; the causal fungus, Sclerotinia homoeocarpa,
is the same in both countries, but strain differences exist within the species.
Though Ophiobolus patch disease must have occurred in the U. K. prior to the
1950's, it was not until this time that reliable diagnosis of the disease was established. The disease, a serious disorder of bentgrass turf, previously must have
been overlooked or wrongly diagnosed, probably as "brownpatch." Like other high temperature diseases, for example, Pythium grease spot, true brownpatch caused by
Rhizoctonia solani, is not a problem in the U. K. because of the moderate summer temperatures. In 1961, Ophiobolus patch disease was recorded for the first time in
Northwestern U. S. - presumably the disease had been overlooked or wrongly diagnosed
here also!
Most coarse turf in the U. K. for playing fields, second-quality lawns, etc.,
is composed of a mixture of grasses - perennial ryegrass, bluegrasses, red fescue,
crested dogstail, and brown top bent - but predominantly perennial ryegrass. Considerable variation in turf forming ability is demonstrated by the numerous varieties of perennial ryegrass but provided a suitable variety is used, sufficient fertilizer is applied, and the sward not mown too close (1 to 1-1/2"), then this
freely available, quick-establishing agricultural species performs quite well. It
has the disadvantages of being rather aggressive to companion grasses and being difficult to mow cleanly, but it is relatively cheap and, adequately fertilized, it is
not troubled too much . by fungal disease. Rust, caused by Puccinia coronata, and
leaf blights (Helminthosporium species), may occur on the perennial ryegrass. Other
Helminthosporium species may attack the companion grasses, but usually the injury is
insufficient to warrant fungicide treatment. Corticium fuciforme will infect all
sward components, but though this common disease is unsightly and weakening to the
turf, the injury is seldom fatal.
Smooth-stalked meadow-grass (Kentucky bluegrass) does not as yet enjoy the
popularity as a turfgrass in the U. K. that it does here; consequently, melting-out
disease (Helminthosporium vagans), stripe smut (Ustilago striiformis) and rust
(Puccinia graminis), are not a serious problem. However, these fungi are all present in Europe, and as the use of Poa pratensis increases in Britain, so these diseases could become important there.
The ubiquitous "damping-off" organisms - Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., Helminthosporium sp., etc., probably are less damaging to seedling turf in the U. S.
than they are in Britain where the generally lower soil temperatures allow for

slower establishment. Conversely, the fairy ring organisms (another ubiquitous
group of turf fungi) are less frequent (or at least less noticeable) under the
cooler, most conditions.
Climatic variation and the reliance on different turfgrass species accounts
for much of the difference in the turf disease picture for the two countries. Yet,
there does seem to be an underlying difference in approach to turf disease control.
This difference relates back to the suggestion earlier that turfgrass is still taken
much for granted in the U. K. (the hard sell is yet to come!), but also to the fact
that less money is available; hence, emphasis is placed on less expensive cultural
control measures. Whereas in Britain turf treatments tend towards the necessary
minimum (hence often falling short of the optimum); in the U. S. turf treatments
tend towards the maximum (hence often exceeding the optimum). Obviously, this is a
broad generalization and a happy medium is attained by many turf managers in both
countries, but it may be one reason why turf disease and chemical disease control
figure more prominently in the U. S.

RECOGNITION AND CONTROL OF TURFGRASS DISEASES
Noel Jackson, Dept. of Plant Pathology
University of Rhode Island, Kington, R. I.

In the present state of knowledge, with the possible exception of abiotic
disease, fungi must be regarded as the most common cause of serious turf disease.
Though some abiotic (functional) diseases may present a problem in diagnosis; e.g.
pollution damage, all too often accident or negligence is the cause and the perpetrator of the injury, is only too well aware (but often not too keen to admit I)
as to how the damage occurred. The big problem is how best to remedy the situation before wrath and indignation descends on the miserable offender.
Although a formidable list of fungal species which are capable of causing
disease of turfgrasses has been assembled, it is fortunate that not all are of major

importance. Many are only weakly parasitic on turfgrasses, causing minor injury.
A number are confined to the inflorescence and hence are more the concern of the
seed grower than the turf manager. However, there still remains a hard core of
fungal turf parasites which are a continual embarrassment to the turf manager and
the object of considerable financial outlay each year. In the absence of a fungicide capable of controlling all turf fungus diseases, it is essential that the pathogen involved should be identified accurately so that the most effective remedial
measures can be taken. The diagnosis of turf diseases is not always easy even to
the plant pathologist, and it is with some trepidation, therefore, that the following aids to disease identification are presented. The aids entitled "Key to Common
Turf Diseases" and "Key to Common Turf Fungi" are being published in the "Turf Manager's Pest Handbook" produced by the Mallinckrodt Chemical Works, copies of which
will be obtainable gratis upon request to the Company.
It should be pointed out from the start that these keys provide the layman
with a rough guide only. They are intended to help the turf manager make a tentative working diagnosis and allow control measures to be attempted quickly. However, confirmatory diagnosis should be sought as soon as possible from the local
Agricultural Extension Agent, or from the plant pathologist at your State Agricultural Experiment Station.

Using the Keys

Visual examination. Examine the diseased turf carefully. Note the form of
injury, i.e., whether to leaves, stem, roots, or to the whole plants. Note any
distinctive features of the disease patches, i.e., shape, coloration, wilting.
In many instances the fungus will not be visible to the naked eye except,
perhaps, in the early morning when dew is still present. Then, the fungal threads
(hyphae) which make up the mycelium may be discernible. If there is no sign of the
suspected fungus, place a sheet of glass or a small, clear plastic food container
over the diseased patch and examine for mycelium after 24 hours incubation. Assemble all the information gathered and consult the "Key to Common Turf Diseases."
Microscopic examination.
For those blessed with a microscope, an examination of diseased tissue may reveal fruiting bodies and spores of the parasite present. It is highly likely to reveal also fruiting bodies and spores in profusion
from fungal species which are not parasitic! The "Key to Common Turf Fungi" is an
aid to the identification of some of !:he more common fungal parasites of turf.
Sampling diseased turf for confirmatory diagnosis. Cut a 4" diameter plug
from the margin of an active diseased patch so that both diseased and healthy
plants are included in the sample. Wrap the plug tightly in aluminum foil, or polyethylene film, avoiding contamination of the turf surface by soil. Label clearly,
pack carefully, and promptly dispatch the sample fo your Extension Agent, or to the
plant pathologist at your State Agricultural Experiment Station.

KEY TO COMMON TURF DISEASES — FIELD, MYCELIUM
N. Jackson, 1966
Mycelium observable on diseased turf
. . . . . . . . .

See B

2

Mycelium generally not observable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

See G

B. 1

Mycelium gray or dark colored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

See C

Mycelium hyaline, white, pink or red colored .

See D

A. 1

2
C. 1

Mycelium dirty white to gray; light brown sclerotia
present in plant debris. A low temperature "snowmold'7. . TYPHULA BLIGHT

2

Mycelium gray to brown; "smoke ring" bordering the patches;
black sclerotia often present .
RHIZOCTONIA BROWN PATCH

3

Mycelium dark brown to black, in mats on stem bases and roots;
patches '.circular or "doughnut"-shaped with bronze/yellow
margin. On bentgrasses
, . OPHIOBOLUS PATCH

4

Mycelium as in C. 3; injured areas shaped as in C.3,
but bleached. On bermudagrass

D. 1
2
E. 1
2

F. 1

SPRING DEAD SPOT

Mycelium hyaline or white

See E

Mycelium pink or red

See F

Mycelium fine and cobweb-like, injured turf spots bleached;
leaf lesions with dark marginal bands . . . . . . . SCLEROTINIA DOLLARSPOT
Mycelium white and cottony; dark "greasy" bordered
patches, collapsed plants form matted crusts . . . . . . . PYTHIUM BLIGHT
Mycelium white to faintly pink; pale rose to pink spore
masses on dead tissues. Occurs during cool moist conditions, and as a low temperature "snowmold"

. FUSARIUM PATCH

2

Mycelium pink to red; salmon to red spore masses on
dead tissues. Occurs during hot, humid conditions . . . .FUSARIUM BLIGHT

3

Mycelium in pale pink to pink gelatinous strands;
forms red "threads" (stromata) when dry. . . . . .

G. 1
2
H.l

. CORTICIUM PINK PATCH

Fruiting bodies observable on spotted or blighted leaves . . . . .

See

H

No fruiting bodies observable on spotted or blighted leaves . . . . See

J

Spots vague or variable in shape, fruiting bodies in
straw-colored or bleached leaf lesions . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Stemphylium, Alternaria, Ascochyta, Septoria, Phyllostica)
2

I. 1

Pustules obse^vehlo °n leaves . . . . . . .

1

LEAF SPOT
See

I

Scab-like sporulating pustules with black spines evident
on leaf leaons

. . . . . . . . .

.ANTHRACNOSE

2

Erumpent orange-brown pustules on yellowed leaves . . . . . . . . . . . RUST

3

Salmon pink to orange spore aggregates on leaf blades;
affected patches of turf on coppery-orange color . . . . . .

J. 1
2

Irregular yellow-green to brown patches in
thinned turf

. MELTING or FADING OUT

Prominent "eyespot" lesions on leaves
of St. Augustine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-18-

COPPER SPOT

End.

GREY LEAF SPOT

A.l
2

KEY TO COMMON TURF FUNGI — MICROSCOPIC — SPORES
N. Jackson, 1966
Spores present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
See B
Spores absent or rare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
See N

B. 1
2

Spores formed in definite fruiting bodies
Spores formed on hyphae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

C. 1
2

Fruiting bodies spherical or ellipsoidal, dark colored . . . . See D
Fruiting bodies not spherical or ellipsoidal
light colored or red . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
See G

D. 1
2

Spores colorless, without crosswalls . . . PHYLLOSTICTA (Leaf Spot )
Spores colorless, with crosswalls .
See E

E. 1
2

Spores oval, one crosswall
Spores threadlike, multiseptate .

F. 1
2

Spores threadlike, multiseptate, in pycnidia . SEPTORIA (Leaf Spot)
Spores threadlike, multiseptate, in perithecia . .OPHIOBOLUS (Patch)

G. 1

Fruiting body a flat mass of spore-producing hyphae, black
brislles present, banana-shaped spores.COLLETOTRICHUM (Ahthxacnose)
Fruiting body an erumpent pustule containing
numerous roughly."-rounded urediospores
PUCCINIA (Rust)

2

ASCOCHYTA (Leaf
. . . . . .

See C
See H

Spot)
See F

H. 1
2

Spo res colorless « . . . . . • • • • . . • • . . . . . . . . .
Spores colored . . . . . . . . . .
....

I. 1

Spores borne on short hyphae; elongate to threadlike spores
in slimy matrix, salmon-pink in mass..GLOEOCERCOSPORA (Copper Spot)
Spores on loose cushions of hyphae in bright-colored
masses. Banana-shaped spores with crosswalls..FUSARIUM (Patch &
Blight)

2

See I
See J

J. 1
2

Spores with crosswalls in more than one plane . . . . . . . .
Spores with crosswalls in one plane

K. 1

Spores not in chains
Spores in chains

L. 1

Spores more or less cylindrical
HELMINIHOSPORIUM (Heltincr out)
and smooth . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spores not cylindrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See M

2.
M. 1
2
N. 1
2
0. 1
2
3
P. 1
2

¡See K
See L

. STEMPHYLIUM (Leaf Spot)
ALTERNARIA (Leaf Spot)

Spores curved or bent with one of the central
cells distinctly larger than other cells . . CURVULARIA (Fading Out)
Spores with two crosswalls, apical cell
coneshaped . . . . .
PIRICULARIA (Gray Leaf Spot)
Mycelium colorless, no crosswalls except
for fruiting bodies
Mycelium containing crosswalls . . . .

PYTHIUM (Grease Spot)
oee Ó

Hyphae dirty white to gray, light brown sclerotia. .TYPHULA (Blight)
Hyphae branching at right angles,light - dark brown
in color; may form sclerotia . . . . . . . RHIZOCTONIA (Brown Patch)
Hyphae not branching at right angles
See P
White, delicate cobwebby mycelium . . . .
Hyphae forming moist pink strands or
dry red threads
-19- End.

SCLEROTINIA (Dollar Spot)
CORTICIUM (Pink Patch)

N. Jackson, 1966
Suggested Controls

Turfgrass Diseases
Anthracnose
Colletotrichum graminicola

Phenyl mercury acetate, Tersan OM,
Ultraclor, Kromaclor

Copper Spot
Gloeocercospora sorghi
Corticium Pink Patch
Corticium fuciforme

Dyrene, Tersan OM,
Kromad,
Ultraclor, Kromaclor, Daconil
(Where dollar spot is cadmium
resistant use Dyrene)

Fusarium Blight
Fusarium roseum

Tersan CM, Caloclor (Scorch risk
at high temperatures)

Fusarium Patch
Fusarium nivale

Phenyl mercury acetate, Mercurous/
mercuric chloride mixtures, e.g.,
Caloclor, Tersan OM

Grey Leaf Spot
Piricularia grisea

Thiram, Daconil

Leaf Spot (as listed)

Dyrene, Ortho Lawn & Turf,
Ultraclor, Kromaclor, Zineb, Maneb,
Tersan OM, Phenyl mercury acetate,
e.g., Phenmad.

Melting or Fading-out
Helminthosporium spp.
Curvularia sp.

Dyrene, Tersan OM, Kromad, Daconil,
Zineb, or Maneb
Phenyl mercury acetate (may scorch
on Merion)

Ophiobolus Patch
Ophiobolus gramlnis var.avenae

Phenyl mercury acetate
Mercurous/mercuric chloride mixtures

Pythium Blight
Pythium spp.

Dcxon

Rhizoctonia Brown Patch
Rhizoctonia solani

Tersan OM, Difolitan, Ultraclor,
Kromaclor

Rust

Actidione-Thiram, Zineb, Maneb,
Dyrene

Puccinia graminis
Sclerotinia Dollar Spot
Sclerotinia homoeocarpa

Increased N fertilizer.
Cadmium-containing fungicides, e.g.,
Cadminate, Ortho Lawn & Turf

Spring Dead Spot

Nabam

(

?

)

Typhula Blight
Typhula incarnate

Cadmium fungicides
Mercurous/mercuric chloride mixtures
Tersan OM, PCNB (Quintozene)

Other chemicals and formulations may be available.
These are suggestions for general information.
-20-

ANATOMY OF TURF PLANTS
Marvin H. Ferguson, Mid-Continent Director, and
National Research Coordinator U.S.G.A. Green Section
College Station, Texas

Grasses are among the most widely distributed of the economic plants. Some
species of grass are found on almost every part of the earth. Some grow under very
cold conditions; some under very hot conditions; some grow where it is very wet; and
some where it is very dry. The types of grass that are adapted to the conditions
they encounter will survive, while those that are poorly adapted will die.
How does a Plant Adapt to Its Environment?
Some changes can be made by a plant in any one generation to aid in the
matter of adjustment to environment. For example, roots will become shortened in a
water-logged soil. Leaves will curl or fold on the grass plant and the loss of
moisture may be retarded. However, these changes are not heritable; they will not be
passed on to the next generation.
More important changes are those which come about over a period of several
generations by the process of natural selection. This concept of natural selection
is sometimes spoken of as the "survival of the fittest." We may understand this
process a little better by considering the example of bentgrass. When bentgrass is
grown in the Pacific Northwest, it grows in an area which is admirably suited to the
needs of bent. Therefore, this species has no difficulty in surviving and even the
weak types may thrive. However, when we move bentgrass to the Desert Southwest, it
finds itself rather poorly adapted to its environment and only those plants which
are equipped with mechanisms which allow them to cope with drouth and the other unusual environmental conditions may survive. The adaptive mechanisms which permit one
type to live in an area where another cannot grow may be of various natures. These
are primarily biochemical and biophysical factors and there are also certain structural characteristics that are involved in a plant's ability to thrive under a given
set of conditions.
Mechanisms for Adaptive Ability
Dormancy is one factor - and perhaps the most important factor - in a
plant's ability to thrive in its environment. We may contrast bluegrass, bent, and
fescue to bermudagrass or Zoysia. Bermuda and Zoysia must undergo dormancy in order
to survive periods of cold weather; whereas bluegrass, bent and other cool season
grasses seem to thrive under conditions of low temperature. Some plants shed
leaves in order to protect themselves against severe weather or drouth. This is
true in the case of deciduous trees and shrubs. This ability to shed leaves is not
found so much among the grasses, but we find such species as buffalograss in which
the leaves dry up during seasons of drouth. In these cases the plant depends upon
its reserves of stored food for survival and for the support of new growth when
favorable conditions again occur. There are other grasses like bluegrass which
are not equipped with this mechanism of dormancy which would permit escape from
drouth. Bluegrass, therefore, would die under comparable conditions.
We may also consider the difference in perennials and annuals as this
characteristic of longevity relates to adaptation. Perennials survive because of
an ability to store food and to maintain life in protected parts. Annuals do not
have this ability, but we sometimes find annuals growing more than one season, and

thus
behaving-a s perennials when favorable situations exist. Poa annua
sometimes lives for several years in cool areas. The annual habit of some plants
enables them to reproduce themselves year after year by seeds, even where there
are some seasons extremely unfavorable to their growth.
Seed moficiation is a very important factor in the plant's adaptive ability. Some plants produce seeds which may lay dormant for a certain period before
they will germinate. Other plants produce seeds with hard seed coats so that the
seeds will not germinate all at once. Such mechanisms which prevent the seed from
all germinating at one time serve to insure the plant against complete destruction
by any one period of unfavorable weather during the time the plants are in the
seedling stage.
Temporary protective mechanisms may be illustrated by the fact that the
leaves of the grass plant will roll or fold during periods when transpiration rates
are extremely high. The plant is able to protect itself against excessive water
loss by the rolling of leaves which closes the stomata, leaving exposed only the
heavily cutinized lower surface of the leaf.

Physical Modifications
It has been mentioned that some of the structural characteristics of grass
plants are important in the plant's relation to its environment. One of the
highly variable physical characteristics is that of root length. It is known that
bermudagrass roots will enter a good soil to a depth of six feet or more; whereas,
such grasses as red fescue and bluegrass in similar soil will produce roots to a
depth of only about three and one-half feet. Bermudagrass roots are coarse and
deep; whereas, Zoysia roots are finely divided and relatively shallow. However,
Zoysia root systems are so extensive that the upper portions of a soil are explored thoroughly for moisture and nutrients.
Another example which may be visualized is the contrast between goosegrass,
which is an annual grass, and Poa annua, which is also an annual grass. Goosegrass produces a prolific root system which is almost impossible to pull up when
the grass is firmly established; whereas, Poa annua may be very easily pulled out
of the soil. Such characteristics are extremely important in the ability of
plants to compete and to maintain themselves under various conditions.
There are many modifications of grass stems which affect the plant's ability to grow in a given environment. In speaking of stems we think not only of the
upright stem, but also of the stolons and rhizomes, which are modified stems.
Stems serve as storage organs for food material, and in the case of stolons and
rhizomes, they are one of the means of enlargement and spread of the plant. The
position and form of the stem has a marked influence upon the plant's ability to
compete with other plants for ground space. Zoysia and bermudagrass have vigorous rhizomes and stolons which spread through and under other grasses. Bentgrass
is not so competitive; it spreads primarily by stolons. The fescues and bluegrass are characterized primarily by stems which grow upright though they do have
short rhizomes which permit some degree of spreading.
Bermudagrass stems are mostly prostrate or underground. This characteristic permits bermudagrass to be mowed very closely without the removal of a large
amount of storage tissue. On the other hand, bluegrass stems are mostly upright;
therefore, continual mowing removes much of the storage tissue and the grass tends

to die out. Thus, we may see that the physical modification in a grass stem determines to some extent the ability of the grass to thrive under certain types
of management.
Perhaps some of the most extensive anatomical modifications among grass
plants are those existing in the leaves. Much of the literature on this subject
may be traced back to the work of an Englishman named Lewton-Brain. This gentleman published a paper about grass leaves in 1898. Relatively little additional
information has been published since that time. Lewton-Brain attempted to devise
a taxonomic key based on leaf anatomy. He failed in this attempt because temporary modifications caused by environment were greater than differences between
species.
There are a great many ways in which leaf anatomy may vary. The epidermis
or skin, of the grass leaf is made up of numerous cells of different size and
shape. The arrangement of these cells is important. Most grasses have a rather
heavily cutinized lower leaf surface. This layer of cutin affects moisture loss
in the leaf and it varies greatly in its thickness. One type of cell which is
found in the epidermis is large and thin-walled. These are characterized as
motor cells. These usually occur in rows and they lose water rapidly under conditions of moisture stress. When these large cells collapse, the leaf tends to
fold or curl, depending upon the number and arrangement of the motor cells. As
folding or curling takes place, water loss is retarded. The amount of pubescence,
or hdriness, or leaves affects the rate of water loss, and the number and arrangement of stomata is also important in this respect.
There is also variation in the structural elements for support of the
weight of grass leaves. These leaf components consist of fibers and thick-walled
cells which make up the conducting tissue. Another type of cell which is sometimes important as a structural element is the thin-walled parenchyma cells.
These cells when filled with water are turgid and hold the leaf upright. When the
plant is under a severe moisture stress, these thin-walled cells may lose much of
their moisture and become flaccid. When this occurs, we see wilting and the grass
is sometimes damaged severely when subjected to traffic during such periods of
stress.
There are many other ways wherein the plant may relate to its environment
through structural, chemical and physical modifications. The ones mentioned in
this discussion are merely examples of the great variation that exists in plants.
Plant Structure Affects Management Needs
The examples of structural differences which have been discussed indicate
that even grass plants vary greatly in their ability to fit into a given environment. These examples will serve also to demonstrate the fact that a type of management must be provided which will take into account the tolerances of the particular grass being grown. Some grasses must be watered often because their struc
tural makeup does not allow them to resist drouth. Some grasses may not withstand
close mowing because their food storage organs are removed by such treatment.
Most of the accepted management technigues employed in growing turf have
come about as a result of trial and error through the years. However, when one
looks closely at the individual plant and considers the effect of any particular
treatment, he should find good fundamental reasons for following wise practices.
Egually important, we should be able to predict the effects of management treatments by understanding the requirements and tolerances imposed on individual
plants by their structural attributes.

BLUEGRASSES - AGGRESSIVES AND PETITES
Terranee Riordan, Graduate Student in Turf
Purdue University

This present study has its basis in observations of numerous phenotypic
variants made here at Purdue prior to 1965. Many of the present better selections are descendants of large clones of bluegrass from the fairways of the
Chicago Golf Club.
There is need for new and improved turfgrass types, which are adapted to
the wide range of possible uses. Plants which have wide leaves, deep roots,
drouth tolerance, and vigorous growth are suited for roadsides and airplane landing strips; while bluegrasses that have narrow leaves, low growth, and dense
tillers are more desirable for golf tees, home lawns and cemetery areas.
In 1964 statistical estimates were made on various outstanding bluegrasses
The results suggested that selection would lead to large amounts of improvement
among the various genotypes.
1965 program
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

36C0 individuals were tested.
164 varieties were used.
Spread,
Height,
Rust infection, and color were measure twice.

The 1966 program will be to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

Re-measure spread and height.
Measure seedhead height and quantity.
Measure leaf width.
Plant 3000 new individuals - fewer varieties from seed of
1964 planting.
Test these plants.
Use computer to analyze data a. Find best individual for different turf types.
b. Make basis for increase
Make large plot observations.
Make seed production observations
Get release approval after wide testing.
Cooperate in seed production work.

RESEARCH IN SPRAYING CHEMICALS
Hayden Watkins, Graduate Assistant in Research
Purdue University

Within the field of Turf Management many are particularly interested in
herbicides. Some of the work we are doing here at Purdue with herbicides, durin the past year, has been with wetting agents, eradication of established turf
and Poa annua control.

Wetting Agents
We have used nine (9) experimental materials in testing their effectiveness as additives
when added to herbicidal sprays. Our results indicate that
they may, under certain conditions, increase herbicidal activity. However, none
have shown any definite superiority to the commercial wetting agent used as a
standard. We plan to continue this study with additional materials.

Turf Eradication
Potassium and sodium azide have shown some promise as a plant eradicator
and soil sterilant when applied to established turf. One hundred pounds per acre
of either material failed to give complete plant kill. It appears that 200
pounds or more per acre is required for assurance of complete turf kill. These
materials disappear quickly from the soil and reseeding could be done in about
one week. Apparently the killing action is by contact with very little translocation in the plant. Some residual nitrogen could be expected from higher
rates of this material. Since both materials are experimental, their cost is unknown .
Poa annua Control
During the past summer and fall we have tested seven (7) chemicals that
showed some promise as selective post-emergence annual bluegrass control in
Kentucky bluegrass turf. The results were encouraging. From the seven (7)
materials tested in the field, two (2) showed enough promise to warrant further
test. These two materials have been tested during the winter in the greenhouse.
Our results show that these materials will kill Poa annua when applied postemergence. None of these materials have been tried pre-emergence. Slight injury to Kentucky bluegrass occurred at some of the higher rates. Additional work
is planned to determine rates under different conditions.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION - TURF AND WEATHER
Marvin H. Ferguson, Mid-Continent Director, and
National Research Coordinator USGA Green Section
College Station, Texas

Evapotranspiration is a term used to describe the water loss resulting
from the combined effects of evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from plant surfaces. This water loss is a substantial factor and it is the
concern of several separate but related disciplines.
The water economists and the hydrologists are interested in the amount of
rainfall which is dissipated back into the atmosphere by these forces. From
their standpoint, this is water which is lost, is unusable, and which represents
a debit entry in the account of available water.
The meteorologist is concerned with the effects of evaporation and transpiration on weather and the reciprocal effects of humidity, wind movements, and
temperature upon évapotranspiration.
The plant morphologist studies plant structures in relation to moisture
loss. He is also interested in the effects of moisture and atmospheric conditions
upon plant modifications.
The plant physiologist is concerned with évapotranspiration as a plant
growth process. Is it a necessary evil? Does it perform any necessary function
in the plant?
The turf manager is concerned with all these things, though he is unlikely
to study them in such intimate detail. Being a practical man, he is interested in
the effects of evaporation and transpiration upon his turf, upon his watering program and indirectly upon his labor requirements. It is a complex and complicated
subject.
Evaporation occurs when the molecules in a liquid mass of water attain
sufficient velocity to entirely overcome the attractive forces holding them in
the liquid. Transpiration is a modified form of evaporation inasmuch as evaporation occurs in intercellular spaces and moisture vapor, then diffuses outward
through the stomata. This type of transpiration (stomatal) accounts for most of
the water loss from growing plants. Some direct loss from leaf surfaces (cuticular transpiration) occurs and in woody plants there is often a loss of moisture
from stems through the lenticels of bark tissue (lenticular transpiration).
The magnitude of transpiration is highly variable. The variation occurs
at different times of day, at different seasons and it is highly dependent upon
soil and atmospheric conditions.
Ecological factors involved in évapotranspiration are humidity, atmospheric pressure, soil temperature, soil water, soil aeration, air temperatures,
and wind movement.
Morphological factors which influence transpiration are hairs on plant
surfaces, the number, arrangement,and location of stomates, leaf folding and
rolling mechanisms, the cuticular covering of the leaf and the depth and degree
of proliferation of the root system.

The effect of transpiration on plants is a matter of many facets. It is a
process which is regarded by some observers as a necessary evil. Transpiration
results in loss of water and in cases of very rapid transpiration accompanied by
slow uptake, wilting may occur. A great deal of controversy exists with respect
to the role of transpiration in the processes of water absorption, salt uptake,
the movement of water and the dissipation of solar energy. There seems to be reasonably good evidence that transpiration plays no really important part in any of
these processes, though it may contribute in some degree to all of them.
The practical aspects of évapotranspiration, as they relate to Turf Management, revolve about the wilting of turfgrasses. This can occur when water loss is
high and water intake is low. A restricted root system, a dry soil, a waterlogged soil, or a poorly aerated soil can contribute to a limitation of water uptake. When the soil is too wet, the damage is called "wet wilt." The other conditions contribute to the more easily recognizable form of wilt.
The remedy for any of these aliments is to slow down water loss. This may
be done by showering or syringing turf to cool it and to raise humidity in the
immediate vicinity of the plant. Materials which will cause stomates to close may
also reduce water loss.
Thus, the manager may approach the problem from two directions. He can
strive to create conditions conducive to ready uptake, such as deep rooting/good
aeration, and good moisture conditions in the soil. He can also compensate to
some degree for deficiencies in these matters by raising the humidity, or by imposing barries to the loss of water from leaves.
A thorough understanding of the principles of évapotranspiration will enable the turf manager to know the "why" of soil-plant-water relations. His intelligence and common sense will tell him the "how" of coping with his problems.

PIPE FOR IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Edward Stoltz, Jr., Johns-Manville Sales Corp.,
Waukegan, Illinois

The turf market today is expanding at a terrific rate and one of the reasons
is because of economical irrigation systems. Hand-watering of large turf areas is
rapidly becoming obsolete because piping systems provide a superior watering
pattern at lower cost. On turf systems today we find various mechanical systems,
among which are portable piping, self-propelled sprinklers connected by hose, and
permanent underground piping systems.
Since the underground piping system represents a sizeable sum of money sometimes as high as $ 100,000 for an 18-hole golf course - it is well to have
an understanding of the pipe which comprises as much as half of the cost of many
systems. The major types of underground pipe in use today are:
Asbestos-Cement

Cast Iron

Galvinized

Plastic

Occasional systems have used steel and aluminum under certain circumstances, but
their effect on the current market is insignificant.
No. 1 - Asbestos-Cement
This pipe as manufactured by Johns-Manvilie is called TRANSITE and is a
mixture of asbestos, cement and silica which produces a pipe of highly uniform
quality. TRANSITE pipe will not tuberculate or rust; it is highly resistant to
corrosion both inside and outside; it is lightweight and can be handled manually
in the sizes used for turf; it possesses adequate strength; it is easy to handle
and install; it has tight flexible rubber joints, and last but not least, has a
high flow capacity which is maintained throughout the life of the pipe. Over 60
years of world wide experience has resulted in a piping material well suited for
irrigation. It is available in sizes 3 inches and above.
No. 2 - Cast Iron pipe as we know it today is generally centrifugally cast from
various compositions of iron to produce a product of uniform quality. It is
available with a tar-coated, unlined interior, or with a thin cement lining
covered with a sealer to resist corrosion. It is fairly heavy, requiring mechanical equipment, but is easily joined. Today's cast iron almost always has flexible
rubber joints which are tight. The lead joint days are gone for good, we hope.
It posses high strength and an initial high flow capacity, which may or may not be
maintained, depending on many factors. A history of long life is another good
feature of cast iron pipe. It is available in sizes 2" and above.
No. 3 - Galvanized Pipe is essentially steel pipe with a zinc coating inside and
outside to retard corrosion. Assembly is generally made by threaded connection
which provides a degree of flexibility. This product is lighter than cast iron,
although considerably heavier^than plastic or asbestos-cement. The larger sizes
(3", 4", 6", etc.) usually require mechanical handling, while the smaller sizes
can be manually handled.
No. 4 - Plastic Pipe as used in turf are thermoplastic types, including polyethylene, PVC, ABS, etc. Polyethylene is coiled and comes in small sizes 1 - 2 and
is still widely used on home laxm systems. ABS, because of its high impact
strength, was used for a couple of years. As the price of PVC resins were reduced and their strengths increased, it dominates the small diameter pipe market.
This pipe has, until recently, only been available with solvent weld joints, but
within the last two years rubber-jointed pipes have appeard on the market. The
rubber-jointed pipe has the big advantage of exceptional flexibility, no cemented
joint problems due to poor cementing techniques, and automatic expansion and contraction. All PVC pipe, regardless of joint type, is lightweight, flexible, simple to handle and strong. Quality ranges from good to exceptionally good, depending upon the supplier. However, the trend is rapidly approaching excellent quality and uniformity of product as well-financed major companies enter the field.
MSF approved plastic pipe will not contaminate the water and is often used to
serve drinking fountains around a golf course. There are now plastic pipes on the
market without the NSF seal, which have been designed specifically for irrigation
purposes.
Well, enough of the background information on types of pipe. Now, let's ask
ourselves, "What do I want in a pipe."
Strength? - Yes. Handleability? - Yes.
Long life? - Certainly! But, what I really want is a pipe that will carry as much
water many years from now as it does when it is new. This is what a pipe is
supposed to do - CARRY WATER. All types of pipe do this but with perhaps surprisingly different end results as we shall see.

The American Cast Iron Pipe Cortpany's manual says - "The carrying capacity
of a given pipe line is limited only by its internal resistance to the flow of
water." Engineers express this by using a value "C" which is a factor of flow coefficient. The higher the "C" value, the smoother is the inside of the pipe, and
consequently the lower is the internal resistance to flow. To give you an idea of
what this difference in smoothness means, let us look at the pressure drop in 1000'
of 2" pipe and a 4" pipe for different "C" values at an approximate velocity of 5'
per second. Incidentally, the most economical velocities for turf are between 3'
and 6' per second at pressures up to around 125 psi so this is why we recommend 5'
per second.
1.

2.
3.

For the same velocity a 4" pipe delivers 4 times the amount of water as 'does
a 2" pipe. Putting it another way, discarges are proportional to the squares
of the diameter.
four
The 4" pipe has less than 1/2 the pressure drop of the/2" pipe.
Notice how the pressure drop increases as the "C" (smoothness) value is reduced .

4. With increases in velocity, the proportional pressure drop would increase.
With decreases in the velocity, the pressure drop would be less.
For the same head of pressure, the velocity will be less in the smaller pipe,
and thus the discharge will vary as the 2.63 power of the diameters, i.e., the
square root of the fifth power. For instance, if the pressure is the same in both
pipes, you will need almost 6 pieces of 2" pipe to equal a 4" pipe, almost three
pieces of 4" pipe to equal a 6" pipe, 2 pieces of 6" pipe to equal an 8" pipe.
The amount of water that a pipe can carry is also determined by its inside
diameter. It is obvious that sometimes you do not get what you think you a re
getting.
Now, what does this all mean to your irrigation pipe sytem?
1.

When you select pipe consider the demands of the system. How much pressure do
I need? How much water do I need? How fast will the system run?

2.

The same size pipe in various types of material does not deliver the same
amount of water under the same conditions. ("C" value and inside diameter
varies).

3.

To plan for possible future changes, pipe of one material of a larger size may
be required than pipe of another material. Thus, the system may cost more
money. (In today's money market, $ 1.00 borrowed means $ 2.00 just twelve
years from now since 6% money doubles itself in 12 years).

4.

It is imperative that pressure reaching sprinkler heads be fairly uniform. If
your pressures decrease as the "C" value deteriorates, you will notice a narrowing of fairways. A fairway sprinkler that initially was throwing water
180 feet may have its throw reduced to 170 feet or less if the pressure drops
10 psi.

5.

Even though "C" values may drop off x^ith time, more or less uniform pressures
can be maintained by increasing pumping pressures. Obviously this uses more
electricity and increases cost of operation.

Th- purpose of this paper has not been to downgrade or praise any piping material, but to remind you of facts available to anyone who is willing to make comparisons .

THE PROPER APPROACH TO BUYING AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Bob Rupar, Irrigation Engineer, Rainy Sprinkler Sales
Peoria, Illinois

Turf production is now a multi-billion dollar industry in the United Sates, in
which the irrigation system is a widely accepted and essential production tool.
Efforts at controlling the cost of installing or using this production tool, as in
any industry, can be easily appreciated and deserves further attention.
Substantial capital expenditures, both initially and "annually, are required
for turf irrigation systems. Manually operated systems require lower initial investments, but much higher operative expenses than automated systems* Since the
cost of labor and water consume approximately 807o of maintenance expenditures with
manual systems, efforts to reduce these costs through automation are well-founded.
According to the Economic Research Associates, a firm in the field of land use
economics, the additional cost of the automatic system over the manual system on
the west coast is paid for in 1.4 years; thus representing an investment return of
70 to 75%. Here in the midwest the payout is usually considered to be 5 to 7
years, which is still a good investment return.
Not only the cost of labor, but it's the lack of availability and reliability
make this comparison more interesting. However, who can place exact dollar values
on such things as water control, flexibility, and uniformity of application? These
are obvious merits adding to the utility and results from an automated irrigation
system.
The désire to control costs has led to many serious errors in judgment and
misuse of equipment, unfortunately at the expense and reputation of earlier automatic systems. Automatic irrigation is sophisticated and complex, and requires
the best possible coordination of those who specialize in engineering, design and
installation. Cost shortcuts may be simple, but can lead to very expensive headaches. If you are considering an irrigation system for a large turf area, it may
pay you real dividends to know what channels to work through and the pitfalls of
taking the wrong approach.
The easiest and most common mistake for a club to make is to let their intentions to purchase an irrigation system be known, request two or more equipment distributors or manufacturers to design a system using their equipment, and then have
several contractors bid on the various plans. Let us assume that everyone involved is reputable and sincere.
What a ridiculous situation we have created - IF
the only consideration in final selection is price - not the individual merits of
design or equipment.
Irrigation system design requires the talents of professional people who are
experienced in sprinkler selection and performance, pipe sizing and routing; also,

pump, valve arid controller selection;
The highly competitive market and the desire to avoid equipment misuse has
forced equipment manufacturers to offer design services at nominal charges. Keep
in mind, however, that equipment manufacturers are not in business to offer competitive design services.
So, rather than request designs from several manufacturers, a more logical
approach is to survey the equipment market thoroughly until you have developed confidence in one line of equipment, request a design from that manufacturer (or distributor), then obtain competitive installation bids.
This procedure, though much better than the first approach, still leaves
many burdens upon the turf manager, which he may or may not be able to handle.
Due to their complexities, these burdens, which entail such things as specifications and contract writing, contract negotiations, and jobsite inspection should
be handled professionally to expedite the project. In fact, when planning irrigation systems on larger turf areas, it may be well to consider an independent consultant .
The design consultant, the installation contractor, local equipment distributors, and the turf manager form a team of experts through which a first class,
dependable irrigation system can be obtained. Each team member performs a vital
function and the success of the project will depend upon their close cooperation.
The consultant engineer or architect performs several vital functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Makes the preliminary survey and determination of system needs.
Prepares the design, showing system layout and installation details.
Prepares project specifications and contracts.
Assists in negotiation of contracts.
Repeatedly inspects the job during installation.
Prepares a final "as built" drawing for files.

It may be well to point out at this point that like a good design, the specifications and contract are of vital significance to the success of the project.
The registered professional engineer or architect is formally trained and experienced in all phases of such project functions. His opinions are unbiased, and he
is obligated to specify the equipment which he feels will perform best for you.
The consultant's fee, usually 47o to 8% of the project cost, is very nominal in consideration of the vital function which he performs.
The function of the installation contractor is quite obvious and self explanatory. The contractor who specializes in work of this nature is very essential,
not only because of his experience and ability, but also because he is more competitive than the general contractor. The local distributor, who has helped develop
your interest in a modern system, will furnish the equipment to the installation
contractor during the project. After project completion you will rely upon him for
service, parts and assistance, so he is an essential member of the team.
Conclusion
Many of the objections to earlier automated irrigation systems have stanmed
from efforts to cut cost in the wrong areas. One of the most serious erroar has
been in the approach taken in purchasing the system. Use every resource available.
Avoiding the pitfalls of misjudgment and excessive cost cutting in the initial
phases of a project can mean dollars saved in the long run.
Z3I_- -

USING AUTOMATIC IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ON NEED
Donald Wright, Supt., Camargo Club
Cincinnati, Ohio

Carefully programmed automatic irrigation is very important for the modern
superintendent, who is thinking in terms of better and better turf. This is especially true as the numbers of players seem ever increasing. Before programming
each superintendent will need answers to the following questions:
What kind or kinds of soil are found on the course?
What is the nature of the surface and sub-surface drainage?
What kind of grass is he trying to produce for the player? Since some
superintendents have more than one kind of grass to water, this may
take more than one kind of water application. Water needs for each
situation need to be thought out and wisely programmed.
Programming irrigation boils down to how to use whatever hours are available to water.
Most superintendents will have ten hours available for watering.
Some may need more and some less, but for an example let's program a ten-hour day.
We can split the system up into three categories: tees, greens, fairways. Now,
in ten hours, all or part of these three areas must be watered. Since most superintendents consider greens most important, let's program them first.
If you have been using thirty minutes of water a night on each green and
you can water six greens at one time, this gives a total of one and one-half hours
running time for the greens. If the tees require the same, three of the ten hours
watering time have been used. The fairways can be programmed to use all or any
part of the seven hours remaining. If the average number of fairway heads on the
course is 280, in seven hours time all of these heads can water for 30 minutes at
a time. This type of automatic irrigation system would require 1000 g/p/m and a
good source of water.
The amounts of water just indicated can be programmed on the clocks in very
different ways. Programs I and II following are two examples. They are very
different, but arrive at the same amount of time and water.
Program I. Irrigation of greens starts at 8:00 o'clock and turn off at
9:30. The tees turn on at 9:30 and turn off at 11:00 o'clock. The fairways come
on at 11:00 and turn off at 6:00 A.M. The total running time is ten hours, and
all is well, or is it? In watering with automation this way, unless your soil is
100 percent sand, you are doing more harm than good, both soil-wise and plant-wise.
If there was run-off and saturation neither one does any good for the grass that
you are trying to grow. Always remember that automatic irrigation puts out the
maximum effort. The least amount of water that you can use at any given time, the
better off you are.
Program II. short irrigations, repeated with soak-in time between. This
allows total absorption and greatly reduces run-off, plus has other side benefits.
Program the fairways first at night and water them until 3:00 A.M. for a
total of six times at five minutes each. Do the tees next until 4:30, six times
at five minutes each. Water the greens last to get the morning dew off the plant
as well as to water it properly. Rest fifteen minutes inbetween each five-minute
cycle.

Another advantage of the five minute cycle is the ability to coolly,our grass
during the day. In 15 minutes you can cool all tees; all greens in fifteen minutes
and all fairways in one hour and ten minutes. With five cycles you can put on any
amount of water (up to thirty minutes in 10 hours). By using the skip-a-day part
of your clock you can say "yes" or "no" to any part of the program.
Remember, program automatic irrigation to apply water as the soil and the
plants can take it, not how much you can apply at any given time.

AlR-CGNDITIGNEDxJAIRWAYS
Richard B. Craig, Supt., Losantiville C.
Cincinnati, Ohio

Club

Automatic irrigation used daily to air-condition fairway turf? This talk, I
must admit, is based on only one year's personal experience, and the use of light,
daily watering of grass is far from a standard accepted practice. But, because we
had much Poa annua in the fairways when the water system was installed, the development of an irrigation program that would keep Poa annua turf alive through Cincinnati
summers could not begin to be anything normal. The technique of using light applications of water has been used with success in garden crops, such as tomatoes and
strawberries, and by Don Likes at Hyde Park Golf and Country Club in. keeping Poa
annua. The principle of keeping the soil surface moist does agree with the very
nature of Poa, a plant itfith a shallow root system preferring a damp, cool climate.
The real key, I think, for keeping Poa annua and the programming of your automatic water system is to have, every morning in the hot weather, sufficient water
in the Poa annua rootzone to carry the plant through the hot afternoon. The soil
water content of this surface soil was thought to be near 100% of the field capacity daily. This abundant water in the soil surface was necessary to supply needed
moisture for plant root uptake all that afternoon, and it also was necessary to
cool the plant. The real significance of this water is its cooling by the lowering of plant and soil temperatures as the water changes from a liquid to a vapor
in evaporting from their surfaces. This evaporting water lowers the grass plant
temperature and the soil temperature, which in turn increases the relative humidity in the plant's micro-climate, and ultimately reduces the water loss from the
plant through transpiration, leaving more water in the plant for growth and development processes; thus, a healthy turgid plant.
To accomplish having the soil surface near field capacity every morning requires almost nightly application of water through the summer months. The amount of
water applied always fluctuates, but an average rate was approximately l/10th of an
inch of water per night. This was never applied all at once. We usually water
fairways in 3 cycles with the first two cycles occurring as early in the night as
possible to alow maximum time for soil absorption, and the third cycle starting
after dawn to knock the dew down.
By no means does this automatic system replace or reduce the work load of the
superintendent. He has to know each day what the water status is in every foot of
his 40 acres of fairways, and must decide for each 200 plus sprinklers how much

water will be required that night to bring the soil back up to desired water content . He must review the next day's weather forecast and out-guess it, and modify
the clocks if needed. One thing I did learn was that you can never anticipate
rain. If it's not actually raining use your water system because if you don't
have sufficient water the next morning to hold your fairways through the next day,
you don't have time to water then. I am seriously considering changing my title
from Greens Superintendent to Fairway Superintendent. I am now spending more than
half my time each day riding over the fairways, checking and then rechecking.
Many people have hinted that electronic moisture sensors would help, but I
believe they would be of little overall help unless there were nearly as many sensors as sprinklers because we know that 40 acres is not going to dry out uniformly.
I feel there just isn't an economical replacement for a good pair of eyes and a
willingness to go out and look.
I do want to mention that I did not use the above procedure on my putting
greens. These were irrigated as they needed water. The significant thing about
the greens was that for the first time in my life I was able to keep my bent roots
down. I ended up the summer with roots 4 inches in depth or more. I think this was
due to the use of the automatic water system which let me add limited water to the
greens when they needed it, and in the amount needed; thus, keeping a uniform moisture in the soil profile. In the past, night watering was done only once or twice
a week and was accomplished by men from the day crew coming back after supper and
working 3 to 4 hours more. With this type of situation you watered when the men
could work. With this program. I can set and observe the watering program as part of
supervision activities.
In summary I believe that Poa annua survived because there was an abundance
of soil moisture for plant root absorption and for water evaporation which cooled
the plant and soil surface to a tolerable level. Daily watering can be done with
no more supervision than other schedules. The turf responded well. During 1966
daily air-conditioning will be our target again.

MANICURING FAIRWAY TURF - 3rd REPORT
N. W. Kramer, Supt., Point O'Woods Country Club
Benton Harbor, Michigan

I have spent many hours trying to find a real answer to good fairway turf %
Let's go back to the basic problem at Point O'Woods Country Club. First, it was a
large forest and estate before a course was established in 19 59, and second, it was
heavy clay soil. Third, there was little air, light and water drainage. Where to
start?
I started with air drainage and a complete pruning program on the trees.
This also meant, of course, all underbrush. Next, hundreds of feet of soil drainage
in which we used perforated fiber pipe covered to the surface with pea gravel. We
are now using pea gravel in slit trenches without tile and it is doing an excellent
job.

The next problem we faced was the Highland bentgrass. It not only would
not adapt itself to soil conditions, but as soon as we started mowing it short it
began to thin out. At this point we decided to buy equipment that would enable us
to plant a new strain of bent into the fairways. We chose a slicing type of machine along with a sweeper for picking up the grass clippings. We also overseeded 30 pounds Seaside bentgrass per acre, using a Brillion seeder - with excellent results. By 1963 another problem - how were we going to control the Poa
annua,which was making inroads fast?
After careful study I presented a program to the Board of Directors which
required a special allocation of money to be used for the purchase of calcium arsenate 85% powder for use on the fairways. They accepted the program and we started
in the fall "of 1963. We applied the powder with a sprayer at the rate of 10 pounds
per 1,000 square feet on a limited acreage. It looked quite encouraging, so in the
fall of 1964 we decided to broadcast the powder at the rate of 5 pounds per 1,000
square feet. It went on with little trouble and everything looked good until the
spring of 1965. What a shock! Wherever there was overlap, the Poa annua had completely disappeared over the winter.
I want to remind you at this point that the overseeding program that I had
started in 1962 was still in full operation, but some Seaside had passed out also.
A quick check pointed out two things: a broadcast spreader was not the answer
(if using powder). However, the one thing not thought out beforehand was the soil
moisture level. Here we have found that if soil moisture is near or at field capacity the calcium arsenate will and has done a fine job in controlling crabgrass,
Poa annua and earthworms.
In 1965 our fairway program was as follows:
April 21

-

we mowed the fairways for the first time

May 21

-

fertilized with ammonia sulphate - 200 lbs./acre

June 14

-

fertilized with 45?0 urea - 100 lbs./acre

June 28

-

fertilized with 457o urea - 70 lbs./acre.
We also started applying 2 gallons on one acre plots on #18 fairway using liquid fertilizer Plot #1: 20-20-12. Plot #2: 10-20-10. Plot #3: 20-10-20.

June 30

-

phosphoric acid was sprayed on #5, #6, #7, #8 and #15 at the rate
of 1 pint per 150 gals, of water sprayed on 4 fairways. This was
to reduce arsenic toxicity until seedlings started.

July 12

-

sprayed with 20-10-20 at the rate of 2 gals./acre

July 23

-

sprayed for disease control

July 26

-

W.G.A. amateur started.

August 5

-

sprayed 20-10-20 at 2 gals./acre

August 21

-

sprayed fairways with 20-10-20 at 2 gals./acre

September was very wet

September 14

-

sliced fairways 5c overseeded with 20 lbs. Seaside/acre

September 27

-

fertilized with 457o urea 100 lbs./acre

November 1

-

trenched 1750 feet of fairway low spots and filled slit trench
with pea gravel. (Editor7s,notes Suggest overflow fill of
trench with sand above pea gravel).

Our general practice is to mow the fairways with a mower set at 11/16th of
an inch 3 times a week and 4 times a week when the grass is growing rapidly. When
starting the season I had planned to get 8 pounds of nitrogen, 4 pounds of phosphate
and 8 pounds of potash per 1,000 square feet on the fairways. As it turned out we
only got on 7 - 3 - 7 pounds due to the heavy rains.
In summarizing, I would like to say that there is much room for improvement.
Last fall we had the finest grass growing season I have ever had the pleasure of
going through. The wet and cool season brought on even more Poa annua. We have had
an open winter for our part of the country, having only a total of 63" of snow.
Looking at the fairways on Friday we have a mild case of snowmold on the fairways.
I give the chemical industry a challenge. Give, the Superintendents a chemical that controls Poa annua and at the same time will still enable us to continue
our seeding and fertilizing programs. The turf industry would be very grateful,
and I am looking forward to the time when it may become a reality.

(Editor's note: Prior reports are in 1964 and 1965 Turf Conference Proceedings).
P°a annua control with arsenics is wanted, then only the least practical phosphorus should be used.

PREPARING FOR A NATIONAL TOURNAMENT
Ernie Schneider, Supt.,BEllerive Country Club,
St. Louis, Missouri

In September 1963 I was invited to come over to Bellerive Country Club near
St. Louis, to look at their golf course. I took a quick tour, had lunch with the
Greens Committee and some of the Board members, and they made me a proposition.
The terms they offered were O.K., but I wanted to think it over for a few days. I
accepted the position the third of October, and was to report for work February 1.
As I made out my work program, I knew that the first thing that had to be
done was to renovate the traps. These traps were put in without any drains; they
were scooped out in a fashion that after every rain the sand would wash out. Some
were even located so that the drainage off of the greens washed through the
traps. This was remedied by use of swails to carry the water away from the trap.
All the traps had to be dug out by hand. All the traps that were on a slope were
dug out next to the green one to two feet, creating a sort of shelf. In draining
the traps I picked out the low end of the trap, dug a hole three feet deep and three
feet across; then dug a drainage ditch from this hole. This hole was filled with
large gravel within four inches of the top; then a plastic drainage tile was
placed in this ditch. I put two inches of pea gravel over the large gravel and

also over the plastic pipe; then two inches of coarse sand. The ditch was then
filled with dirt and sodded. We used brown sand in the bottom and topped them
off with white sand. This white sand was put on at least four inches deep all
over. All traps were renovated before June, 1964.
My biggest disappointment were the greens. For a new golf course they were
poorly constructed, just a gravel bed under them for drainage and no tile; the
mixture was about 407o sand, but very poorly mixed. To my surprise the greens had
thatch on them better than an inch and a half thick. Some of the greens had as
many as three hundred circles, which were identified as "fairy ring." Every green
had them - some worse than others. A soil check showed the pH was very low - from
5.4 to 6.1. The first thing I did was to remove some of the thatch by different
methods, use of delmonte rakes, aero-blade, brushing and combing. Also, applied
30 pounds per 1,000 square feet of Dolmetic limestone and two pounds of sulphomag. In the mid-summer 10 more pounds of lime and again in the fall 20 pounds,
and again last spring 20 pounds. Greens were topdressed spring and fall. I used
a regular fertilizer program, using various types of fertilizers. Greens were
treated with a wetting agent twice in the spring at the rate of 8 ounces per M,
and in the fall 8 ounces. The fairy ring disappeard on all the greens except two;
one had 3 rings and the other 4.
Marv Ferguson made one of his annual visits, and as we were touring the golf
course I told him that I had done everything to the greens which I knew, and they
had not responded as I wished them to. So, he took a look and discovered the
worst infestation of frit flies that he had ever seen. It took three sprayings,
four days apart to rid these pests. I sprayed Malathion at 2 ounces per M. They
reappeared in '65; I used DDT at the recommended rate, and couldn't get rid of
them, so had to go back to Malathion.
The greens average 10,500 square feet. It takes six men three hours to cut
the greens. On No. 18 green we removed the sod, cut a hump down 3 feet for better
spectator view; then dug out 8 inches of soil, replaced this soil with a regular
greens mix, and replaced the sod. I had to remove the sod off the corners of two
other greens because these areas were so rough.
The fairways required a lot of work. A crew of six men spent the entire
summer sodding and stolonizing areas. Drainage is very poor on the fairways, and
it was impossible to eliminate all the low places in such a short time; so, we
concentrated on the worst ones, especially in the landing areas. All these areas
had to be filled and sodded because there was no grass. Lack of moisture made
this a very rough job, since it was very dry and windy. I used two men constantly
to follow up watering all these areas because the fairway sprinklers would miss
some and were not in the proper positions for others; hence, we had hose strung
all over the place.
The areas that were stolonized were done very fast with the method I used.
First, we eliminated the crabgrass, then scattered the stolons, which we secured
from thinning out a tee or other area. I used a unit consisting of a Rogers Aeroblade with one-fourth inch tines, followed by a coulter, behind which was a roller.
The Aero-blade made the seedbed, the coulter pushed the stolons in the ground, and
the roller smoothed it out. These areas were watered immediately.
All fairways were fertilized at 1#N/1,000 at least four times and some six
times. By fall we had decent coverage; I even irrigated the fairways after they
were dormant because of lack of moisture. Crabgrass was kept out by use of DSMA.
In August the fairways were laid out to ninety feet by Mr. Dey and Trent Jones.

This gave us a lot of bermuda rough- Extra work was made for us by the fact that
this water system was put in before the fairways were graded, so many of the snapon heads were above the ground, or some were too low- The only time we could work
on this was when the water was shut off, a couple of months during the winter.
This water system did not have any drainage valves and it used to take them two days
to pump it out. I have put some drain valves in, but still pump out some of the
main lines which are seven feet underground.
Tees had good grass on them, but they were exceptionally thatchy. We removed
the thatch; we rebuilt and lengthened one tee, and built two new tees. No. 10 was
shortened by 100 yards for spectator purposes; No. 5 was lengthened 50 yards; No- 3
made larger; No. 6 was lengthened 18 yards; No. 14 lengthened 20 yards; No. 18
lengthened 15 yards. I installed 34 slabs of concrete, each 4 feet by 10 feet, at
tees - both women's and men's, large enough to hold a bench and marker sign.
Due to the dry fall and spring the roughs did not respond like they should.
All the roughs were aerified, fertilized with 400 lbs. 16-8-8 to the acre, seed
was planted with a regular grass drill. Only wherever we watered did we have good
germination of seed- The roughs were fertilized three times with 16-8-8, 400 pounds
to the acre spring, fall and spring.
Being a new golf course they had hundreds of young trees on the place. They
had a dry fall in 1963, had dug wells around the trees to water them,and filled the
wells with a mulch that had considerable rubbish in it, such as rocks, glass, bones,
etc. This material had to be removed and the wells backfilled. There were so many
dead trees it took a man a days and a half just to mark the dead trees. Where
there were culverts under the fairways to drain the adjoining property, they would
start at one edge of the fairway and be terminated at the other edge of the fairway.
The ends of the culverts were so eroded it was impossible to maintain, except with
a cycle. Extensions were put on with fill and grading to give a neat appearance.
All the erosion areas on the golf course were filled, walls were put in where necessary to hold the dirt. I hired a hi-lift for two weeks to help straighten out along
No. 2 and No. 17 fairways where the contractor had left piles of rubbish, stumps,
etc. Stumps were piled and burned up; all the area was graded and seeded where
possible, and sodded where needed. One of these areas was an old creek bed. Some
of the cart paths were started before I came here, so we added more, extended some
and built some new ones. Most of this work was performed with club labor, only
the black top was let out on bid.
We have four ponds on the golf course, all required some work. One would
not hold water, so we bulldozed the old dam down, scooped out the pond and built a
new dam. Now this pond holds water very well. I hired a drag line; he promised
to come but did not get there until November; when his equipment wasn't broken
down, his help was taking off to go hunting, so by this time the bad weather had
set in, and we dug out the rest of this pond by hand 6 to 18 inches deep. We deepened the other pond and graded all the banks, so now we can mow right up to the
water's edge.
In the fall of '64 they graded all the eighty acres that adjoins the golf
course for a subdivision. This mud washed down on the golf course in several
places. We had to use a bladeon the fairways to scrape it up in piles and haul it
off. One half acre of No. 4 fairway was real bad and we ended up removing it and
sodding the area. All the sod we had was used, but the Westwood Country Club generously supplied me with enough sod for this area; also for in front of #14 green.
Mr. Frank Hannigan of the U.S.G.A. went over the golf course with me and we picked
out places where we thought the temporary bridges should be erected. We installed
five temporary bridges from 20 to 80 feet long and 10 feet to 14 feet wide. We

had to install two more even after the qualifying started to handle the traffic.
Also, in this last week the insurance company came out and told me I had to
remove some dead wood out of over 25 large trees. It happened that one of the men
on the Greer. Committee knew a tree trimmer he could get on such short notice. We
had to clean up all this brush and haul it away.
Early spring of '65 I received a letter from Joe Dey of the U.S.G.A. regarding the heights of cut throughout the golf course. I passed this information on
to my Greens Chairman, but some of the members had other ideas on the height of the
grass, particularly in the rough areas. I gave in and left the grass grow. In the
meantime we erected five miles of snow fence completely around the golf course. It
took three men three weeks. This fence and stakes we got from the state - it was
not in the best of shape, but did serve the purpose.
On Saturday before the tournament Mr. Dey came. He asked me if I received
his letter regarding the heights of the cuts. I told him "yes." He wanted to know
xtfhy his instructions had not been followed. I turned around to look at the men responsible for the tall grass and no one said a word. Then he informed me that this
work had to be done and now. It was done on Saturday and Sunday. All this grass
had to be raked up and hauled off.
Next thing Mr. Dey found wrong was the width of the fairways. We had to
widen four fairways. Cutting back 2 inch bermuda to 3/8 inch was quite a job. I
had to have the operator run over it, then we swept it and ran over it again. This
took several passes before we finally got it down. This just left brown stubble.
Two of these fairways were going to be on TV. My GreensChairman, Marvin Ferguson
and I talked it over and decided to color these two fairways, No. 17 and No. 18.
Dr. Ferguson helped me obtain the dye; had it air-expressed in from Texas.
Thursday evening at dusk we sprayed these two fairways and they turned out beautiful.
The different heights of cuts on the golf course were as follows: greens
3/16 inch, around the collars 1/2 inch; twelve feet beyond collars 4-1/2 inches;
beyond that 5 inches; tees and fairways 3/8 inch; bermuda roughs 1-1/2 inches;
roughs cut at 5 inches; around ponds and traps 2 inches. The golf course for the
Open played at 7190 yards. There were 74 traps, three of which were added for the
tournament; two were enlarged.
This story would not be complete without mentioning my good friend, a member
of our club, Art Feuerbacher, who spent countless hours of his own time working on
the golf course, spraying weeds and poison ivy in the hard-to-get areas. He also
supervised the erecting of the storm fence. During the tournament he did errand
running and carried ice water in portable coolers to the tees for the players. He
reported every morning at 5:00 and did not leave until 8:00 P.M. Thanks to Dr.
Marvin Ferguson who came several days ahead and offered much help. Also, thanks
to the local superintendents, dealers and salesmen, who helped out in different
ways, such as manning the greens and traps during play.
If we were ever get another big tournament I would follow the man's instructions to the T, regardless of what the members desired. Many of my headaches
could have been avoided and personal feelings spared if we would have followed Mr.
Dey's instructions. We had perfectly beautiful weather all through the National
Open, temperatures from mid 80's to 90, but the next day after the play-off we got
a 2 inch rain which flooded the whole golf course. We lost all our temporary
bridges but one; the flood left mud up to 4 inches thick in some places. This was

on Tuesday, got another 2 inches on Wednesday and the course was closed to play until the following Sunday. If this would have happened during the tournament we
would have been out of business.

TURF FERTILIZERS - FROM PLANT TO PLANT
Hartl W. Lucks, Manager, Turf and Garden Products
Smith-Douglas Co., Columbus, Ohio

Probably no single industry has followed more closely the growth of America
with its frustrations as well as its days of properity as has the fertilizer industry. From the placing of a fish (natural organics) in the hill of corn, to the
application of nitrogen derived from air, has been a phenomenon both of man's ingenuity to produce as well as his ability to use the fruits of his imagination.
From plant to plant - from production to usage is ordinarily not too difficult, for generally only sales of the product is involved. When the automotive
manufacturers were able to build better cars, they did not have to wait for super
highways. Improvements in the airplane did not wait for the modern airport. Not
so with the fertilizer industry. Here the manufacturing of higher nutrient : content fertilizers depended first on the availability of basic raw materials; secondly, on proper equipment to apply it; and last,but not least, on varieties of
plants and farming techniques to use it efficiently.
During the growth period in the fertilizer industry, the main emphasis was
on production of fertilizers suitable for use on food crops. Some work was being
done by a few manufacturers, university, and the United States Department of Agriculture on the fertilization of turf. The first specific fertilizer offered to
the public in this section of the country for use on lawn was in 1924. This was a
4-12-4 grade. It was one of the highest analysis at the time. Contrast that with
the 25 - and yes, even the 30 unit nitrogen available to the turf specialists today.
As the increase, in analysis was taking place, there were several other things
happening. First, we were using higher concentrated materials from which secondary
and trace elements had been removed in the purificatiom.process. As an example, the
4-12-4 mentioned previously contained approximately 22 units of secondary and trace
elements; whereas, the 20-10-5, to which no secondary or trace elements have been
added, would likely run somewhere less than 2 units of secondary and trace elements.
The second most important thing that was happening was, that contrary to our
experience with field crops, as the nutrient content increased in turf foods, the
pounds used over a given area decreased. As an example, when 10-6-4 came into use,
we recommended 50 pounds for 5,000 square feet. When the 20-10-5 came into use,
we dropped do*wn to 22 pounds for 5,000 square feet. Here/ once again, we find that
the road "from plant' to plant" has obstacles. This decrease in weight upon increase of nutrient content was brought about primarily because of our inability to
use the higher analysis without damaging our turf.
In speaking of usage, on many occasions - yesterday as well as today - we find

the use of plant food misunderstood. Here is a brief news note taken from a very
early edition of the American Fertilizer Review. "The view by Mr. Wilson, the
Honorable Secretary of Agriculture, that fertilizers are a stimulant, is an illchosen word. The effect of fertilizer is a matter commonly called growth. There
is nothing akin to the stimulant of either the pipe or the glass-bottle variety.
Ultra-dry districts may be inclined to look unfavorably upon fertilizers if Mr.
Wilson persists in calling them stimulus s
The fertilizer manufacturer was also confronted with the problem of making
the 22 pounds of a density so that it could physically be applied to 5,000 square
feet. Thus, the use of light-weight carriers, such as vermiculite and corncobs,
came into being.
The granulation or pelletizing of a turf product is not too different from
the basic methods of pelletizing farm grades of fertilizer. Various materials are
used with a sufficient amount of liquid to produce a semi-liquid state. If a
carrier such as vermiculite or corncobs is used, it should be an integral part of
this whole mix. If it is not, but is added at a later time, we are likely to have
separation in the bag as well as in the spreading equipment.
At about the same time interest was developing in light- -weight, the product
Urea Formaldehyde became available in sufficient quantities for widespread usage.
This brought about a new concept of chemically fixing nitrogen so that it could be
held in the soil for longer feeding periods. This product combines the two basic
chemicals, urea and formaldehyde, as is in the plastic that is used to make telephones; however, the molecular structure differs.
Urea formaldehyde is available as a 38 percent solid. Its use in complete
turf foods is by far the simplest. Usually, however, a slurry is not made and this
results in a blended product in which you can see the urea formaldehyde, and again
separation can result. Use of the liquid urea formaldehyde is much more complicated.
Correct mole ratio between the added urea and the formaldehyde must be added, proper
temperatures and reaction, as well as pH, must be delicately controlled. If they
are not the reaction may produce plastics much like the telephone case and be unsuitable for plant usage.
In order to establish some sort of a comparison, by law we must show the
water insoluble nitrogen, or the W.I.N, on the bag if we are going to take credit
for the ureaform. This, however, is not the total answer. We must also know the
availability of the water insoluble nitrogen to plant. Usually it is suggested
that the availability index be between 35 and 50 percent.
What can we look for in the future? Probably not too much in the way of increase in analysis, but certainly different physical forms to make application
easier and safer. And probably too, newer compounds to increase the safety factor.
Certainly better utilization of our knowledge of the atom and radioactive isotopes
to increase our understanding of the interrelation of plant nutrients. Possibly
fertilizers will have increased use as the carriers for vitamins, hormones, and systemic pesticides and fungicides. As we continue to rob our soils of important
micro=nutrients, these elements will undoubtedly come into the picture.
And now in closing, since all of us are extremely interested in growing things,
I would like to leave you with a little riddle. Who am I? I cannot walk. I cannot
talk. If I could walk I would seek food and water. If I could talk I would ask man
to place these at my disposal. I am very unselfish - I ask of these things not for
myself alone, for I place myself at the disposal of both man and animal. I am

health and continued life. I am also agonizing death. I am food, clothing and shelter. Without me armies will fail and civilization will perish. Who am I? I am the
Kingdom of Plant Life.

A NOVEL ESTATE GOLF COURSE
Raymond Freeborg, Agronomist-Consultant
Link's Nursery, St. Louis, Missouri

Our objective was to design a small estate golf course with a limited number
of holes that would offer continued interest to golfers with fair ability - something better than the light chip shots usually found on a small layout of an acre:.
The Sycamore National Golf Club course consists of 4 greens, each with approximately 700 square "feet of putting surface. There are 5 tees, each consisting of
approximately 40 square feet of teeing area. Each green and tee has a coded color
combination. Thus, we could play from red tee to red green, black tee to black
green, yellow tee to yellow green, and white tee to white green.
The owner of Sycamore National Golf Club, a southern gentleman, decided on a
theme of some of the more noteworthy battles of the Civil War. Holes were identified as Fort Sumter, Shiloh, Chickamauga, and Bull Run. The nineteenth hole, every
course must have one, is appropriately identified as Appomatox.
As you play the course you must play across Cemetery Ridge, around Jocky
Hill, and over Hells Bunker, and as we approach the finishing hole you must pass
between Jocky Hill and Cannon Hill over a devestating sandtrap called the Robert
E. Lee to get onto a very sharply sloping green. After this hole Appomatox is
needed to repair the shattered nerves of the weary golfer.
SYCAMORE NATIONAL GOLF CLUB
Hole
Fort Sumter
Shiloh
Chi ckamauga
Fort Sumter
Bull Run
Shiloh
Fort Sumter
Fort Sumter
Chi ckamauga
TOTAL OUT

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Tee color to green color
Black to Red (Cemetery- Ridge)
Red to Yellow
Yellow to Black
Black to Red (Dogleg)
White to White
Red to Black (Cemetery- Ridge)
Black to White
Black to Yellow
Yellow to Red

Yards

Par

4
85
90
4
4
87
170
5
62
3
85
4
62
3
874
89 V| _J
817 * 35

The course is surrounded by out of bounds markers which are used to control
direction of play, as well as to confine the golfer to the Sycamore National Golf
Course property. All rules and regulations are based on U.S.Gglf Association

rules and are followed as much as possible during the two day tournament held each
year in September. A maximum of three foursomes can be using the course at one
time.
The area had previously been graded and planted with a mixture of ryegrass,
bluegrass and tall fescue. Trees were of fairly good size and placed so they would
fit into a playing pattern that would meet the requirements.
The grass selected for green and tees had to be relatively maintenance free
and capable of withstanding abuse in all months. We discarded bentgrass mainly because of the extreme amount of maintenance required in the summer. Of course,
there were other limiting reasons such as soil structure, drainage, etc. Bermudagrass was discarded because of possible damage from play in late fall, winter and
early spring. Also, because of its susceptibility to spring dead spot, which has
been a problem in St. Louis. Meyer zoysia grass was selected. Admittedly this
does not provide the smoothest putting surface, but with thinning in the spring and
fairly frequent cutting during the summer, about five times every two weeks, it has
given an acceptable putting surface.
By using the Meyer zoysia we were able to lay sod on the existing soil without any modifications. The areas selected for the greens and tees had to have at
least 50% of the available sunlight. This, of course, influenced how holes would
be laid out. All work was completed by May 1, 1964. Topdressing and additional
fertilizer was applied again in mid-May.
The design of the course has proved satisfactory. The lowest score for
eighteen holes is 65. This was turned in by one of Missouri's leading amateur
golfers.
For two years Meyer zoysia has held up well and given acceptable putting
and teeing surfaces with a minimum of care. Fairways are predominantly bluegrass.
Yearly labor and expense on the course is minimum (as part of the 2-acre back
lawn), enjoyment by the owners - maximum.

PLANNING THE NEW ST, LOUIS STADIUM TURF
Raymond Freeborg, Agronomist, Link's Nursery
St. Louis, Missouri

The Busch Memorial Stadium, a development of the Civic Center Development
Corporation of St. Louis, is designed to seat 50,000 spectators for baseball.
Lower stands near the dugouts for baseball are movable on tracks so they may be
centered along the football field. Also, about 5,000 temporary seats can be added
if needed. The total area in the stadium field is approximately 130,000 square
feet with about 119,000 in turf and 11,000 in base path, pitcher's mound,
and
coaches box. The engineer-architect firm#Sverdrup and Parcel retained, through
Link's Nursery, Dr. W. H. Daniel and me to supply consultant services for the turf
area. Our objective was to incorporate all of the best proven principles known for
the establishment of superior turf, and maintaining the best playing conditions.
The initial stadium specifications called for a duplication of the complex
tile drainage system found in the old stadium with pea gravel just above the tile
-43-

and 6 inches of topsoil placed over all; then common bluegrass sod to be laid.
Less than $ 80,000 was allowed for the work.
Internal Drainage
The design for hand-dug tile of the old stadium had five radial lines from
center and then tiles in junctioning pattern every 20 feet. This gave 130 junctions
of tiles; required 138 elevations to be set. It required 8 setups of a trencher to
lay one tile with junctions everywhere - - so modernize - for machinery use!
The redesigned tile system was based on long parallel runs on 20-foot centers,
draining in two directions from the center of the turf area into the drainage system
that surrounds the playing field. Four inch perforated, asbestos-cement tile was
trenched from 12 - 24 inches into subsoil and backfilled with pea gravel to overflow
of subgrade level. (Then the water system was installed). The subsoil was graded
between lines; then a washed sand layer was placed over pea gravel and subsoil. A
minimum of 3 inches was specified as was a uniform grade to contour. This gave
quick, uniform drainage under the rootzone .
Rootzone
The rootzone analysis was based on a permeability rate of 5 inches of water
per hour, or greater, after compaction. As long as the rootzone would hold enough
moisture and plant nutrients to support good plant growth, fast penetration was acceptable. The final rootzone mixture selected consisted of the following:
Material
Mesh
Washed sand
on 8
Mississippi
16
River source
32
60
150
through 270 less than
Calcined clay
(Terra-Green)

on

Analysis
%
0
27
28
33
11
1

4
0
10
8
30
91
40
96
60
98
Breakdown passing 80 mesh sieve
2.75
Absorption - M l . of water absorbed per gram
sample - 0.86 ml.
Density - 35 lbs. per cu. ft.

Dry volume
%
40

30

Peat (air dried,
cultivated
black-brown)

20
Organic content 90% plus
Moisture holding capacity - 407o plus
Weight per cu.ft. not to exceed 30 lbs.
Moisture content at delivery not to
exceed 66%

Soil (silt loam
selected)

Clay
Silt
Sand

- 6%
- 78%
- 16%

10

The laboratory analysis of mixture showed:
Bulk density when compacted - air dry
Bulk density when compacted - saturated
Percentage of large pores
Percentage of small pores
Permeability when compacted

1.22
1.66
22%
21%
19.8 inches per hour

This material was pre-mixed off-site out in St. Louis County.
ing included alternate piling of all materials in proper ratios; then
with an endloader; then passing this proportioned mix through a large
to get an acceptable uniform mixture. The rootzone will be placed to
depth of 8 inches ( + 1 inch) over the coarse sand layer.

Briefly, mixturning once
soil blender
a final

Total volume of the mixed rootzone included the following:
(as determined by weight slips, etc.)

Vol. of Materials

Sand
Calcined clay
Peat
Soil

Proposed
by vol.

cu. yds.

lbs.

1250
1000
770
400

3,750,000
945,000
625,000
1,200,000

3420

6,520,000

%

40
30
20
10

Realized
by vol.

%
37
29
22
12

A separate mixture for the base paths, pitcher's mound, and coaches' box
was also developed. It was important that this mix be related in particle size,
and permeability as closely as possible to the base rootzone mix to give acceptable performance. It was also necessary to design the base path mixture to be
firm enough to give solid footing for the base runners. It was also desirable to
have the color of the base paths as dark as possible so that they would show up
well in contrast to the turf areas. The base path mixture was made up of the
following -

Materials
Iron Mountain trap rock sand
(95%, passing a 10 mesh screen)
Calcined clay (24-48 mesh)
Peat
Soil

% by
volume
40%
20%
2 0%
20%

This base path mix was also blended at the same site as the rootzone. It
will be placed as the top 2 inches over the rootzone. It may be necessary to add
additional binding to this base path mix to meet the stability running requirements.
This can be done by adding even
clay as a binder as needed. However, an analysis
of this mixture was made along with analyses of mixtures from Cleveland base path
areas taken in 1964, and samples from paths taken in St. Louis at the old Busch
Stadium in 1965. The new mixture proved similar to the Cleveland material. It was
less sticky than the St. Louis mix, and differed primarily in the amount of clay,
which made the old base path mix tighter.
Mechanical renovation equipment will be used as needed.

Also, additional

peat, calcined clay or rootzone blend can be added as needed and incorporated by
aerifying. These can encourage additional drainage, or increase water and nutrient retention.
Turf
Turf for the playing field had to be developed to include grasses that would
meet both summer heat conditions (+ 95° F), and winter cold ( +
F), a range in
excess of 120°F. We set out to develop a turf that would come very close to meeting
all weather conditions with combined Zoysia and improved selections of bluegrass.
The turf had to be the best available under all weather conditions since the field
is to be used for both baseball and football. The Midwest and Meyer zoysia grasses
are to serve as the major foundation for summer turf; then the bluegrasses serve during the winter and early spring. Additional growth of bluegrass during fall, late
winter and early spring will be supported by soil heating accomplished with electric
heating cables buried under the turf.
Maintenance schedules must be designed to support both Zoysia and bluegrass.
Responses of either grass will be encouraged or discouraged as necessary, to maintain a uniformity of both types. This may be done as needed by selective fertilizing, mechanical thinning, use of soil heat, mowing height, etc.
Turf for the stadium was planted on a five acre off-site at Link's Turf
Farm one year prior to the date it is to be moved into the stadium as sod. Specifications for grass to be in the final turf include the following:
1.

Midwest zoysia - Zoysia japónica Steud., vigorous, medium density, released
by Purdue University in 1963, To be planted vegetatively at 45 0 sq.ft. of
nursery sod per acre of sod planted.

2.

Meyer zoysia - Zoysia japónica^ Steud., dense selection, released in 1950.
Planted vegetatively at 800 sq. ft. of nursery sod for each acre to be
planted.

3.. Bluegrass - Poa pratensis, which was interplanted with the Zoysias. Nursery
bluegrass sod consisting of experimentally tested strains with superior
vigor as 16F, 16B, and K-5(47) plus Newport, Merion, Delta, Park, Windsor,
Arboretum, and Common Kentucky Bluegrass was shredded and planted vegetatively
as clones at 1,350 sq.ft. minimum per acre to be planted.
4.

In association with the vegetative planting (from 2600 sq.ft. of sod) seed of
a blend of bluegrasses selected for their performance was also used.
a. Seed mix composed of 207o each of Newport, Merion, Delta, Windsor, and
Common Kentucky bluegrasses.
b. Seed was planted at 25 lbs./acre.

Soil was prepared for planting by plowing, disking and harrowing. Agricultural limestone, fine grade, was applied at 3-1/2 tons per acre, and 16-8-8 fertilizer applied
at 800 lbs. per acre. These were disked in after plowing. This work was completed
by May 1, 1965.
Planting procedures started May 1, 1965. A modified Bray planter was used to
plant vegetative grasses so species of grasses average one foot apart. Seed was.
applied same day with a cyclone seeder. After seeding all areas were mulched
lightly with straw, and watered frequently.

All plantings were completed by June 1, 1965. Within two weeks after planting all areas were sprayed with Tupersan at 6 pounds active per acre. This procedure was repeated again within two weeks at the same 6 pound active rate.
Fertilizer was applied throughout the summer. Total applied per acre by October 4 amounted to 413 pounds of nitrogen, 168 pounds of P205* and 150 pounds K^O.
The sod is to be placed in the stadium in mid-April 1966.

Irrigation
Irrigation will combine automatic pop-up sprinklers and soil sensors. The 7
manual outlets for hose available along the outer wall of the stadium were the original system planned. These were augmented by a snap-on valve located behind
second base, in a sod cup, to permit easy access to the center field part of the
base path for hand-watering as needed.
The automatic system, with permanent sprinklers, is designed to cover the
major part of the field uniformly. The base path areas have lighter coverage, receiving about 60% of the water that covers the turfed area of the field. Thus, the
base path can "be dried out by raking, etc., or wet manually as players and playing
conditions require.
The irrigation system is set up with 11 subzones, each subzone controlled by
a 2 inch electric valve supplying 3 - 4 pop-up sprinklers. In sequence time cams
deliver water to one of the 4 zones for 15 minutes of each hour (divided over the
area with 3, 3, 3, and 2 electric valves) to distribute pressure. Sprinklers will
supply from 7 to 16 gallons per minute. Sprinklers were selected for performance
and for the small surface size of the head. The smaller head would present less
surface area to interfere with play.
An important control of watering is realized by the use of soil moisture sensors (Automist system). Each of the 11 electric valves will have a soil sensor to
control the valve and a reserve. These are buried at a 2-inch and a 3-inch depth
in each watering area to measure available moisture. The control panel is designed
with 11 individual controls in percentage increments which can be set to desired
percentage - 50, 80, 95?0, etc. These individual controls permit watering when the
rootzone moisture falls below a pre-determined percentage. Thus, when sensor signals dial need, when time-block permits use, when cams open valves, each zone will
receive water in sequence until sensor is wetted, which cuts off water immediately
for that subzone.
The permanent rotary pop-up sprinklers, 44 total, have a special cover to protect the player from injury. The cover is one-half inch thick, resilient synthetic
material, Tartan brand Surfacing. This material retains its properties when subjected to extended periods of outdoor weathering. It is resistant to bacteria, mildew and other forms of biological attack. The surface is indented to present a nonslip surface, both wet and dry. It has an indentation hardness of 45 measured on a
Share A-2 Durometer-ASTM-D-1706-61. This irrigation system will supply adequate
water and the sensitive control of water application, which is so important to the
more permeable rootzone.
Soil Warming
Soil heating is a tool in maintaining the two grasses which differ in their
cool or warm temperature response. This will be the first large scale electric

soil heating installation in the United States. Installation should be completed
in 1966. Soil warming in actual use areas has been very successful in Britain and
Sweden. Research in the United States has been conducted at various locations to
support work completed in Canada, Britain and Sweden.
Some of the major reasons for introducing soil heating in St. Louis include
the ability through heat to maintain thawed soil, keep soil drier, aid in snow
melting, increase grass growth, aid in seed germination, allow early renovation of
turf before baseball season starts, improve player safety, improve precision of the
game, supplement covers, reduce damage to cover and need to use covers, and support
early sod establishment in initial construction stage.
The heating cable to be used in St. Louis is polyvinyl-chloride insulated
nylon-jacketed cables. There will be a total of 49 cables used, measuring in length
from 1796 feet to 2741 feet. Total footage of cable is approximately 110,000 feet.
The soil heating cables will be placed 7 inches below the surface of the soil, and
spaced 1 foot apart. The heat output is to be 5 watts per linear foot while operating at 277/480 AC.
The system may operate on off-peak periods to heat soil when
air temperature falls below 40°F., and soil temperature at 2 inches falls below
50°F.
Cable is to be sliced into the sod using a modified subsoiling tool preceded
by a rolling coulter. With rolling and watering the turf can be made smooth enough
for use immediately after installation of the cable.
One., soil, temperature sensor, and one reserve, are located to control each of
4 zones. These soil sensors, which measure reserve supply of heat, are set to permit soil heating when temperature 2 inches below the surface is below 50°F. An
air temperature thermostat, set about 5 feet above ground in the shade, is set to
permit heating when the air temperatures reach 40°F. (which indicates cooling of
area). W. L. Waltke and B. A. Merritt of Union Electric Company summarized the
periods of possible use based on previous St. Louis temperatures as follows:
Total Hours of Below 40°F, Average Weather (in St, Louis)
November
December
JanuaryFebruary
March
April

287
511
600 (Est. by Editor]
421
347
46

Off-peak operation (9 hours nightly) of the heating cable is planned for economy. Also, a manual switch must permit either scoreboard or soil heating use from
same transformers. Assuming 1 0 0 7 o use of the soil heating during the off-peak hours
of each month that has in the past had air temperatures below 4 0 ° F . # the maximum
cost estimated would be approximately $ 4 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . With a minimum bill service required, there may be no additional cost for use of the pox^er necessary to heat the
soil.
With adequate subsurface drainage, porous rootzone, improved turf conditions
through better, more stable grasses, automatic irrigation, and soil warming to offset undesirable weather conditions, the Busch Memorial Stadium must offer some of
the best playing conditions ever realized. The entire stadium complex and overall
playing field design with its improvement is proof of the care and foresight of the
engineers-architects, Sverdrup and Parcel, and the owners, Civic Center Develop-

merit Corporation, The baseball and football Cardinals should find their new playing conditions among the best in their experience.

BUILDING NEW GOLF COURSES
Pete Dye, Golf Course Construction Company
Indi ana polis, Indiana

That golf is a humbling game is a saying of the famous Scottish professional,
James Braid. The design, construction and maintenance of golf courses teaches many
lessons of modesty. My Dad designed and constructed the Urbana Country Club in the
late twenties. One of my first lessons in modesty came at the age of sixteen when,
due to the manpower shortage, I was put in charge of this course the summer of 1941.
Nobody knew as much about maintenance as I thought I did. The sixth and seventh
greens were slightly off-color. An application of sulphate was in order. Vie had an
old fifty gallon wooden drum. My younger brother with a paddle was the man-made
oscillator. I applied the much needed nourishment with a five gallon flower can,
swinging this implement to and fro carefully to give the surface an even application. We watered in this treatment with extra care. Old six and seven immediately
began to regain color - green, dark green, blue, black, straw.
First, in order for a new golf course, is site selection. The best land to
purchase will be the first thing to engage the attention of a club. The importance of obtaining the right soil and sufficient acreage can hardly be overstressed.
Many clubs, selecting their sites in haste, have never been able to correct their
initial error. They have had to live with mediocre golf or spend vast sums to increase their acreage, or to modify the soil. In a few cases they have had to flee
from the unconquerable problems, to buy a better site, and start all over again.
One hears some tragic stories of what it has cost certain clubs to add a few acres
to their original holdings in order to lengthen or to rearrange their courses. A
wise club will, therefore, buy at the start a larger acreage than seems at the moment necessary for its requirements. If wisely chosen the surplus land will one day
yield a handsome profit. Of no less importance is the obtaining of the right soil.
Well-drained, slightly rolling country with a sandy or a deep rich loam is ideal.
Of most importance is the finding of land with desirable contours. Do net go
into hilly country if that can be avoided. Nearly all courses built in hills are
expensive to construct and tiresome to play. Avoid, also/ country that is broken
into many ravines. Such hazards are often quite picturesque, but they are rarely desirable, and for the uncertain player they are fearful to look upon. Climbing in and
out of canyons to retrieve balls is most exasperating, and the play is so delayed.
For the same reasons too many streams and ponds are objectionable. In saying
this I do not forget the many beautiful holes which are played over water, but one
or two such holes in eighteen will be quite enough.
Relatively flat land is rarely thought to be desirable for golf, and it is
likely to be chosen only as a last resource. If this land is easily drainable and
there is sufficient borrow area, I am quite sure this is a mistaken point of view.
Not only some of the most popular, but some of the very interesting courses have

been made on flat land. The greens can be placed anywhere, the layout in general
should be without flaw. The length of the holes will not be governed by certain
topographic situations, but will be decided by ideal considerations. With heavy
equipment one can shape the surface at will and create the desired effect which
can rarely be found provided by nature in the ideal location.
Many sites have been purchased without knowledge of the availability of adequate water. One only has to read the editorials of the daily newspaper to be conscious of water supply. Geographic location, types of grass, soil condition and
fairway irrigation all have to be considered in obtaining the amount of water needed.
Wells and reservoir, versus cost of possible city water, is a complete subject of its
own.
The typical committee site is hilly, deep ravines and completely wooded, and
no water availability. Wooded area is very costly to clear and to put the land in
good condition. When a wooded site is selected, the clearing of this area for golf
holes many time depletes so much of the woods that the original intended effect is
totally destroyed.
The precise acreage which is desirable depends upon the nature of the land.
It would be safe to say that 200 acres would be luxurious, 150 acres adequate, 125
acres
limited, 100 acres distinctly meager, and anything less would be desperate.

Laying Out the Course
The site for the club house will be the first problem. In recent years more
and more space has come to be required in the areas immediately around the club
house. Once the location has been established, the architect will consider the
following points in making his routing:
1.

He will take the desired length and plan that each nine should start and
finish at the club house.

2.

There should be little walking between the green and tees,and there should be
enough elasticity to allow tees to be lengthened in the future if necessary.

3.

The two nines should balance each other in yardage, interest and quality, but
the last nine may be the severest test of golf.

4.

Holes of the same character should not follow each other. The type of trapping, contour of greens, shape of tees and the greens, and variety of planting
should all vary to give particular distinction to each hole.

5.

Most important is that the hole presents some problem to the player. The slant
of the green, the undulations here and there, the positions of the bunkers,
the openings for certain shots - these are the methods an architect uses to
present the problems. To make holes thrilling to play - to force the player
to play certain shots, is also the job of the architect.

6.

If the proper site has been selected it should not be necessary to have holes
playing toward the setting sun. Should a hole play westward it should come
early in the nine - not in the last four holes.

7.

The four Par 3's should be distinctively different. They should run in different directions - one Par 3 playing 140 yards; one 155 yards; one 170 yards,
-50-

and the last 190 yards.
The Par 4 holes should vary in length - angle and direction. Of the Par 4's
four should be long, strong holes; three medium length, and three short - all intermingled throughout the eighteen.
The Par 5 hole is the hardest to design. The architect has to go all out to
make these challenging holes. Sheer length does not make a good Par 5.

Placement of Hazards
Without well-molded greens of true surface, golf would lose most of its charm,
and without well-placed hazards, golf would fail to arouse and to satisfy man's
sporting instincts. Hazards - how well chosen the name! They are risks, and penalties must come with those who take risks and fail. Hazards make golf dramatic, and
the thrills that come to one who ventures wisely and succeeds are truly great.
Without hazards golf would be a dull sport with life and soul gone out of it. No
longer would it attract the adventurous, but would be left to those who favor some
insipid form of walking.
The positioning of green and fairway traps should create a challenge to the
plus golfer. Traps on both side of the green many times make the shot easier for
the low handicap player and harder for the high. By proper placing of the trap
and eliminating the opposite, the hole can become a real challenge, The shape and
the way this green is contoured will be all important in creating this effect.
Green traps should not necessarily run parallel to the green, but at a ninety
degree angle. This will catch the poorer shot and the player who completely misses
the green and bunker will be left with a difficult pitch. Deep bunkers should be
used to protect the short Par 3's and Par 4's. The shallow bunker should be used to
offset the stronger hole.
Bunkers should be constructed:
1. where surface water will not drain into them
2. contoured so the ball will roll away from the lip
3. banks of the bunker should be contoured so that power equipment can
cut to the edge of the sand
4. where they come into full view from the shot area.
All mounds should be constructed with a large base so not to appear high. The tops
should be pointed and their shapes be as irregular as possible. Fairway bunkers
should be wide and shallow to allow a good shot to reach the green. There should be
easy access to and exit from all bunkers.

Contouring of the Greens
There is nothing quite so vital in golf course construction as the proper
placing and contouring of the greens.
1.

The size of a green will be governed by the surrounding contours,
ity of hazards around it and the length of the shot played to the
short Par 3 or 4 surrounded by water or deep traps, or located on
teau could require a larger green than a long Par 4 located in an
guarded by shallow bunkers.
^

the severgreen. A
a high plaopen area

2.

The green of a hole requiring a pitch shot should be more severely contoured
as compared to a green requiring a long shot- This green should have gentle
undulation running towards the line of flight.

3.

Contour, all greens ta surface drain three or four ways.
face water should drain into the traffic pattern.

4.

Greens should be all shapes and sizes, contoured from front to back, right to
left - left to right. Tilt some of them almost not at all, and in some cases
tilt one downward from front to back.

Little as possible sur

5. All slopes around the green should be a minimum of twelve to one, or 87o fifteen to 1, or as gentle as 57o is excellent.
6.

The most satisfactory of all greens are often those which follow the natural
lay of the ground and require little or no contouring.

7.

Many times it is better to excavate in front of the green, leaving the putting
surface the natural lay of the ground. This hollow in front of the green will
make the green appear elevated and allow the golfer to have full view of the
green and the hazards adjacent to it.

Tees
The size and placement of the tees are vital problems,
1.
2.
3.
4.

Make tees whenever possible indistinguishable.
Tees should change the angle and length of a hole.
They should be placed at an angle to avoid the full load of the traffic
The slope should be a maximum of 5%.

The material of this speech was compiled and quoted from the following five books:
Advance Golf by James Braid - published in 1901. Mr. Braid designed Glen Eagles.
The Links by Robert Hunter - published in 1926.
Golf Course Design, Construction and Upkeep by Martin Sutton, H. S. Colt and C. Hi
Allison, published in 1933. Pine Valley, Detroit Golf, Sunningdale are some of
their work.
Golf Architecture in America by George C. Thomas, Jr., published in 1927. Los
Angeles Country Club and many California courses have been built by Mr. Thomas.
Golf Architecture by Dr. Mackenzie, published in 1920. Cypress Point, Pebble
Beach, Master - University of Michigan are some of Dr. MacKenzie's creations.

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY AND CONTROL OF SOD WEBWORMS
Donald L. Schuder, Dept. of Entomology
Purdue University

Sod webworms have caused considerable damage to turf for the past three years.
The most abundant species in Indiana is the larger sod webworm, Crambus trisectus
Walker; while in Kentucky and Illinois, the common species is the bluegrass webworm,
teterrellus (Zincker). The other species taken in Indiana are the lucerne moth,
Nomophila noctuella; the bluegrass webworm, C. teterrellus (Zincker); C. alboclavellus Clem.; vagabond webworm, C. vulgivagellus Clem.; and Thaumatopsis pexellus
Zell. These insects have been of periodic importance in Indiana since 1915.
Adults of the larger sod webworm are present from late May until the occurrence of the first killing frost. Swarms of the moths fly in zig-zag fashion,
across lawns whenever they are disturbed. The larger sod webworm normally has two
generations per year; but under favorable conditions, such as a warm, open fall,
there is a third generation.
Crambid moths deposit their eggs randomly in the grass. The eggs are small,
.5 x .4 mm in size and prominently ridged. They resemble miniature nail kegs. A
technique is available for recovering eggs from sod, thus predicting the severity
of future infestations. Eggs are the overwintering stage.
Sod webworm larvae live in silken tubes at the base of the grass plant. The
larvae and their webs occur at the soil line, or, if thatch is present, at the top
level of the thatch. There is evidence that heavy accumulations of thatch favor
heavy populations of sod webworms, a good argument for using grass-catchers.
Sod webworm larvae have voracious appetites and can brown and denude quite
large areas of turf. Superficially sod webworm damage can resemble drouth, disease, dog or weed killer damage. Close examination of sod webworm damaged areas
will reveal unevenly cropped grass with billets of chewed foliage surrounding the
larval hiding place. The presence of large numbers of birds picking at the lawn is
also a good diagnostic symptom.
Sod webworm larvae are slender, cream colored
with black spots on their backs. Pupation occurs in the silken tube.
Food plants of the webworms include: bluegrass, crabgrass, various crop
grasses, such as corn, wheat, oats and timothy; and it can subsist on clover.
Large numbers of these snout moths can be found congregating around porch, driveway and patio lights during the evening hours.
Blacklight traps have been used for the study of the seasonal abundance of
the sod webworms for the past two years. Trap records indicate that 68 percent of
the webworm population is the larger sod webworm. Approximately 70 percent of the
sod webworm moths captured were females. Dissection of preserved females revealed
that each female sod webworm still carried an average of 217 eggs. This fact
suggested that omni-directional blacklight traps, which catch gravid moths, might
prevent sod webworm damage to lawns. Sampling of lawns in the late summer of 1965
confirmed this hypothesis, for very few larvae or pupae were obtained 75 feet from
the traps.
A Taylor air trap was used in the late summer of 1965,during the peak emergence of the larger sod webworm. This trap collects hourly samples of all insects
which fly over the trap. Correlating the sod webworm samples with time and various

type of weather information furnished some interesting information.
9.' trisectus adults fly during the night, not just at twilight as mentioned
in the literature. Ninety-eight percent of the moths fly between temperatures of
52° and 80°F., and 96 percent of the moths fly when wind speed is less than 15
m.p.h.
Control
Chlordane, the turf panacea, has not been effective against the sod webworm
the past four years. The following materials have been effective:

Insecticide

Actual toxicant
per 1000 sq.ft.
ounces

Diazinon (Spectracide)
Baytex (Entex,29493)
Dylox
Dieldrin
Baygon
Dursban
Ethion

2
2
2
2
2
1
1

Various experiments for control of the sod webworm indicate that granular
formulations of insecticides are more effective than sprays, and that the best time
to apply the materials is during the period mid-May to mid^June to kill the first
batch of larvae.

LARGE AREA SOIL STERILIZATION
Dale Habenicht, H&E Sod Nursery
Tinley Park, Illinois

For the paat six years we have experimented with soil sterilization or fumigation for the complete prevention of Poa annua in our bentgrass nursery. Through
research we sought new techniques to improve methods of application, as well as
ways and means to cut costs. In our opinion, we believe we have a practical application for large areas.
In selecting a soil fumigant we must know how it works and what it controls.
A soil fumigant can kill weeds and viable weed seeds in the soil, such as Poa annua,
quackgrass, crabgrass, orchardgrass, sedge, broadleaf, etc. This is the primary
use on turf areas. Fumigants may also control nematodes, soil insects, such as
white grubs, sod webworms and wireworms. Even soil fungi, root rot, damping off
and wilt may be inhibited.
I am familiar with three soil fumigants. We have used Vorlex and Vapam on
large areas,and Dowfume MC-2 on a small plot. Vorlex can be injected into soils
having a temperature between 30 - 90°F. The Vorlex was applied straight at the

rate of 30 - 40 gallons per acre and tarped immediately after application.
Vapam can be injected into soils having a temperature of 50 - 90°F. This
product was diluted with equal parts of water and applied 75 - 100 gallons of
actual Vapam per acre.
Dowfume MC-2 is not very adaptable on large areas. It must be injected at
1 pound per 100 square feet underneath a sealed tarp which is supported by cans,
stakes or the like to aid in even gas distribution.
When preparing the soil prior to fumigation, it is important to break up the
clods and loosen soil thoroughly by cultivation and roto-tilling. Deep tillage is
recommended. For one week prior to fumigation the soil must be kept moist to a
depth of six inches.
For Vorlex injection we use a John Blue Fumigator with chisel-type applicators spaced 6 - 8 inches apart, and set 4 - 6 inches deep. To prevent evaporation
of the fumigant it is recommended that the ground be immediately floated or rolled
in order to close up the slices made by the chisels.
I believe tarping the soil after application is almost a necessity for good
weed control. We use 2 mil clear Polyethelene on 12 foot rolls without any folds.
Each strip is cut off at the end of the field. At present we are using a tarplaying machine mounted on a three-point hitch. This machine puts the tarp down
faster than can be done by hand and with much less labor. Wind is a very small
problem.
The fumigator is 6 foot wide. On the second pass it drags a chain to denote
where the next pass will start (11-1/2' over). The tarp is immediately laid after
the second pass. The field, therefore, is sterilized in 12 foot alternating strips.
The tarp is left in place for 3 to 4 days, after which it is picked up and destroyed. We found it does not pay to reuse them. The intermediate strips are now
ready for the same fumigating procedure.
The soil should be surface cultivated for at least three weeks before planting.
Cost breakdown in 1965 on per acre basis:
Vorlex
35 gal.
2 mil Polyethelene
($2.75/1,000 sq.ft.)
Equipment & labor
Removal of Polyethelene

$

Total cost

$

212.25
120.00
60.00
10.00
405.25

The above costs were our costs for materials and labor and could vary in
other situations. We figured overall expenditure of 8-1/2^ per square yard for
sterilizing sod areas. On stolon beds it figures approximately 140 per bushel.
These costs could be used to determine if soil sterilization is practical on your
turf areas.

SOD GROWER ASSOCIATIONS
A REVIEW AND DEVELOPMENT
R. M. Warren, Sales Mgr., Warren's Turf Nursery
Palos Park, Illinois

In numbers there is strength. It makes no difference what the organization be it the Army, business, politics or a trade association. A group of individuals
or firms carry more weight and can accomplish more than an individual person or
firm.
For example, starting in 1952 Warren's Turf Nursery began to try to convince the Highway Department of the State of Illinois that their sod specifications
were outdated. We spent several years making calls on various individuals and got
nowhere. Later on, after a Sod Association was formed, the bureaucrats changed
their minds and listened to the Association. Briefly these are the facts.
Illinois had a specification calling for 2-1/2 to 3 inches of soil to be adhering to all sod planted on highways. A survey of all states revealed that the
current Illinois specifications were the most unreasonable. For instance, Wisconsin
called for 3/4 inches of soil; Indiana 1 to 1-1/2 inches.
Actually it appeared no one was furnishing sod for Illinois highways 2-1/2
to 3 inches thick. However, whenever an operator of a turf nursery tried to supply
sod at a reasonable thickness his sod was usually rejected. We made numerous calls
to the landscape engineer at Springfield and his assistants scattered over the
state. Only two fellows, out of 10 or 12, concurred with our claim, but they told
us we were fighting a losing battle. The landscape engineer actually tried to discourage us by flatly stating that sodding contractors had all the sod they needed,
and that the idea of nursery grown sod was ridiculous. One person implied that
thin-cut sod, delivered where specifications called for 3 inches of soil, was a
juicy source of graft. (For a bribe they would approve thin-cut sod). He would
not name names, or be specific.
To make a long story short, Warren's Turf Nursery hired a lobbyist. He spent
the better part of a year and finally came up with the finding that the only way we
would accomplish anything was to form a growers' association. He said the politicians
and bureaucrats will listen to a group - but not to an individual firm. So, we contacted Carl Habanicht of H&E Sod Nursery, Roy Mueller of Mueller Sod Farm, A1 Schaper
of the Sod Nursery, Gerald Dearie of Dearie and Strud, and several smaller growers.
At a luncheon we decided to explore the possibility of an Association. After two or
three more meetings a set of by-laws were formulated, officers elected and the Sod
G'Jfcwe-s Association of Illinois was born in 1958.
Our first major effort was to prove to the State of Illinois that their highway sodding specifications were incorrect. This was done by a demonstration planting, on the Eisenhower Expressway in Chicago. As a result the state has changed its
specifications and millions upon millions of square yards of nursery grown sod have
been planted on highways. IF THE ASSOCIATION NEVER ACCOMPLISHES ANY MORE IT WILL
HAVE BEEN WORTHWHILE. Every sod grower in Wisconsin, Indiana, and as far away as
New York and Denver have been helped. As a result of Illinois' findings some other
states have made specification changes. Also, every yard of sod used on the highways took a yard off the home lawn market, thus helping to keep prices firm.
About two years ago it was noticed that growers from Wisconsin, Indiana and
Michigan were joining the Illinois Association, so the word Illinois was deleted

arid Mid-America inserted. My personal opinion is that the name should again be
changed to the SOD ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA because today we have members from New
York to California. For your own self-preservation, for the good of the profession that feeds you,you should be a member and give willingly of your time to
help make the Association a vital, strong organization.
.Nothing is gained without effort.
The sod industry is still in its infancy. It is just now beginning to get
out of rompers and into knee-pants. In the next ten years it will grow to undreamed
of proportions,and those of you who are a part of the industry should help yourselves by helping your Association into a strong organization that will carry weight
with the federal, state and local governments, and with builders, architects, contractors and other organizations.
For a moment let's take a look at the potential of the sod market. By the
year 2000, just 34 years from now, there will be a population in the United States
of at least 400 million if the population explosion continues. Are you aware that
the population of the United States has almost doubled since Herbert Hoover ran
against A1 Smith in 1928? To men of my generation that is but yesterday. In 30
years you younger fellows will still be only about my age — and I am certain I've
got several good years ahead of me yet. This expected population increase will mean
at least 50 million new homes, with an average lawn area 1,000 square yards, for a
total of 50 billion square yards. Now, when we sell the public hard enough on sod,
the annual national requirement will run over 1.5 billion yards. This does not include sod needed for public buildings, highways, schools, golf courses, cemeteries,
factories, etc.
This is big business. It will be highly competitive and will no doubt incur
governmental control. There never has been a business that developed a sizeable
dollar volume that did not attract government bureaucrats to it. These government
inspectors may never have been called upon to meet a payroll, or sell a bill of
goods. We will need a strong association of turf growers to protect ourselves.
Here are just a few things that the Association can do to benefit the industry as a whole and that needs doing now:
1. Correct specifications - aid in proper content.
2. Warn the landscapers against questionable lawn products.
3. Discourage articles of misinformation, such as a magazine article that
claimed sod growers net $1500.00 per acre. Such articles should be challenged and the Association should do the challenging.
4. Put pressure on chemical firms for realistic prices. For example, in 1965 a
garden center can buy one company's chemical for less than a grower pays.
5. Put pressure on Congress to increase tariffs on sod imported from Canada at
ruinous prices.
6. Put pressure on the Federal and State Department of Agriculture on unreasonable plant quarantine laws.
7. Promote the use of sod on highways rather than the planting of excess nursery
stock, which eventually makes a jungle and calls for more expensive maintenance.
8. Make contributions and grants to various universities for grass research work.
9. Explore the advantages of sod certification similar to seed certification. I
am not sure we need certification, but we should explore its advantages and
disadvantages.
10. Educate the public on the use of sod as opposed to seed.
11. Report to growers the merits of various equipment, such as sod roller, conveyors, palletizing, etc.

12.

13.

14.

Advise and assist growers in marketing programs, costs, mark-ups, pricing
policies, accounting, sales and advertising practices. And above all, in
Dealer-Distributor-Grower relationships.
Arrange for and carry out a national convention or field day to be primarily
supported by vendors to the sod industry through the purchase of exhibition
space.
Warn and advise farmers against cow pasture sodders who are often underfinanced.

There is always, of course, the tendency to "let George do it." There are
just not enough hours for 3 or 4 men to do the entire job and still manage their
own businesses. A good example is the compiling and editing of the Newsletter. It
usually takes a day or so to get it together. This time has got to come from somewhere. In my case it has been evenings and Sundays - incidentally I am the author,
so I deserve any "beefs" coming about Newsletter articl es. The main purpose is to
stimulate interest. We've stepped on some toes and may do so again.
We have created interest in the Association and in so doing brought new members into the organization. One thing the Association needs badly is a full-time
executive secretary. His efforts will help cement and firm up a stronger organization and in the long run develop the Association into one of the more aggressive
trade associations.
Look about you at other professions and business operations. See how they
have benefited themselves. The AAN, American Association of Nurserymen, and their
affiliated state organizations have sold the federal government lock, stock and
barrel on their "plant America" sales pitch. Even got Lady Bird using your money to
plant out signs and automobile grave yards. I understand she's a good saleslady we ought to get her selling sod.
And, examine the trade unions. You are at their mercy because they stick together. They are organized. You are not. The Sod Growers cf America have a lot
stronger selling pitch in the way of practical maintenance cost than have nurserymen.
It appears that some of the new expressways are being planted so heavily to nursery
stock that within ten years all the grassed areas will have to be hand-mowed. Eight
there is one fight the sod growers can tie into, and in so doing add profits to your
individual operations. But, it takes an association to do it.
Sooner or later the seed boys are going to find ways to produce lawns faster
with seed, and when that day comes they could jerk the rug right out from under us.
In such areas as Detroit, Milwaukee and Chicago it is unusual to see a lawn being
seeded. Naturally this cuts into grass seed sales. Some smart "cooky" in the seed
business is going to start snipping at us and if we are not prepared it will be our
fault. A strong Association can help sell the public more strongly on sod.
We, in the profession of growing and marketing sod, can use the advice of
the renowned architect, Daniel Burnham, - "Make no little plans; they have no magic
to stir men's blood - Make big plans; aim high - remembering that a noble - - diagram once recorded will never die."

REPLACING WEEDS WITH TURF —

2nd REPORT

Donald A. Clemans, Supt., Norwood Hills C. Club
Normandy, Missouri

Last year the first report started as I arrived at Norwood during the winter
of 1963 - 1964. By spring it was evident that the weed population was the majority
of the fairway cover. My first move was to obtain a 30' spray boom since they had
none at that time. I wanted to cover a lot of ground in the minimum of time. Norwood is a 36-hole course, and there were well over 250 acres of fairway and rough
to spray.
East Course
I sprayed for the first time in late April of 1964. The spray solution was
1/2 pound of Banvel-D and 1/2 pound 2,4-D with wetting agent in 25 gallons of water
per acre. The results were astounding for after the weeds died some fairways were
near 50% barren. But, by eliminating weed competition/ the bluegrass rhizomes kept
growing into the barren spots all during the summer of 1964.
On April 15, 1964, ~the East 18 course had tri-calcium arsenate applied at the
rate of 10 pounds/l,000 square feet applied to all fairways. Phosphorus was eliminated from the 1964 fertilizer program on this course, since adequate levels were
available according to soil tests. Control was 100% effective on crabgrass and goosegrass during all of 1964.
In 1965, due to the installation of our irrigation system, arsenic was not
applied. We simply did not find time and needed to disturb the trench lines all
summer. But, still in 1965 the East Course had 90 - 100% control from the residual
effect of tri-calcium arsenate. Some areas subject to hillside washing and drainage showed some incidence of re-infestation. Again in spring of 1965 the weed
killer spray was applied to all fairways.
West Course
During 1964 and early 1965 the West Course had not had any pre-emergence
crabgrass control applied, but weed control was practiced both years. In August of
1965 the Ladies PGA Tour came to Norwood Hills. Some of the fairways exceeded 507o
goosegrass as a playing turf. On August 15, 1965 I sprayed all the fairways on the
West Course with 2 gallons of 16% AMA, 1/2 pound Banvel-D, 1/2 pound 2-4,D, a small
amount of spreader sticker and wetting agent in 25 gallons of water per acre. The
second treatment 5 days later was of the same solution, with the exception that I
left out the Banvel-D. This killed all the goosegrass, knotweed,and all the undesirable plants prior to the seeding operation the first week in September.
My seeding process is this: I use a vertical cutting machine to loosen the
soil, going into the ground as far as possible - because seed on top of the ground
is wasted seed. Next, I spread the seed. In 1965 I used a mixture of Common, Newport, and Delta bluegrass. I then apply the fertilizer and drag the area with a
chain-link fence mat. I seed after the vertical cutting operation so I can see the
tractor tracks and get complete coverage with the seed. Then in 1965, since my
Club provided me with a complete automatic irrigation system costing $ 250,000.00,
I applied water for ten minutes at a time at two hour intervals until 1/2 inch of
water was applied. In about 10 days seedlings began to appear.

Putting Greens
Goosegrass on the putting greens at Norwood was a serious problem. In 1964
I used chlordane granules for a pre-emergence control with 70% control. In 1965 I
used Pre-San. On the East Course the treatment was applied in mid-April after aerifying. We had 100% control of goosegrass. The West Course was then aerified and
Pre-San applied the first week in May. I obtained only 85-90% control on the West
Course. This proved to me that timing of application is of the utmost importance.
In August, prior to the LPGA tournament, the lake in front of #2 green West
was 997o covered with duckweed. After conferring with Dr. Daniel, I purchased some
Diquat (Ortho brand). This material was applied with a knapsack sprayer and distributed on the surface of the lake from the bank.. I used 1 quart of Diquat on
approximately 1/4 acre of surface. The next morning the duckweed was yellow and I
could tell where I had applied a little to the grass banks here and there unknowingly. By the third day the duckweed had settled to the bottom and I had an open
water lake.
Lime was applied to all of the putting greens last fall. I started the project with the (approx. 2 gal.) cyclone type spreader pushed by a man across the
green. I saw that snoxtf would fall before we finished the job. So, I got a dual
wheeled tractor and put on our fan-type p.t.o. tractor spreader. We shoveled on the
lime and on a Monday with no members present we drove the tractor across the greens.
The greens were firm and the tractor tires merely laid the grass down with a tread
design. We watered that night and mowed the greens the next morning. No one knew
we had a tractor running across the putting greens. We were able to lime 37 putting greens in 5 hours - quite a labor and time savings.
Through the use of all these techniques and a generous amount of assistance
from Nature, I have transformed areas that were 757o turf in 1 9 6 3 to 1 0 0 % turf in
1965.
The areas that were 80% turf in 1963 are now 95% turf. The greatest problem is to keep a membership of 900 convinced that with my help Nature will grow the
kind of turf that they desire if only given a chance and a little time.

A LAWN PROGRAM THAT WORKS
L. M. Bowers, Duncan Electric Company
Lafayette, Indiana

In 1949 we started building a new factory on 36 acres of land just north of
Lafayette. By July of 1950 the sidewalks and parking lots were finished and most
of the trash from construction had been hauled away. The parking lot and buildings
take up about six acres of land, and this left approximately thirty acres of land
for lawn and recreation area. There is approximately ten acres of land between the
front of our plant and U. S. Highway 52, which our Company wanted to make into a
first-class lawn.
I was put in charge of the grounds, not because I knew anything about lawn
maintenance, but because I was the only fellow in our department who had been
raised on a farm and knextf tractors and equipment. I was advised to contact Dr.
Daniel here at Purdue and seek his help in preparing the ground and seeding it to

grass. Bill was very cooperative and, with his help and advice, we achieved more
than a nice lawn - we got a beautiful lawn.
My first concern was to get equipment to do the planting, then be used later
to maintain the lawn. At this time we were only concerned with the ten acres in
front of the factory. The land to the rear of the factory was not clearly visible
from the main highway and it could be dealt with at a later time, even over a
period of years if necessary.
We purchased a small farm tractor equipped with a
five foot sickle bar, a spring-tooth harrow, a spike-tooth harrow, a fertilizer
spreader, a set of large lawn rollers, and a two-wheel trailer. Later in the fall
we bought a tractor mounted, three-bladed rotary mower, plus a power hand mower
for trimming. With the exception of a few small hand tools and the irrigation system, this is all of the equipment we have today and the only replacements necessary
have been the tractor and the mowers.
The construction contractor had done a good job of leveling our front yard,
but what a mess it was! Our property is all underlaid with gravel, and when they
finished with our front yard, the top dirt was underneath and the gravel was on top.
I hired about twenty Purdue students and rented three trucks, and we spent seven
days picking up rocks from this front ten acres and hauling the rocks away. Also,
we applied a 20-10-10 fertilizer at a rate of 500 pounds per acre and worked this
into the soil.
We used two different grass mixtures: a mixture of 6 parts bluegrass to one
part redtop was planted in the front of our factory out 100 feet along its entire
length. People would see this as they walked from the parking lot to our front
factory entrance. The rest of the yard was seeded to a mixture of one part bluegrass to one part alta fescue. We used alta fescue because it would hold its color
better in dry weather, and we did not plan to try and sprinkle the entire front
area in dry weather. After seeding we went over the yard twice with the spike-tooth
harrow and then rolled it once with the heavy rollers.
We completed seeding in mid-August. It rained that night and continued to
rain in ideal amounts the rest of that fall. I don't believe there has ever been a
better fall to plant grass. The second week in October we were mowing our lawn and
we had a wonderful stand of grass. We have not reseeded any of this lawn in fifteen
years except where a water main has broken and the yard has been torn up in one spot
for a building expansion.
The following summer our troubles began. I did not use enough nitrogen on
the yard,and due to the fact that our yard was almost solid gravel, it would dry out
and the grass would turn to a golden brown in about one week of dry weather. It
would then stay that way until we would have a couple of weeks of ample rainfall.
Individual sprinklers were not the answer; we needed a lot of water and we needed it
often. Our entire factory is air-conditioned and we could use this water after it
went through the air-conditioning system. We purchased a surface-type irrigation
system that could be easily moved by one person. With this system we can put the
equivalent of two inches of rain on our ten-acre lawn in 4 days by running the
sprinklers 16 hours a day. This necessitates moving the system twice a day, and it
takes one nan about thirty minutes to move it.
Our second major problem, mowing, did not come up until the third year after
planting. We had a fairly good fertilization program and our grass was growing so
fast and heavy that our reel-type mowers were not able to handle it. We were also
now wanting to do a better job of mowing on the back twenty acres, and it "was too
rough for reel-type mox^ers and the sickle-bar did not do a good enough job. We got
a rotary mower that fastened underneath our tractor and this eliminates the problem

of wheel marks from the rear wheels. Most of our other problems have been of a minor
nature and have not caused us any trouble to speak of.
The maintaining of our grounds now has become a fairly standard operation for
us. We contract a man (generally a Purdue student) to do our yard work during the
summer. We furnish all of the equipment and material. During the months of June,
July and August, when he is not in school, he works from 30 to 45 hours a week. During April, May, September and October he works weekends and evenings, and it takes
him about twenty hours a week.
Our lawn program starts the middle of March. At this time we fertilize:. our
front yard only. We cannot use our sprinkler system until May because our airconditioning system is not yet in operation. After a few years of trying to find
the proper fertilizer we have settled on urea every other year at a 350 pounds per
acre rate in the spring, and 100 pounds per acre in August or early September. The
next year we use a 20-10-10 analysis fertilizerr at approximately the same rates
and at the same times. I will not say that this would be ideal on any type of soil,
but it has given us very good results.
We mow our front lawn twice a week and keep our mower set at 3-1/4" high. I
insist on the rotary mower blades being sharpened every time we mow. We mow the
back twenty acres once a week and in dry weather sometimes once in two weeks. We do
not fertilize, or sprinkle any of our back twenty acres, so it does not grow as fast
as the grass in our front yard.
It has taken about twelve years before crabgrass came into our front lawn
because we mow our grass high and do not have any foot traffic in our front lawn.
We started a program for crabgrass last year, using calcium arsenate powder at the
rate of 300 pounds per acre. We mixed it with our fertilizer and applied it the
middle of March. It appeared last summer that we got about 80% control. This year
I am going to use it again at one-half of last year's rate and I hope it will give
us good results.
We are not troubled much by weeds in our front yard except for a few dandelions, which we spray for once a year, using 2-4,D as necessary.
This pretty well covers our lawn program. We are fortunate to have Purdue
University in our community and the good help and guidance from Dr. Daniel. It
makes my job easier. I know our lawn is the envy of a lot of other industrial
fi rms.

WHAT IS GRASS CHEMICALLY
C. Y. Ward, Dept. of Agronomy, Mississippi State College
State College, Mississippi

A grass plant, like any other living organism, is a great complexity of chemical substances. These substances are housed in specially designed structures which
allow the plant to carry out its first and foremost purpose: capturing the energy
of sunlight.

As manipulators of turfgrasses, our chief objective should be to present the
plant to its environment in such a manner that it can convert this captured energy
(process of photosynthesis) into green leaf tissue at an optimum rate. The process
of photosynthesis and all the simultaneous reactions, changes and transfer of substances which occur in the cells of the grass plant are called metabolism.
Metabolism is complex. Consider the fact that scientists have labored centuries to uncover but a few of its secrets. Knowing some of these, however, will
help you to better manage your turf.
Grass plants are biological factories in which the raw materials are tunneled through an "activator" (chlorophyll) and converted into sugars, proteins, structural carbohydrates and "specialty goods." Some of the raw materials are absorbed
from the soil by the roots and are often needed in amounts greater than that inherently present, so we add these raw materials as fertilizers.
Chemically all grasses have much in common. Healthy bentgrass (Agrostis
palustris) on a golf green in Chicago and Washington, D.C., is almost identical,
but small differences, for example, a lack of a trace of iron or other minor element, can alter the metabolism of a grass, slow its growth rate and render it more
susceptible to disease.
If you assume from the diagram that fertilizers (both kind and amount) influence plants chemically, you are correct. This being true we can often tell a
plant's "ills" by analyzing the tissue and comparing the content of a given nutrient to that which we have previously determined to be the normal concentration
necessary for good healthy growth. For example, we know that bentgrass on a putting
green should contain approximately 4?0 nitrogen for good healthy growth; that 6% nitrogen in the leaves indicates overfeeding, and 3% nitrogen indicates underfeeding.

Schematic Diagram of Chemical Breakdown of Clippings from a Putting Green:

Water 90%

Fats
Vitamins
Chlorophyll

Grass Clippings
i
J
Organic portion
1
Carbohydrates
sugars
starches
cellulose
hemi-cellulose
lignin

Dry Matter 107o
j
|
Nitrogeneous
proteins
amino acids
amines

Minerals
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Mn
Cu
B
S
P

The beginning reaction for building of plant tissue is photosynthesis, which
consists of a complex sequence of reactions in which three things occur:
1. A CO2 fixation reaction.
2. An energy and hydrogen adding reaction.
3. A sequence of inter-conversions of sugar-phosphates that regenerate the
carbon dicxide acceptor and allows six-carbon sugar to accumulate as the
end product.

While we often show the photosynthetic reaction as a simple combination of
carbon dioxide and water to form sugar and oxygen, the reaction is considerably
more complex. The dozen or so reactions involved require enzymatic proteins which
in most instances contain in their chemical structures minute quantities of the
mineral elements which we apply as fertilizers. A deficiency in any one of the
essential elements will retard photosynthesis and normal plant growth.
Photosynthesis can be thought of as a manufacturing process in which the leaf
serves as the factory building; the basic raw products are carbon dioxide and water.
The main source of energy for this factory is sunlight. The factory workers here
would be analogous to the enzyme systems and the various minute quantities of minerals needed to carry out the manufacturing process. If a worker failed to report
for work, for example, adequate iron, the production line (photosynthesis) would be
slowed.
Table I shows that the main differences between putting green grasses and
other plants are their higher requirements for potash and nitrogen, xvith nitrogen
being the key nutrient. Grasses require larger amounts of nitrogen than any other
mineral element. In a later section we will discuss some of the specific functions
of nitrogen.

Table I.

Average mineral composition in plants vs. grass clippings from a putting
green.

Minerals

K
Na
Ca
Mg
P
N
*Coop et. al.

All Plants *

1.47
0.37
0.77
0.30
0.22
1.52

Putting green
clippings
2.5
0.20
0.50
0.25
0.30
4.5

Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 12:359,1947.

Once the energy from photosynthesis is in the form of sugar molecules in the
leaf, it can accumulate in amounts greater than that needed for the nutrition of
that leaf. This excess is translocated to other parts of the plant. Formation of
new leaves has highest priority. A great percentage of it is moved to the lower
stem and stolons or rhizomes of the grass plant. These structures serve primarily
as storage sites for excess energy. When the sugar molecules reach the rhizomes or
stolons they are combined (polymerized) into long chain compounds such as fructosan
or starch. The combining of small sugar molecules into large slow moving, lazy carbohydrates reduces the osmotic concentration of the cell sap and prevents damage
due to excess pressures.
Actively growing grasses supplied with adequate nutrition always have a reserve supply of carbohydrates stored in the lower anatomy of the plant. These substances serve to supply the turfgrass with energy and building materials during
times of stress, such as drouth, disease infestation, periods of excessive defoliation, or when excessive tissue is bruised due to heavy traffic, or other stress
conditions. In a manner similar to which the sugar molecules were combined into

the long chain starch molecules, they are enzymatically degraded into simple sugar
when needed by the grass. This sugar may be utilized as energy in the process of
respiration of the individual cells of the plant; it may be combined with nitrogen
to form proteins or altered in several ways to form the more rigid cellulose and
lignin which serve as structural materials in the cell walls.
One of the main periods when large amounts of reserve energy are needed by
grasses is after mowing, or after more severe defoliation, such as vertical mowing. Immediately after such "operations the plant leaf tissue is inadequate to produce the necessary energy required for the synthesis of new leaves to restore the
green carpet, desirable for putting. Under these conditions, large quantities of
sugar in the rhizomes and stolons are utilized for production of new leaves. Therefore, it is best that plants never be completely defoliated, since this removal of
the entire photosynthetic factory would force the plant to rely entirely upon its
stored energy. At any given time the amount of reserve carbohydrates may be inadequate to produce an entirely new factory of leaves before the supply of energy is
completely exhausted, in which case the grass plants would die.
Today we know considerably more about the metabolism which takes place in
grass plants than was known prior to the development of radioactive isotopes.
Through the use of such radioactive isotopes as
and •NlS. we can trace
the path of individual nutrients..-thrcugh7emetabolic pathways of the plant and
determine functional roles of these nutrients in plant growth. Considerably more
is known today about the structure of the plant cells as scientists learn more
through the use of ^electron microscopes and other modern facilities. Through yet
undeveloped techniques, the functional role of each mineral nutrient will be elucidated. Such information should enable the plant grower to better understand and
meet the nutritional requirements of turfgrasses.

Some Specific Functions of Minerals in Metabolism
Since nitrogen is the fertilizer nutrient used in the largest quantities by
grass plants, there should be some explanations for this fact. A look at how nitrogen functions in the plant should give the answer.
1.

Nitrogen is an active part of the chlorophyll molecule which triggers the
initial photosynthesis.

2.

Nitrogen is a basic component of all protein tissue. Proteins are the lifegiving substances of all cells. All the enzymes which regulate, govern and
assist in the many chemical reactions taking place in the plant are made up
of proteins. A great part of the actively growing tissue of grass is primarily protein in nature.
Listed below are some major nitrogenous compounds found in the plants:
Alkaloids
Amides
Amino Acids
Chlorophyll
Cytochromes
Enzymes

Indole Acetic Acid
Nucleic Acids
Phosphatides
Proteins
Purines
Pyrimides
Vitamins

From this long but incomplete list, we can see why nitrogen is needed in such large
quantities, and why grasses lose their sharp green color when nitrogen is deficient.
Phosphorus is another key element in plant metabolism. Through the use of
radioactive *p32 w e have found that phosphorus functions in all energy building and
degrading reactions which take place in the plants. Phosphorus is the key ingredient that functions in energy transfer substances within the plant. It is phosphorus which forms the high energy bonds of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), which
controls the transfer of energy when sugar is degraded to carbon dioxide and water.
Phosphorus then serves as a catalyst in the plant. Its concentration in the plant
is usually less than .3%. This fact alone would tell us that the same phosphorus
molecule is used over, and over,and over again within the plant to aid in carrying
out of vital reactions.
Likewise, potash, a nutrient we often supply to turf, functions in the metabolic reactions of the plant.A deficiency of potash will cause:
1.
2.
3.

A slow down in photosynthesis.
An increase in respiration or loss of energy through the breakdown
of sugar.
Decreased growth.

Recent work by scientists in North Carolina shows that growth of young active plants may be reduced as much as 707o by a shortage of potash for a period of
only seven days. Potash also activates enzyme systems in the release of sugar energy and is believed to function in protein synthesis. Because of its Sundance in
the plant, it is thought that potash la s numerous other functions which are difficult to define because of inability to use a radioactive source of the nutrient.
One of the key practical responses we see from supplying plants with adequate potash
is the strengthening of plant tissue so that it better resits diseases and winter
freeze-up.
In summary, everything the turf manager does alters the metabolism of the
plant. You can aid or interfere with metabolism depending on your understanding
of how plants grow. For example, during periods of. drouth and excessive heat we
often syringe golf putting greens and other turf areas. When we do this, we influence at least four things related to metabolism:
1.

The water we supply is a functional part of photosynthesis, since'the hydrogen from water combines with carbon dioxide to form sugar. Hence, we are
supplying the plant with one of its major building blocks.

2.

We cool the turf. Temperatures at the surface of the soil are often reduced as much as 40° by syringing or irrigation. This reduces respiration,
which is the burning of excessive energy.

3. We prevent lethal enzyme injury. Enzymes are heat labile and are ultra sensitive to damage from heat. This is one reason bentgrasses often die in the
summer during extreme periods of heat.
4.

Through syringing we keep the plant leaf blades turgid so that they have
better exposure to absorb the energy from the sun.

Another practice carried out on golf putting greens and turf areas is aerification. How does this practice relate to the metabolism of the plant? Aerification allows better oxygen and water penetration to the root areas, providing for
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greater root growth, arid in turn increase the absorption of the mineral nutrients
needed in photosynthetic reactions. Oxygen is vitally needed for respiration and
growth of new roots. Aerification partially satisfies this need.
Plant growth is complex. It is often difficult to understand. But, a dedicated worker, who appreciates technical aspects of plant growth, will find the
practical growing of grass to be simpler, if he understands and appreciates the
little we do know about plant metabolism.

MAINTENANCE BY CONTRACT
Robert Duke, Supt., Western Electric Company
Indianapolis, Indiana.

To give some background to the development of our maintenance by contract
program, Western Electric of Indianapolis started operations in a new plant in
1951. Most of our grounds maintenance was performed by Company personnel. The
exception was a contract covering spraying of trees, shrubs and evergreens. As
the years went by, the advisability of doing grounds maintenance with outside
help was discussed frequently. Contracting was working well for the Company in
many other areas, particularly where specialized skills and equipment were required, or where labor needs were erratic.
There were three prime factors considered. One was cost - could we contract
more cheaply than we could do the work ourselves? A second factor was quality could we continue to maintain the desired appearance level? The third was a personnel problems. Some of our permanent employees had part-time assignments, such
as chauffe.uring, in addition to their grounds maintenance work and we wanted to retain these men. Temporary help also was hired each spring. Then, being reluctant
to lay these men off in the fall, the Company always scratched around trying to
find permanent jobs for them at the end of the season. Could we solve the part-time
problem and the surplus help problem by going to a contract?
It appeared that if we would continue to do a portion of the maintenance,
particularly those items least desirable to contract or items difficult to write
into a contract, we wouldlave full-time work available for our regular force, plus
eliminating the temporary help problem. With this in mind, our management made the
decision to contract for a one-year trial period. Our force would continue with
turf fertilization, mowing, renovating, watering, policing grounds, and maintaining
recreational facilities, along with other duties falling outside the maintenance
category. This left eight items for contractor, which could be performed at specifield intervals and at a standard cost per service. They are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Cultivation of 20 entrance beds scheduled on a weekly basis during the season.
General cultivation of all other plant material on a monthly basis.
Trimming grass along walks, drives and curbs, usually three times annually.
Aerification, also usually three times annually.
Fertilizing all shrubs, evergreens and trees once annually.
Complete growth control on railroad tracks, storage areas and fence lines
once a year.
Trimming shrubs, trees and evergreens once annually.
Trimming hedges, of which we have both deciduous and evergreen in some quantity, once a year.

The other items covered in the contract were spray applications charged at
a per gallon rate, which varied v'according to the type of spray material. Included
were dormant and summer sprays on our ornamentals, broadleaf weed and crabgrass
sprays, fungicides, turf insecticides and a separate listing for a clover mite control spray. This little mite has been a real nuisance with us and reguires regular
attention.
Bid forms were sent out to several dependable firms in the area* The low
bidder was the Duling Tree Expert Company of Muncie. This happened to be the same
firm with whom the Company had enjoyed a long association, starting with the original shade tree plantings and continuing with a contract since 1951 for spraying our
ornamentals. The Duling firm also had furnished additional trees over the years.
Due to delay on our part, the first contract did not become effective until well into the 1963 season. It continued for the remainder of the year. In spite of the
handicap of the late start on May 1, the results of contracting our maintenance
appeared quite satisfactory. In 1964 a new contract was written for a five-year
period. As you may have deduced from the program, the successful bidder again was
the Duling Company. This, then, is the background on Western's part in maintenance
by contract.
Experience has shown that our three primary considerations have been resolved
satisfactorily. We believe the savings are worthwhile, our appearance level certainly has not been altered, and we have settled our personnel problem. With the
contract, our own men have time to do a considerable amount of what we call construction work. Our place is in an almost constant building program and there is need
for transplanting trees and shrubs, grading, sodding and seeding. Much of this work
can be done by our personnel. We schedule the contract work by furnishing John
Duling and his Company monthly written work authorization listing the type and number of services to be performed during a specific month.
In conclusion, it appears to me that any contract for grounds maintenance
must be tailored to fit the needs of the situation - as we did with ours. In
spite of diligent effort in preparing a contract, there are always questions to be
resolved between owner and contractor. Without the ability to reach a mutually
satisfactory agreement, the contract road may become rocky. Both parties certainly
have to be sincere in their dealings. In our case, we are happy to say that problems, which have arisen, were settled satisfactorily.

MAINTENANCE BY CONTRACT
John Duling, Duling Tree Expert Co.
Muncie, Indiana

My remarks are general, yet confirm many of the points that Robert Duke has
made. As a contractor of ground maintenance, we find that a greal deal must depend upon the relationship between the contractor and the owner, or the representative of the owner. As various items of the contract may be requested during the
season, we find that we need considerable flexibility in performing the services.
Sometimes we are faced with weather conditions which prevent the performance of
some item; yet,it is important that we make every effort to do so as soon as weather conditions and circumstances permit.

in
As elaboration on the various items included/the contract, a detailed outline should be completed as a result of the conference between the prospective
contractor and the owner- In this conference both parties can arrive at decisions
and understandings that are helpful in the future working and specifications of
the items. We find that in this conference a relationship of understanding is developed that permits the desired and acceptable results at the time when such services are performed.
As the contractor I feel we must make every effort to produce the services
in such a manner that is satisfactory and acceptable to the owner. I think this
is just as important as the profits, which may be derived from the contract.

GROWING TURF ON SAND
0. C. Redenbacher, Pres., Chester Hybrids, Inc.
Valparaiso, Indiana

In looking for a definition for dune sand, I found it under STRUCTURELESS
soils as follows: There are two types of structureless soils:
1.
2.

Single grain - each particle by itself, as in dune sand
Massive - where all particles stick together without any regular
structure at all - such as in many clay pans or hard pans."

During 1960 the steel mills started to industrialize the area along Lake
Michigan in the vicinity of Burns Ditch, a few miles west of the Indiana Dunes
State Park. Most of the dunes in this area had already been removed and used as
fill for construction in the nearby areas. The first mill to start was Midwest
Steel, a division of National Steel Company. No thought or plans had been given
by the engineers in the lay-out of the steel mills for the movement and drifting
of the sand, which is peculiar to the dune area around Lake Michigan. This sand
is worn by the elements of time, so that there are no sharp corners, and with a
slight wind the real fine particles will actually float a few inches above the
surface ,even within a few hours after a rain.
Construction was started, large areas were leveled for present and future
building sites. To add to the problem of tying down the sand was the problem of
continued construction even in some of the areas where the blowing sand also
needed to be controlled. The blowing sand proved to be a hazard to men, machinery, and the finished product. The assignment was not beautification, but to tie
down the sand by any method that was economical and practical.
Many people were consulted; ideas tried included slag from the existing
steel mills, soil from adjoining clay areas, oils of various kinds, tars of various kinds, and a long list of grasses, plants shrubs and trees. Some of the
trials included Scotch pines and white pines, three varieties of locust trees,
and new hybrid poplars. These were tried both with water and without. Without
water they were a complete failure. With water they were a partial success.
Seed and fertilizer were seeded in the sand, and the area was immediately
covered with chopped straw, and this was incorporated into the sand so that the
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pieces of atraw would project vertically. This also failed, where no water was
applied, but made good growth when water was added. We at Chester Hybrids were
convinced thatjriane of these would work successfully,unless ample water was included in with the program. Special machinery was needed. This included flotation tires on tractors, and also flotation tires on any accessory equipment.
In 1963 Bethlehem Steel Company started construction on their new plant,
which is the largest construction project in the United States today, and the
second largest in the world. They also had problems with the movement of sand.
However, much of their area included marsh areas that are covered with water during most of the year, and filled with muck and a poor quality of peatmoss. They
shipped colloidal clay from their pits in Pennsylvania, which were applied to
test plots with a hydro-seeder. This held the sand together for a relatively
short time.
The trial plots were measured and accurate amount of fertilizer, grass seed
of different mixtures, including the grasses grown in the arid west, and the
coverings of Turf-fiber, Sulphite road-binder, colloidal clay and straw were all
noted. All of the plots were divided so that one-half was irrigated and one-half
was not. In the late fall of 1963, Turf-fiber was applied at 1,000 pounds and
lf5QQ pounds through theKydicj-seeder with 500 pounds of 16-8-8 fertilizer, and
300 pounds of perennial ryegrass per acre. Due to the lateness of the season
they failed to germinate. All of the Turf-fiber was destroyed by the winds during the first part of the winter.
This same treatment of Turf-fiber, along with grass seed and fertilizer,
was applied to existing durteip, and these, too, were destroyed by the winds during
the first part of the winter. The Turf-fiber held the sand only while it was
moist, and when irrigation was applied. It was noted that where the seed and fertilizer were incorporated into the sand, then the Turf-fiber applied on top, germination was much better, and the growth and coverage of grass required much less
time than where the seed and fertilizer were mixed with the Turf-fiber and applied
on top of the sand.
Another material known as Sulphite-roadbinder, which is unrefined calcium
lignosulfonate, was used. This is a by-product of Marathon, a Division of American Company in Wisconsin, and is used as a road-binder to hold the mud and dust
problems on unsurfaced roads. This material held the sand in place, and if applied
in heavy enough concentrations, one could walk on the sand without any impressions
being left* Grass seed and fertilizer were also added to this compound, but they
proved unsatisfactory. Applications were made in both the spring and the fall.
Road treatments were also made, but the sand drifting in from the surrounding
areas destroyed the road treatments within two or three days.
Most of the areas around the mills are divided into two classifications.
Those that are to be mowed regularly are called maintained areas, and those that
are not to be mowed, but only clipped once or twice a year, are called nonmaintained areas. The crop that was found to be most practical and would give
the greatest root proliferation in pure sand in these non-maintained areas, was
corn, seeded at the rate of 4 bushel per acre.
The growing of any crop on dunes sand with water is very similar to hydroponics; therefore, an analysis of the natural fertility in the sand was necessary.
The pH was found to be above 8. Nitrogen was practically nil, the phosphate was
medium and potassium was nil as shown by the Purdue tests. Eight hundred pounds
per acre of 16-8-8 granular fertilizer were applied when the corn was seeded.

With heavy rain and frequent irrigation the potash was soon lost, and the corn
showed potash starvation. This required topdressing with potash and the corn responded very readily.
In order to supply water with the least amount of labor to these large areas,
a Valley Irrigation System 1200 feet in length was installed. This covered 102-1/2
acres with each revolution. Fifty-two hours were required for each revolution, and
1-1/2 inches of water were applied over the entire area with each revolution. During the early stages of growth, the irrigation system ran constantly. Fertilizer
was also applied through this same system. The corn grew to an average height of
four feet. During the latter part of September, rye, at the rate of two bushels
per acre, and a seed mixture consisting of 125 pounds of Kentucky 31 fescue, 35
pounds of perennial rye, 25 pounds of Kentucky bluegrass, 15 pounds of Redtop, and
10 pounds of sweet clover were seeded in the corn without chopping or destroying
the corn any more than running over it with a grain drill.
The corn provided good protection to the young seedlings from the wind and
the sand, and rye is probably one of the easiest crops to grow in the dunes area
under the adverse conditions that exist. The following spring this area was fertilized at six week intervals with 10-3-5 liquid fertilizer, with trace elements
added.
Water in the maintained areas was applied with underground plastic pipe,
and pop-up sprinklers. This covered an area of some sixty acres. These areas
were seeded throughout the spring and summer and early fall without the benefit of
any type of nurse crop. The grass mixture consisted of Kentucky 31 fescue, creeping red fescue, perennial rye, Redtop, and Merion bluegrass. No emulsion was used,
watering was done frequently until a grass cover developed, and this had to support
a Ford tractor and mower without making tracks or destroying the turf.
Some of the problems that developed on the maintained lawn pertained to the
usage of water. During the dry windy days, large amounts of water had to be used
to keep the sand from blowing, and this leached the potash and nitrogen away from
the young plants. If the water was used in too small amounts, so that the submoisture and surface moisture did not make contact, the grass would burn during
the heat of the day, caused by the reflection of the sun on the sand, creating temperatures beyond what the grass could endure. Frequent waterings were the best
way to maintain the grass until it was established, and then daily waterings afterwards .
Topdressing with fertilizer, again liquid 10-3-5 with trace elements, was
applied every 30 days during the first year. The second year this application rate
was stretched to six weeks, and the third year to eight weeks. The total usage of
fertilizer has dropped 607o from the first year mainly because the clippings have
all been left on the soil, and a thatch is beginning to accumulate, which holds •
both the nutrients and the moisture. This method of controlling the sand has
enabled the plant to operate with its doors and windows open, free from sand.
They have been able to maintain their railroads, switches and general yards without
a constant sand removal clean-up crew.
Nipsco, Northern Indiana Public Service Company, also built a large power
plant in this same area. They controlled the sand in the areas immediately adjacent to their office, but decided against controlling the sand in the adjoining
area. During the winter the sand from the adjoining areas covered the maintained
areas to a depth of 3 inches, and H i l a t e r had to be vacuumed from the grass, and
more costs were expended maintaining • / small maintained area than it would have

cost to have controlled the larger areas in the first place.
The Bethlehem Steel Company also inaugurated an idea of maintenance around
the main office, along with a complete landscaped planting, including evergreen
wind-breaks with no protection from the adjoining sand areas. During the winter
much of the established lawn was covered with sand, many of the evergreen trees
were destroyed by the blowing of sand. Now these adjoining areas have been controlled, as was outlined to them originally.
In one of the areas at Midwest Steel the problem consisted of a 90 degree
slope, fifty foot in length, covering some 1700 lineal feet around the acid recovery pit- This area was seeded with the same grass mixture as the maintained areas
however, rye was added as a nurse crop. After the grass emerged, five pounds of
crown vetch seed was obtained and this was broadcast along the top of the ridge.
No effort was made to try to get the seed lodged into the sand underneath the grow
ing grass. The vetch is now making a very luxuriant growth, and seems to be our
best method of controlling the slopes of pure sand where water can be supplemented
during the dry periods.
In summary, pure sand can be controlled with seed, fertilizer and water.
Mulching with top layers of muck, peat, soil, straw or straw asphalt combinations
will assist in the growing of grass, but alone will not successfully grow grass.
A damp surface is necessary for seed stabilization. Frequent fertilizations are
a must during the first and second year. The use of irrigation, particularly a
sprinkler type system, adds coolness and enjoyment to the extreme heats encountered both inside and outside of the modern steel plant during the hot summer months.
Industry cannot live with the moving,floating sand without creating additional
costs and hazards to its finished product. The control of sand with grass adds
greatly to the beauty of the area and to the working environment.

FAST SEEDING AND MULCHING
B. H. Stamm, New Products Mgr., American Excelsior Corp.
Chicago, Illinois

When man trys to improve upon mother nature he frequently errs by not first
looking at the way things happen naturally, so let's first take a look at the
techniques nature uses to propagate grasses. As seeds ripen they fell indiscrimantely on the ground. Those finding favorable conditions grow quickly; those
that fall in a hostile environment either stay dormant until conditions improve,
or die.
The most favorable conditions are those where the seed falls into dead
grass. There the seed and seedling are protected from the sun, wind and rain, and
under these conditions, the seed quickly germinates, and the seedling thrives.
Today we take this same seegl,bury it in hard ground, hammer it with sprinkler and
rain water, bake the seedling in the sun and expose it to the ravages of the wind.
It's a miracle that we get turf at all from such treatment.
Can we imitate nature's technique to give the desired turf quickly and economically? Highway builders have a hostile environment in which to establish turf -

subsoil for a seed bed, steep slopes, large drainage areas, and no irrigation. For
highway grassing, the use of mulch has been adopted in every state. The most
widely accepted mulch is straw, tacked into place with asphalt. Straw blowers,
capable of mulching and tacking as much as four acres per hour were developed, and
are being used. Other mulches are coming into use because straw is getting in
shorter supply each year. Some of these new mulches are excelsior, wood cellulose fiber, fiber glass, cane begasse, cotton seed hulls, jute, sisal and hemp
fibers, and even rayon and plastic fibers and nettings.
The next problem that the highway departments faced was how to apply the
seed and nutrients at a minimum cost with a minimum amount of labor. In 1938 the
Connecticut Highway Department invented the hydro-seeder. With the hydro-seeder
and the power mulcher a crew could now seed, fertilize.,. and mulch as much as 30
acres a day, in practically any type of terrain, directly from the road bed.
Since 1938 hydraulic seeders have improved remarkably. The equipment has become
one compact unit, mechanical and hydraulic agitation have been added, pumps improved, and the spraying systems developed to a fine art.
In 1958 the International Paper Company invented the wood cellulose fiber
mulch tha^made it theoretically practical to seed, fertilize and mulch 30 acres a
day with one machine and a small crew.
The bottle neck now turned out to be the
hydro-seeder. It was not capable of mixing and pumping the heavy slurries, charging the equipment was slow, and there were frequent doppages of work due to lines
plugging, or other breakdowns. In order to make the technique of hydro-mulching
effective, the Hydro-Mulcher was born.
The Hydro-Mulcher has more mechanical agitation, a shredder bar to facilitate the loading of the wood cellulose fiber mulch, a gear pump that will handle
twice as heavy a slurry as the centrifical pump, and will also handle vegetative
matter, such as stolons, rhizomes and crowns. The technique of hydro-mulching
was now a practical matter. Hydro-mulching is suitable for seeding both irrigated and non-irrigated areas. Equipment is available in sizes from 250 gallons,
suitable for maintenance at most country clubs, to the 1650 gallon units for contractors and new course builders, or sod growers.
The typical charge in a 1500 gallon Hydro-Mulcher is 1500 gallons of water,
500 to 1000 pounds of wood cellulose fiber, 40 to 80 pounds of seed, and 400
pounds of fertilizer. The equipment can be operated by as few as two men, and depending upon the water supply, as many as five loads an hour can be pumped. Each
load will do half an acre. When applied, the seed is trapped in a soft layer of
green colored wood cellulose fiber, which, while attractive to the eye, is really
used to meter the material by giving the operator something to see. The fiber insulates the seed, keeps it moist, and provides the essential elements for rapid
germination and growth. So far we have considered seeding only. The hydromulching technique can also be used for vegetative planting, or hydro-sprigging.
This process was developed by Dr. Ray Self, Auburn University, and is going to be
a real boon to the turf industry.
In hydro-sprigging the stolons, rhizomes and/or crowns are mixed with water
and wood cellulose fiber in the Hydro-Mulcher. So far we have not been able to
apply the fertilizer with the plant material without some side effects. The material or slurry is then sprayed on the green or seed bed so that the angle of impact is nearly vertical. Reasonably sharp edges can be maintained. The distribution of the stolons is very uniform. The wood cellulose fiber wraps around the
stolons, making it necessary to apply only a light topdressing of fiber for final
protection. Rolling is not required, except possibly for some of the very springy
stolons, such as Zoysia.

At Fort Wayne a three-man local crew, using a 500 gallon Hydro-Mulcher
applied 850 bushels of C-15 Toronto stolons to 20 greens in two days on October
1 and 2, 1965, By November 1 the turf was well established, and has done well
through the winter. In the South, Tifton 320, under ideal growing conditions,
has made playable greens in as little as 28 days after hydro-sprigging» This
technique makes it practical and economical to go first class on greens and
plant them vegetatively. Labor is reduced as much as 75%, material as much as
40%.
The fast seeding and mulching techniques have definite application in reducing costs, reducing labor, improving quality and establishing the best possible turf in the least possible time.

IMPLICATIONS CF ROADSIDE BEAUTIFICATION
Vincent Koers, Department of Roadside Improvement
Indiana State Highway Commission

I am here today as a representative of the Indiana State Highway Commission to speak on the implications of roadside beautification, or more specifically the Highway Beautification Act of 1965.
Beauty itself is not something created by the Johnson Administration.
Beauty has undoubtedly existed on this Earth since long before mankind was here
to appreciate it, As our country progressed, masses of people began to create
problems which went largely unrecognized until the early nineteen hundreds.
In the early thirties most highway administrators and engineers were primarily interested in getting the motorist out of the mud. Limited funds precluded appropriation for beautification, or "pansy planting," as it was facetiously called. Some parts of the country were ahead of others in terms of their
sophistication of highx^ay design, to the degree to which they had been able to
escape from the concept that roads should be built with a minimum of change in the
terrain surrounding them, regardless of what this did to the design of the road.
In 1936, a clearing-house for roadside development information was proposed,
and in 1943 it became a reality. Through this and similar efforts, new ideas and
concepts became more generally accepted on a nationwide basis. But today,in many
states beautification, as set out in the Highway Beautification Act of 1965, has
yet to be accepted. In some of these areas, Beauty is still a dirty word.
In 1936 members of the Amer. Ass'n. of State Highway Officials published the
goals of roadside development, that is, "that they must conserve, enhance, and
effectively display the natural beauty of the landscape through which the highway
passes, as well as provide safety, utility, economy, and recreation facilities by
means of proper location, construction and maintenance of the highways," This
goes far beyond simply planting a few trees, or shrubs at specific locations.
At a recent conference, Laurance Rockefeller pointed out that "Americans are
becoming increasingly concerned about how we are treating the air, water and land

about us- There is a growing conviction in the land that we can restore beauty
where it has been ravaged, that we can preserve it where it now exists, and that
we can even create it as we rebuild anew/' Such a turnabout in public policy has
not taken place overnight. It has taken as long as five decades to ferment in the
minds of the American people and come to a head.
At a White House Conference, the President said that, "Natural Beauty as you
and I conceive it, is the world that we live in. The importance of natural beauty
cannot easily be measured. But, it is proven beyond doubt by history of the race
and experience of our own lives. Today, natural beauty has new enemies, and we
need new weapons to fight these new enemies/7 In his State of the Union Address,
President Johnson further stated that, "We have 265,000 miles of federal interstate, primary and urban highways which handle 46% of all motor vehicle traffic.
I want to make sure that the American we see from these major highways will be a
beautiful America."
In response to these ideas, the Congress of the United States passed the Highway Beautification Act of 1965, which has three separate sections: control of out-

door advertisement; control of junk yards, and authorizes expenditures for roadside
development. The guestion can rightfully be asked: What is beautification, and,
as a practical result of the Act of 1965, what can we expect to see as tangible
changes on our highway system?
The State of Indiana, along with Illinois, Massachusetts, California, and a
few other states, had engaged in highway beautification prior to the Act of 1965
under the 3% 90-10 program. In Indiana, what this work amounted to was a total
of some 3 615,000.00 of Contract Planting in the period from 1961 through 1965,
or over a period of five calendar years.
In 1965 we increased our design staff and also began engaging in consulting
agreements for design of projects, thereby increasing our ability to plan. We have
programmed some $ 2,800,00 of contracts, which should be let for construction in
calendar years 1966 and 1967.
What will happen under Section I and Section II of the Act of 1965 is less
clear. The Act provides generally for the control of outdoor advertising within
660 feet, and junk yards within 1000 feet of the edge of right-of-way along interstate and federal aid primary highways. But, there are some important exclusions
in the Act. The actual effectiveness will be determined by the standards which
have yet to be adopted by the Secretary of Commerce. Whatever standards are
adopted, they will not become fully effective until 1970.
The actual design of the landscape planting has varied considerably since
we first began drawing them in 1961. The original concept of our planting was and
still is to create relatively maintenance-free plantings, "which will eventually
eliminate or drastically cut the amount of maintenance reguired in the area. This
same type of design, with relatively small material and large numbers of shrubs,
was continued up to the latter part of 1963, at which time we gradually switched
to larger sizes of material and at the same time reduced the number of shrubs considerably.
Late in 1964, approval was given to expand the program to include not only
interchanges, but also the right-of-way that lies between them. Guides as to the
design criteria were to be two books published by the A.A. of State Highway
Officials, the first being "A Policy on Landscape Development for the National
System of Interstate and Defense Highways," published in 1961, and the second and
more detailed, "Landscape Design Guide," prepared and approved by the operating

committee on roadside development in late 1964 and copyrighted in 1965. With this
further direction we continued the program essentially as it is today, using predominantly tree material of relatively large sizes over the entire right of way.
The present standard for density of material sets up seven figures expressed in dollars of material per mile, which are as follows: on the Interstate
system, Rural is $ 10,000, Urban is $ 15,000, and the inner belt is
30,000. On
the Primary and Secondary system, Rural is $ 5,000 and Urban is $ 10,000. On interchanges, cloverleafs generally are $ 30,000, and others are $ 20,000. These
figures are intended only as rough guides.
Our program in its present phase can relieve the monotony of the highway;
it can^aLleviate specific local problems; it can eliminate annoying and dangerous
headlight glare in some locations, and can effectively beautify the roadway. But,
we have Some built-in inherent flaws which must be dealt with in ways other than
planting a tree around it.
Both the previous legislation and the Act of 1965 provide for Safety rest
areas and scenic pulloffs. Generally, Safety rest areas will be provided at between 25 or 45 mile intervals along the interstate highway system. Scenic lookouts will be provided wherever feasible, which will be predominantly in the southern part of Indiana. I want to stress one point in particular, and that is that
the need for roadside beautification is not a new need. What we need is to begin
to recognize the need for roadside development in the same plane as the need for
better roadways.

PROBLEMS OF PEOPLE
WORLD FOOD AND FERTILIZER OUTLOOK
Werner L. Nelson, American Potash Institute
Lafayette, Indiana

Before looking at the fertilizer outlook, we must first look at food needs
since one of the basic reasons we use fertilizer is to grow more food. The focus
now is on the food needs in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin
America *
We are aware that the world population will double in 35 years at the present rate, and most of this increase will come in the developing countries. In
these countries the annual population growth rate 1960-1980 is predicted to be
2.5%, while in the developed countries the increase will be about 1.3%. Presently
about one-half of the world's population suffers from actual hunger or malnutrition. Malnutrition refers to "hidden hunger" because of lack of proper proteins
or other essentials.
Need For Food
The developing countries must double their food output in 15 years in order
to even keep pace with their present hunger level. This is an impossible task without help. For example, in Latin America, excluding Cuba, food production in the

last five years expanded 67o. However, the population grew more than 11%. Hence,
while food production is increasing, it is growing at a slower rate than the population .
Dr. E. L. Butz, in his address before the International Industrial Conference
stated - "The world is on a collision course. When the massive forces of an exploding world population meets the much more stable trend line of world food production,
something must give. Unless we give increased attention now to the softening of
the impending collision, many parts of the world, within a decade, will be skirting
a disaster of such proportion as to threaten the peace and stability of the Western
World itself. The long-run outlook for international agriculture is essentially one
of the race against time and capital in an effort to meet the onslaught of a tremendous upsurge in world population."
Before World War II the developing countries were exporting 11 million tons
of grain per year. The flow has reversed and in 1964 they imported 25 million tons
of grain.
Yield Per Acre is the Problem
A low yield increase is the basic problem in the developing countries as
shown below: (Foreign Agr. Ec. Report No. 25, 1965).

Area

Yield Increase 1934-8 to 1960

North America
Latin America
Western Europe
Eastern Europe & USSR
Africa
Asia
Oceanic

109
8
37
-20
20
7
62

Russian yields as percentage of American yields are:
36%; rice - 60%; tobacco - 42%, and potatoes - 34%.

corn - 3370; wheat -

How Fertilizer Fits In
Dr. F. W. Parker of AID states that a low level of soil fertility is one of
the most important and basic reasons for human hunger. The Food and Agriculture
Organization of United Nations, FAO, has made a study of the relationship between
N+P2O5+K2O per hectare of arable land by countries and the crop yield value index.
The relationship is good: r^ = 0.83. Hence, fertilizer consumption appears to be
a good indication of the degree to which a nation uses modern agricultural methods.
Soils are generally low in fertility either naturally, or because of long-continued
cropping.
FAO is quick to point out that fertilizer is only one part of improved management, but that it is a powerful causitive factor. Hence, if a country wishes to increase its yields, the use of fertilizers must be increased with proper attention to
the other factors.

FAQ Fertilizer Program
One specific example of an effort to increase crop yields through increased
fertilizer use and other improved management practices will be cited. In 1960
members of the world fertilizer industry initiated a fertilizer program under the
auspices? of the FAQ Freedom from Hunger program. About 20% of the Q 300,000 in
funds is contributed by U. S. industry.
Number. The main purpose was to carry out simple demonstrations and trials
in cooperation with interested developing countries. Some 15 countries are in the
program and the number of demonstrations is shown below:
Ho. of demonstrations
Planned thru
Already in
summer 1966
Near East + N. Africa
W. Africa
N. Latin America

18,297
17,595
9,125
45,017

28,481
31,045
18,310
77,836

Results. Responds have been quite good in general. Of course, a real effort
is made to use improved varieties, pest control, water control, etc,
Aver, yield
increase from fertilizer
%
Near East + N. Africa
¥. Africa
N. Latin America
Avg.
The average return shows the value
$ 1.00 spent for fertilizer. Crop yields
sponses would take care of the world food
initiated on large acreages in the hungry

Cropg; to Fertilizer
ratio

55
51
68

2,7
3.7
7.3

55

3.4

of yield increase to be § 3.40 for each
can be markedly increased, and such reproblem, if proper practices would be
countries.

Pilot programs. It is relatively easy to demonstrate responses to fertilizer. The big problem is to get it used because of credit and the marketing problems for fertilizer and the produce. To help overcome this, pilot programs have
been initiated in which fertilizer is given to the countries. The countries in
turn sell the fertilizer to the farmer either for cash, on credit, or for payment
in kind.
Programs have been initiated in Ghana (500 tons), in Nigeria (900 tons), in
Turkey (880 tons )v, with smaller efforts in Kenya, El Salvador, Morocco and Syria.
These have been quite successful and give leaders experience in meeting marketing
problems.
Government cooperation.
This has been excellent. Developing countries are
putting in $ 2.00 for every industry dollar, and about 100 workers for every FAO
staff member. Too, certain developed countries are channeling some of their aid
through the Fertilizer Prograjn. This is a long-term effort, but many people see
and are impressed by the demonstrations. Of particular import is the fact that

the leaders are being educated.
gram as funds become available.

Many more countries would like to get into the pro-

Factors influencing speed of adoption of fertilizer by developing countries
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Government stability
Availability of transportation and marketing facilities
Availability of credit
Incentives to buy fertilizer and produce
Crop and soil needs
Climate
Farmer knowledge
Technical and fertilizer assistance from developed countries

Other Limiting Crop Production Factors
Poor varieties,pests, and water control limit yield levels. Until these
problems are taken care of there will be a low ceiling on yields. The various assistance programs will make substantial"advances in getting and applying the technical
information to answer many of these questions in the next few years. Of particular
importance is the excellent role U. S. universities are playing in improving agriculture in many countries.

Conclusion
The U. S. fertilizer industry will play an important role in the program of
Plant Food for Peace. Virtually every major fertilizer company will be affected by
the increased demand for food over the world. Careful planning will be essential to
keep up with the rapidly changing food and fertilizer needs, and the changing attitudes of many governments with respect to fertilizer distribution and usage.

SOIL WARMING AND TURF USE - THIRD REPORT
W. H. Daniel, Dept. of Agronomy, and
J. R. Barrett, Jr., Dept. of Ag Engineering, & ARS
Purdue University

Soil warming, better defined as turf heating, involves adding heat to the
rootzone of turfgrass plants to keep the soil from freezing, keep the turf greener,
promote new root growth and blade extension, and help melt snow. This practice,used
in Britain and Sweden, now seems adequately tested for acceptance as a part of turf
management programs in the United States. The first major electrically heated turfgrass area in this country will be the playing field in the Civic Center Busch Memorial Stadium, St. Louis, Missouri. This installation is to be completed by mid-1966 .
The fundamental requirements for installation and management of electric
soil warming systems in the North Central States have been determined through cooperative investigations made by the Purdue University Departments of Agronomy and Agri-

cultural Engineering and the Farm Electrification Research Branch, AERD, ARS, USDA.

Soil Warming In The United States
Soil warming research in the United States has been oriented toward improving
turf in critical-use areas in addition to assuring frost-free playing conditions. Responses of bermuda grass (New Mexico and Texas A & M), Merion bluegrass (Ü. of Minn.),
St. Augustine grass (Texas A & M), bentgrasses (Toro, Minneapolis), Kentucky bluegrass (Purdue) and Zoysia (Link's Nursery, St- Louis) are being investigated. These
are the major turfgrasses used in football fields, baseball parks, and golf greens and
fairways.
Progress reports, 1964 and 1965, concerning work at Purdue presented factors
investigated to gain information about energy input relations to temperature, performance of cable types, installation procedure, control systems and grass response.
In 1964, Daniel, Barrett and Coombs reported that Kentucky bluegrass sod had
increased rootgrowth during the winter, had extended growth period in the fall, had
earlier growth in the spring, and, in high-wattage areas, had growth throughout the
winter. Plastic coverings reduced electric energy requirements, maintained greater
greenness in blades and favored growth. However, extra attention to remove and replace covers to avoid excessively high temperatures and disease buildup was necessary
during variable spring weather. In a report at the 1965 Conference, Daniel and
Barrett confirmed that soil warming as a turf management tool can improve adverse conditions by thawing soil, melting snow and maintaining a more vigorous turf.

Soil Warming in Canada
Lebeau at Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, studied the effect of controlled minimum temperatures on grass plots during winter. Results of three years of research
showed that raising soil temperatures a few degrees in field plots brought non-hardy
turfgrass through the winter in southern Alberta in a lush, vigorous condition.
Merion bluegrass, annual bluegrass and creeping bentgrass (Penncross) were lush and
green throughout the winter in plots with minimum controlled temperatures of 32°F.
and above. Lebeau further commented that raising soil temperatures a few degrees
would extend the growing season of many herbaceous perennials and give them a vigorous start in the spring. As a result, longer use of turfgrass areas could be made
during the season. He stated that extended use of this method (adding supplementary
heat) will depend largely on the future cost of supplying heat energy.

System Design Considerations
The exact design of each installation will depend on the extent of, and use for,
each turf area, the climatic location, the availability of power and the grass species
used. General guidelines pertaining to heating cable type, installation depth and
spacings, control systems and power densities can be found in 6ur7puMications.. System designs and installations should be in compliance with the National Electric Code.
Program of Operation
Use of the turf area will determine the program of operation. The application
of heat should begin as the earth cools if improved conditions are desired for an extended fall season. For this circumstance the system is used to buffer a heat loss.
The advantage of early spring application can be best utilized by warming the soil

as normal soil temperature buildup begins.
In areas used for both football and baseball, supplementary heat can be used to
sustain a frost-free growing turf until the close of the fall season, then turned off,
or used in minimum amounts to help the turf repair itself, until air temperatures warm
up in the spring. Then the turf can be thawed, or warmed up, and active growth forced
as much as 4 - 6 weeks prior to opening of the baseball season.
Management of golf greens would be similar, practice greens can be available
for play whenever weather permits outdoor activity. Heating golf greens at low wattage densities may improve winter survival and avoid winterkill.
The biggest single consideration with large heated areas involves economics,
both installation and operational costs. Approximately 600 KW power capacity is needed
to heat a football field turf area at 10 watts per square foot. This is comparable in
size to a field lighting system; in fact, the switch gear for field lighting can be
used for warming systems. In smaller areas, with less investment and more return per
square foot of heated turf, the relation between costs and return is more favorable.

Installation Procedure
Plastic insulated cables can be installed under existing turf using a modified
subsoiling tool preceded by a rolling coulter to slice the sod. A rigid metal tube
guides the cable to desired depth. With ample rolling and watering, the turf can be
made smooth enough for use immediately after burial. Utmost care must be taken to
prevent damage during installation. Prior to application of power, each cable should
be further checked to detect if damage may have occurred.

Maintenance Precautions
One major problem involves protecting a system from mechanical damage during
the normal maintenance and repair of the turf area. Management must recognize the
possible damage and injury that can result from shoveling, deep aerating or staking.
Warning lights should indicate to workmen and users of the turf areas when the heating system is energized.

Agronomic Considerations
Turf heating offers several agronomic benefits which have not been previously
mentioned. Eejuven'ationn of existing turf can be accelerated, and new sod or new
seedings stimulated. For example, ryegrass overseeded December 1, 1964, was 3 inches
high by December 30 on heated soil covered by plastic, while unheated soil, also
covered with plastic, repeatedly heaved and thawed and seed did not germinate. Heating makes rejuvenation of heavy-use areas possible where none would otherwise occur.
At the Air Force Academy, for instance, hard frosts occur in the stadium before the
first football game of the season is played. They will make the first installation
in a football field during 1966. Another potential benefit is the possibility of combining warm-season grasses havinggreater wear resistance, with cool-season grasses for
an improved turf in cooler areas of the country.
No winter irrigation of heated plots was required during the 3 years of tests
at Purdue. Apparently the additional infiltration of moisture from rain and melting
of snow adequately offsets any increase in evaporation which might be anticipated as
the result of heating. Lebeau's heated plots also did not dry out during the winter

despite a small amount of precipitation.
Certain potential difficulties must be recognized. Bluegrass plants can be
over-stimulated when temperatures above 50° F. are maintained at 1-inch depth and are
susceptible to frost injury in sudden severe cold weather. When surface temperatures
are maintained just above freezing with little air circulation, particularly under
snow cover, injury from "snow mold" is possible. Lebeau has pointed out this potential problem. He states that regulation of temperatures in conjunction with application of fungicides should insure complete protection of turfgrass from damage.

Civic Center Busch Memorial Stadium
The playing field of this new stadium will be equipped with electric soil heating cables placed approximately 8 inches below the sod and spaced 1 foot apart. Heat
output of these polyvinyl-chloride insulated cables is to be 5 watts per linear foot
while operating at 2 7 7 / 4 8 0 v AC. The system will operate "off-peak" to heat the soil
when the outdoor air temperature drops below 4 0 ° F . , and when the soil temperature at
1. inches falls below 50F.
A mixture of 7 0 - 8 0 % Zoysia (Midwest and Meyer) and 2 0 - 3 0 7 o bluegrass (Kentucky,
Delta, Merion, Newport and Windsor) will be sodded in as turf. These grasses are expected to complement each other with the Zoysia most active in the summer and early
fall, and the bluegrass predominating in the winter and early spring. The heat added
will stimulate the Zoysia into early spring growth and later fall activity, while the
bluegrass will remain active in the winter instead of becoming dormant.

In Conclusion
The application of heat to the rootzone of turfgrass plants involves both engineering and agronomic considerations. Research in both disciplines has led to acceptance of turf heating as a management tool in England and Sweden. The potential for
use in the United States is vast, ranging from installations in golf green areas to
large multiple-sport arenas. Surely other agricultural applications involving the
modification of temperatures in plant-supporting mediums will be conceived. Although
considerable research has been done concerning grass responses, heat transfer in soil,
and soil warming, more investigations need to be made to correlate findings and define management techniques.

SOD PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTH
C. Y. Ward, Dept. of Agronomy, Mississippi State University
State College, Mississippi

Sod production in the South is booming. A recent survey showed there is some
commercial sod production in every southern state. The major sod farms in the South
are located near the Gulf Coast and in peninsula Florida. These locations provide a
long growing season and usually very sandy soil. The latter is important as it permits harvesting of sod in rainy as well as dry seasons.

The major turfgrasses grown for commercial so.d production in the South are all
warm-season species. The most important are:
Be rmudagra s s e s

Zoysiagrasses

St. Augustine

Tifdwarf*
Tifgreen(Tifton 328)*
Tifway (Tifton 419)**
Tiflawn (Tifton 57)***
Everglades*
Common

Meyer***,**
Emerald***

Common****
Fioratine****
Common Centipede****

*Recommended for putting greens
**Recommended for tees and fairways
***Eor general turf areas and athletic fields
****For lawns only
In the upper South consideration is being given to production of certified Kentucky
bluegrass and Kentucky bluegrass-creeping fescue sod.
Most southern states attempt to control sod quality, and afford protection for
the buyer, by offering a certification program for commercially produced turf. These
programs require that the grower start with "Foundation Stock" obtained from the
original source, usually a State Experiment Station. The Foundation sod is planted
on fumigated, weed-free soil and is also rogued to keep it genetically pure. The
fields are inspected periodically by Plant inspectors charged with the Certified
Crop Program. The grox^er is issued a series of certificates; he attaches one to each
shipment of certified sod. In addition to guaranteeing the buyer that he is buying
the "genuine article", the program protects the grower from unqualified turf producers .
Certified Sod Production in the South (does not include non-certified
acreage. Texas and Arkansas will have certified turf grox^ers in 1966 )
State
Alabama
Arkansas
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia

Acreage in 1965
30
None
249
100
No data
No program
25
27
1
None
1

No. of growers

None at present
5
5

7
1

Non-certified sod production greatly exceeds certified production in most
states. For example, Florida alone has thousands of acres of non-certified St.
Augustine.
Bermudagrasses. Most bermudagrass sod is not sold as solid sod, but as sprigs,
free of soil. This practice minimizes transportation costs and reduces transfer of

weeds and nematodes. This method of sale is possible because bermudagrass is so
easily established by planting vegetative material.
Zoysiagrasses. Most Zoysia is sold wholesale as sod, but the retailer or planter usually establishes these grasses by using plugs or sprigs. When used on tees
or other athletic turf, it is usually solid sodded. Also, some plugs are sold.
St. Augustine and Centipede. Because of their lower cost unit area, these
grasses are marketed as solid sod. They are very popular in the Deep South.
Sod producers in the South are highly mechanized. The entire operation from
growing,to harvesting, to "planting is made possible by use of the very latest
equipment. Much of the equipment has been developed by the grower to meet a specific need. For example, one large grower in Florida has developed a throw-away cardboard pallet for transporting sod in convenient stacks from the field, to truck, to
the lawn site.

WATERING SYSTEMS - SO WHAT?
James L. Holmes, USGA Green Section, Mid-Western Agronomist
Chicago, Illinois

During the past two months I have been fortunate enough to attend a number of
conferences where golf course irrigation has been the main topic. Dr. Daniel has
asked that I summarize the impressions made and "facts" learned during these conferences. It is obvious that-i considerable confusion, misunderstanding and variance of opinion exist in the industry today. The final decision as to just what
type system is actually superior in the more northerly: part of the country has:yet
to be made.
The biggest points of contention at this time are:
1. Which is superior, the combination of cement asbestos and plastic pipe,
or cast iron and galvanized pipe?
2. Manually operated systems, or automatic systems?
Both pipe schools of endeavor seem to have considerable going for them and can
prove to a novice's satisfaction that their stand is without doubt - right. It
would seem to me that both types of piping are adequate and will produce desired
results if suitable pipe, or that which meets minimum psi, size, etc., standards is
used, and if it is installed properly. A big point here, of course, being the
method of installation. This cannot be overstressed as I have personally seen too
many irrigation systems, which have not been properly installed competely and literally "go to pieces;" but, especially the cement asbestos and plastic types. By
all means, a knowledgable and qualified irrigation engineer must be consulted, and
a competent contractor used if you expect to properly install a semi-trouble free
watering system.
The other area undergoing considerable discussion at this time is that of complete automation vs. manually operated systems. In the southwest, or areas where a

considerable amount of water is required and irrigation days are many, it seems that
completely automatic systems are purely and simply all that are being installed at
the present time. However, as one travels further north, or into the region where
less overall water is required, and the irrigation season is shorter, it seems there
are good arguments for the installation of manually operated systems. This has been
quite well worked out on an economic basis which considers the number of man hours
required to water the golf course compared with costs of installation of the two systems. Actually, it seems to work out about nip and tuck. It costs more to install
the fully automatic system, but it costs more to operate a manually operated system.
A big problem is the lack of labor to properly operate a manual system - night watering, etc.
All fully automatic systems are new. The most knowledgable authorities in
irrigation are not cognizant of all the facets and angles, when comparing the economics of fully automatic and manual systems in the more northerly part of the country. I have personally talked to approximately 10 golf course superintendents who
have fully automatic systems in the northern area. They have reported that automatic systems are quite difficult to get into full operation - many bugs must be
worked out. But, after the system is operable, they much prefer to maintain the
golf course with the automatic system than with the manual system and labor supply
they had in the past.
To add all this up, . it seems to me that further improvements are necessary
with automatic systems before they will be completely acceptable in the more northerly parts of the United States. One constantly hears rumbles that new automatic
valve ideas are being tested and will be marketed shortly. Such things as heat and
radio controlled valves are discussed. Certainly, if systems could be developed
which do not contain the many miles of copper wiring or plastic tubing currently
necessary in automatic systems, a great advancement would be realized.
In any event, it is apparent that considerable advancements are currently
taking place in the irrigation industry and they are needed. Certainly more use
of turf can be expected and automatic irrigation is making great strides.

DESIGN AND ECONOMY COMPARISONS OF TURF SYSTEMS
R.R. Abernethy, Sales Mgr., Sprinkler Div.
Telsco Industries, Dallas, Texas

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION COST ANALYSIS

COMPARATIVE
AS

THE

COST D A T A

FOR S P R I N K L I N G

TEN ACRES OF LAWN AREA

B A S E D ON T H E

USE OF F O U R M E T H O D S OF

WATERING

FOLLOWS:
1.

FULLY

2.

MANUALLY

AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER

3.

QUICK COUPLER

4.

HOSES A N D P O R T A B L E S U R F A C E

F O L L O W I N G COST D A T A

SYSTEM

OPERATED SPRINKLER

SYSTEM

SYSTEM

IS P A T T E R N E D

AFTER

SPRINKLERS
A N D B A S E D ON I N F O R M A T I O N C O M P L I E D

BY THE T W E L F T H

NAVAL

D I S T R I C T IN C A L I F O R N I A T H E I R R E P O R T WAS B A S E D O N A C T U A L T E S T S A N D C O S T S O F T H E V A R I O U S T Y P E S O F S Y S T E M S
ON N A V A L I N S T A L L A T I O N S T H R O U G H O U T T H E W E S T C O A S T A R E A . T H E F I G U R E S P R E S E N T E D H E R E H A V E B E E N A D J U S T E D
SOMEWHAT TO R E F L E C T
OF WATER AND L A B O R

A V E R A G E COSTS A N D W A T E R I N G

REQUIREMENTS OVER THE ENTIRE

AS W E L L AS T H E C O S T O F I N S T A L L A T I O N W I L L O F C O U R S E V A R Y

T H E C O M P A R A T I V E COST D A T A T A B U L A T E D

B E L O W A R E B A S E D ON T H E

FOLLOWING

1.

WATER SUPPLY SUFFICIENT

TO UTILIZE 3 "

2.

LARGE

H E A D S (64' T R I A N G U L A R

3.

W A T E R C O S T $0.25 P E R 1000

ROTARY SPRINKLER

4.

L A B O R COST $1.60 PER

5.

AVERAGE

UNITED STATES.

IN E A C H I N D I V I D U A L

THE

COST

CASE.

ASSUMPTIONS:

VALVES
SPACING)

GALLONS

HOUR

INSTALLATION

COSTS A P P R O X I M A T E L Y

10% H I G H E R T H A N

CALIFORNIA

EXAMPLE TABLE - 10 ACRE AREA
COST PER YEAR
INSTALLATION

WATER

COST

PER

COST

LABOR COI R
PER

YEAR

TOTAL

YEAR

ACCRUED

AFTER

3

COST

YEARS

30 Y E A R

SAVINGS PER YEAR

LIFE

AUTOMATIC

AMORTIZATION

OTHERS

AUTOMATIC
SYSTEM

$24,000

$1,629

$

30

$28,977

$2,459

MANUAL
SYSTEM

$22,000

$2,444

$1,536

$33,940

$4,713

$2,254

QUICK
COUPLER
SYSTEM

$14,500

$2,933

$2,073

$5,489

$3,030

HOSE
SYSTEM

$ 9,000

$3,520

$3,110

SINCE THE ABOVE

F I G U R E S A R E B A S E D ON A 1 0 A C R E A R E A ,

D E C I M A L POINT ONE P L A C E TO T H E
NUMBER OF ACRES DESIRED.
DISTORTED CONSIDERABLY

LEFT

PLEASE
ON S M A L L

TO OBTAIN

NOTE THAT

A COST

$29,518
$28,890

$6,930

1I

R E L A T I V E C O S T S M A Y B E D E I C.RMIN E D B Y M O V I N G
PER ACRE, T H E N

MULTIPLYING

THIS A P P L I E S TO ACREAGE O N L Y

THE

THAT

RESULTS BY

P E R A C R E COST W I L L

$4,471
THE
THE
BE

ACRES OF LESS T H A N 2 TO 3 ACRES

COST B R E A K D O W N - E X A M P L E T A B L E I
WATERCOST - AUTOMATIC (NIGHT TIME
UNDER A V E R A G E SUMMER TIME CONDITIONS
PER WEEK

OPERATION)

LAWN AND T U R F

AREAS WILL

DURING A NORMAL YEAR WATERING WILL BE REQUIRED

REQUIRE A MINIMUM OF ONE INCH OF

FOR A T L E A S T 24

WEEKS

WATER

OVER

\ 9 ' OF W A T E R / W E E K X 24 WEEKS

= 2 4 " PER

24"'

=

20 A C R E F T /

=

871,200 C U B I C

12 ^ 2

F E E T X 10 A C R E S

2 0 A C R E F T / Y R X 43 560 S Q . F T . / A C R E
8 7 1 , 2 0 0 C U F T , X 7 . 4 8 G A L / C U B »FT

6,516,576

YEAR
YEAR
FT/YR.

GAL/YR.

T H F A V E R A G E W A T E R R A T E IS A P P R O X I M A T E L Y
0.25/1000

GAL.

6 516 576 G A L . / Y R

W A T E R COST - M A N U A L ( D A Y T I M E

THEREFORE:
X $0.25/1000 GAL.

=

$1 ,629 P E R

OPERATION)

D U E T O T H E H U M A N E L E M E N T A N D 30 50% LOSS D U E T O E V A P O R A T I O N A N D W I N D
P E R W E E K IS AN A V E R A G E E X P E R I E N C E

YEAR

A F I G U R E O F 1.5 I N C H E S O F

PRECIPITATION

RATING

$1 629 X 1.5

"

WATER COST - QUICK C O U P L E R S (DAY T I M E

$2 444 P E R

YEAR

OPERATION)

D U E TO I N C R E A S E D H A N D L I N G AND A D J U S T I N G OF S P R I N K L E R S P L U S T H E N E E D FOR T I M I N G E A C H I N D I V I D U A L
W A T E R USE W I L L I N C R E A S E A T L E A S T 20% O V E R A M A N U A L

SPRINKLERS

SYSTEM.

$2 444 X 1.2

= $2 933 P E R

YEAR

W A T E R - C O S T - HOSE S Y S T E M ( D A Y T I M E W A T E R I N G )
D U E T O T H E D I F F I C U L T Y IN M E A S U R I N G T H E A M O U N T O F W A T E R A P P L I E D
SETTINGS

T H E L A C K O F U N I F O R M I T Y IN S P R I N K L E R

A N D T H E H U M A N E L E M E N T IN T I M I N G E A C H I N D I V I D U A L S P R I N K L E R

W A T E R C O N S U M P T I O N A V E R A G E S 20%

MORE T H A N WITH A QUICK C O U P L I N G SYSTEM
$2 933 X 1.2

= $3 520 P E R

YEAR

L A B O R COST - A U T O M A T I C
A N A U T O M A T I C S Y S T E M R E Q U I R E S NO L A B O R F O R O P E R A T I O N
T H E SEASON A N D O F F A T T H E END.
L A B O R SO S P E N T

T H E S Y S T E M W I L L B E T U R N E D ON A T T H E B E G I N N I N G O F

IT MAY A L S O BE D E S I R A B L E T O T U R N IT O F F D U R I N G P E R I O D S O F E X C E S S I V E

IN F L I P P ' N G A S W I T C H C O U L D N O T C O N C I E V A B L Y C O S T M O R E T H A N $ 3 0 . 0 0 P E R

RAIN,

YEAR

L A B O R COST - M A N U A L
T E N A C R E S O F T U R F W I L L R E Q U I R E B E T W E E N 180 A N D 2 0 0 R O T A R Y S P R I N K L E R S .
ARE REQUIRED-

T I M E R E Q U I R E D FOR C O M P L E T E O P E R A T I O N O F T H F c v c

A T 9 T O 10 H E A D S P E R V A L V E , 2 0 V A L V E S

W E E K L Y W O U L D B E 4 HR

T E M

PER V A L V E X 20

V A L V E S - 80 HOURS / W E E K
80 H O U R S ' W E E K X 24 W E E K S - 1920 H O U R S / Y E A R
ASSUMING T H A T 50% O F T H I S T I M E C A N B E U S E D ON O T H E R WORK
1 920 HRS

L A B O R COST - QUICK

X .5 " 960 HRS

@$1 .60 " $1 5 3 6 /

YEAR

COUPLERS

QUICK C O U P L E R SYSTEMS REQUIRE A G R E A T AMOUNT OF HAND L A B O R
O F 35% O V E R T H E COST O F O P E R A T I N G A M A N U A L

A V E R Y C O N S E R V A T I V E E S T I M A T E IS A N

INCREASE

SYSTEM

$1 536 X 1 .35

-

$2 073

L A B O R C O S T - HOSES
THE HANDLING

SETTING

MOVING

A N D T I M I N G O F S P R I N K L E R S A N D HOSES IN MOST C A S E S B E C O M E S A F U L L T I M E J O B

FOR ONE MAN W H E N E V E R S E V E R A L ACRES A R E I N V O L V E D

TO BE CONSERVATIVE

A T AN I N C R E A S E O F 50% O V E R T H E C O S T O F O P E R A T I O N O F A Q U I C K C O U P L E R
$2 073 X 1 ,F

-

L A B O R COSTS MAY BE

SYSTEM
$3 110

ESTIMATED

COST D E T E R M I N I N G T A B L E

-

ACRE

AREA
YEAR

SAVINGS

LIFE

AUTOMATIC

AMORTIZATION

OTHERS

COST
INSTALLATION

WATER
PER

COST

LABOR

COST

PER

YEAR

COST

TOTAL

YEAR

AFTER

ACCRUED

30

3 YEARS

PER
YEAR

COST A N A L Y S I S
W A T E R COST

- AUTOMATIC

M

OF W A T E R / W E E K

"

* 12
ACRE

=

X

FEET

FT/

CUBIC

WEEKS

X

YR. X

(NIGHT TIME WATERING )
=

43,560

PER

M

ACRES

=

ACRE

SQ. F T . / A C R E

FT. @$

/100 CU F T .

YEAR
FT./

=

YR.
CUBIC

=

$

FT. /

PER

YR.

YEAR

OR
CUBIC

F T . X 7.48

GAL/YR

W A T E R COST

M000 G A L

-

=

1.2

-

=$

PER

YEAR

( A P P R O X . 2 V A L V E S / ACRE )

=

VALVES

X

WKS.

=

X

HRS/

X

$

PER

L A B O R COST

-

QUICK

COUPLER

$

x

L A B O R COST

$

YEAR

OPERATION)

HRS. /
YR

HOUR

=

S

1.5

PER

=

$

VALVE

(PERCENT

HRS. C H A R G E D T O W A T E R I N G
HRS.

YEAR

Y E A R

MANUAL

ACRES

HRS. / WK.

PER

=5

PER

X

PER

OPERATION)

AUTOMATIC

$

-

$

1.2

x

L A B O R COST

VALVES

1.5

HOSES ( D A Y T I M E

s

2

YR.

QUICK C O U P L E R (DAY TIME
X

COST

/YR.

PER

-

$

LABOR

GAL

MAN U A L ( D A Y T I M E O P E R A T I O N )
X

W A T E R COST

=

=

-

$

W A T E R COST

G A L . / CU. FT.

X S

PER

/WEEK

ALONE.
HOUR

YEAR

HOSE
x

1.5

=

$

PER

=

HRS

OF T I M E A C T U A L L Y

YEAR

/

WEEK

U S E D IN

WATERING)

=

PER

YEAR
OVER

CRABGRASS AND GCQSEGRASS PREVENTION - 1966
W. H. Daniel, Turf Specialist, Dept. of Agronomy
Purdue University

Wide choice is available for pre-emergence control of annual grasses. Numerous formulations of each chemical may be available. Turf Managers should decide on
the extent of the program to be afforded. Then, choose the preferred chemical for
either single or multi-purpose needs.
For further information see Midwest Turf Leaflet No. 29. Always read and
follow the label directions.
Normally treat for crabgrass, then as goosegrass is
expected re-treat at one-third normal rate in addition.

Chemical
Calcium arsenate
Lead arsenate
Zytron
Benefin
Eandane
Chlordane
Betasan
Tupersan

Active v ingredient
1,000 sq.ft. 1 acre
lbs.
lbs.
3
120
5
150
.3
15
.04
1.5
1.0
40
2.0
80
10
.3
.2
9

Residual

%

Apply
next
season

Comments

%

75
80
50
0
50
50
0
0

25
20
50
full
half
half
full
full

Dacthal

.3

10

0

full

Azak

.3

10

0

full

Toxic to Poa annua,grubs
Toxic to Poa annua,grubs
May prevent knotweed
Good on goosegrass
Replacing chlordane
Grub control also
Bentgrass is very tolerant
Bluegrass seedlings are
tolerant
Bentgrass is quite
tolerant
-