This NEWSLETTER is published
monthly by the Greenkeepers Club of
New England, and sent free to its members and their Greens' Chairmen. Subscription price ten cents a copy, or a
dollar a year.
GUY C. WEST

Editor

312 Mt. Pleasant St., Pall River, Mass.

HOWARD
PARRANT
Business
Mgr.
132 RussettD. Rd.,
W e s t Roxbury,
Mass.
August, 1935

Vol. 7, No. 8

NEW BULLETIN
A new bulletin of special interest to
all growers has been recently issued by
the Cornell University Agri. Experiment Station as Memoir 174, "Certain
Rarer Elements in Soils and Fertilizers,
and their Role in Plant Growth", by
R. S. Young. The appended introduction to this bulletin brings to mind
several interesting questions.
For many years the remarkable stimulating or depressing effects on plant
growth following the application of
minute quantities of certain elements
have aroused widespread interest.
Gradually, as analytical methods became more refined and the purity of
nutrient salts could be more accurately
determined, it was recognized that additions would have to be made to the list
of elements hitherto considered essential for plant growth. These less common elements, such as manganese,
boron, copper, and others, are no less
indispensable to the life of the plant
than the "ten essential elements" of
the older plant physiologists. The sole
difference between these two classes of
nutrients is that those in the latter
group, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium, not only are tolerated but
are required in fairly large amounts,
whereas only minute quantities of those
in the former group are necessary, and
a slight excess often gives rise to pronounced toxicity.
It is likely that further research not
only will extend the list of essential
elements, but also will indicate that a
deficiency of some of these less com-

mon soil constituents may, under certain conditions, be the limiting factor
in crop growth. The addition of salts
of copper and manganese as soil amendments has now become an established
practice in certain localities where these
elements are deficient. It is conceivable
that other stimulating compounds may
be employed as artificial manures to increase crop yields.
The spectacular rise of the syntheticfertilizer industry in recent years, and
the increasing use of synthetic fertilizers, have raised the question whether
such materials, which are presumed to
contain few, if any, unusual elements,
will prove adequate for crop growth.
Some producers and distributors of
natural fertilizers are now claiming
superiority for these over synthetic products, on the basis of their alleged higher content of unusual elements. Since
methods for the determination of these
elements in soils, plants, and fertilizers
—with the exception of a few such as
copper and manganese—are lacking, no
experimental data are available to show
the amount of these constituents in the
above materials. It was considered,
therefore, that an investigation might
well be undertaken into the occurrence
and determination of certain rarer elements in soils and fertilizers, their
availability in the soil and effect on the
plant, and the maintenance of an adequate supply through the application of
ordinary commercial fertilizers.
It should be stated at the outset that
the expression "rarer elements" is used
in this work to denote many elements
which, from the standpoint of geochemistry, are not rare, being widely
diffused in small traces in nature. The
soil chemist or the plant biochemist,
however, designates such elements as
copper, chromium, arsenic, and so on,
as "rare," since they occur in small
amounts, if at all, in materials with
which he usually works, and it is only
recently that attention has been directed
to the role of these in plant or animal
nutrition. The term "less common elements" is sometimes used, but this is
rather a clumsy expression. It is regrettable that no accurate and convenient designation for these elements
has been proposed.
The rarer elements may affect plant
growth in a variety of ways. In the first
place, an element may be essential for
growth and maintenance of life of the
plant. The indispensable role of manganese, boron, copper, and zinc for
many plants has been repeatedly con-

firmed, and indications are not lacking
that many other elements are essential
for plant growth. The fact that only
minute traces may be required does not
lessen the importance of these less common constituents. It is conceivable that
under certain soil and climatic conditions even the small amount of these
elements necessary for metabolic activities of the organism—for example, cell
division—might become the limiting
factor for growth. It is logical to assume that each species would require a
different minimum quantity of these
elements, just as we know, at the other
extreme, that plants vary in their tolerance toward certain salts.
Closely linked with this is the partial
or perhaps complete replacement of one
element by another with no apparent injury to the organism. It has been
demonstrated that the function of calcium in the nutrition of certain lower
forms of plant life may be nearly, if
not completely, performed by strontium. Further research may show that
the similarity of elements in the periodic table is paralleled in the effect of the
elements on plant growth.
It is possible that some of the hitherto unexplained deleterious effects of one
crop on a succeeding crop may be due
to the removal of the available supply
of one of the less common essential elements, and a resulting temporary deficiency of this in the soil. Sunflowers,
for instance, which are rapid-growing
plants, are extensive feeders, and have
a very high manganese requirement,
would be expected to be capable of reducing the quantity of this element
under certain conditions until it became limiting for a succeeding crop.
Another possible role of these elements is that of catalysts. Here, while
not entering into the structure or the
body substance of the plant or organism, they catalyze the vital functions
of these, performing the same function
as do the less common metals and their
compounds in many industrial processes.
Many European investigators, notably
Bertrand, lay great stress on this catalytic effect. It is possible also that
traces of some elements may act as
negative catalysts, depressing certain
reactions in the living cell. According
to Warburg's conception, all biological
oxidations in which oxygen is the hydrogen acceptor are conditioned by the
presence of iron in the cell. Substances
that react with iron, therefore, as
arsenious acid or hydrogen sulfide,

would inhibit the oxygen uptake of the
cell.
An element may influence plant
growth by inactivating a toxin in the
soil. Toxins may be organic or inorganic. With organic toxins, arising from
decomposition of organic matter, crop
residues, or the like, in the soil, the addition of a less common element or its
compounds may, by a rearrangement of
the configuration of the molecule, greatly reduce the toxic action of the organic
compound. A good example of the inactivation of an inorganic toxin is the
reduction of sodium toxicity by small
amounts of copper or zinc. It is probable that further investigations into the
antagonism of ions would reveal many
important effects of the less common
elements on plants.
The addition of metallic compounds
to a soil may result in a change of reaction and other far-reaching effects.
If, for example, MnS04 is applied, the
cation replaces hydrogen in the soil
complex, and this unites with the sulfate ion to form H2S04 increasing the
acidity of the soil. The acid thus formed
could react with carbonates in the soil
to liberate carbon dioxide. This may
bring about profound changes in the
soil and its accompanying flora. Wilson
and Wilson (1933) have shown that
such a narrowing of the carbonate phosphate ratio results in an increase in
numbers and growth of Azotobacter in
peat soils.
One element may aid in keeping
other elements in the soil oxidized or
reduced to forms more readily available for plants. The effect of manganese in oxidizing iron to the more difficultly soluble ferric form, and the possible role of this element in maintaining the correct ratio of F e + + to
Fe+ + + ions after the reduction of the
latter to the ferrous state, are examples of this effect of rarer elements on
plants.
An element may liberate another element, lower in the electromotive series,
from its compounds and thus change
the composition of the soil solution.
Whether the liberated element is one
that is required by the plant in relatively large quantities, or not, will be
the major factor determining the result of this action of one element on
another.
In a similar manner, an element may
act indirectly on plant growth by precipitating another element in the soil
solution. It is possible, for instance,

that sulfur may become limiting in a
soil containing a high content of
barium.
The presence of certain elements in
the soil solution and in the plant may
give to the latter a greater resistance
to diseases or parasites. A concentration of copper which would be harmless
to a plant might be lethal to a lower
organism. Several workers have reported that the addition of silicon or
radioactive fertilizers gave plants greater resistance to diseases or parasites.
Again, the less common elements
may exert a true stimulating effect on
plants, comparable to the effect of vitamins on animals. In this case, while
the plants can make good growth and
even reproduce normally without these
elements, or at least with smaller quantities present than can be detected by
any means at our disposal at present,
the addition of small amounts results
in a considerable increase in growth.
Following out the analogy with vitamins, the general health of the plant
will be greatly improved and its resistance to deficiency diseases increased
by these supplementary plant foods.
A striking effect of the addition of
some elements to plants is a marked
change in external appearance, often
without any apparent detrimental effect
on the organism. Soil treated with
K2S04 produces the ordinary reddish
flowers on H y d r a n g e a h o r t e n s i s , while
soil treated with A12(S04)3 produces
plants which bear blue flowers.
Some elements have been considered
to play an indifferent role in plant
growth, being merely absorbed by the
plant roots along with essential nutrients. It is rather difficult to conceive
of an element playing such a passive
part in plant nutrition; while the
chemical effect might be negligible, the
element would probably enter into the
mechanical or the physico-chemical relations of the cell. It has been shown
that the addition of an element such as
chlorine, apparently "unessential" for
certain plants, may improve the properties of a medium which contains the essential elements in improper proportions.
The effect upon plant growth of many
salts which do not belong to the group
of essential elements can be explained
from the standpoint of colloidal chemistry. Potassium ions, for instance, in a
pure aqueous solution are so strongly
adsorbed that they injure the colloidal
condition of the cell. When aluminum

is added, neither ion can monopolize
the cell surface and the effective concentration of both ions is decreased.
The removal of the toxic effect of copper and of iron by aluminum has been
demonstrated. The rate of metabolism
and the rate of respiration both increase
under the influence of ions of the heavy
metals. The metallic ions are adsorbed
on the protoplasm, and increase thereby
its adsorptive power for certain other
substances. The toxic action of the
heavy metals in greater concentrations
is probably due to their denaturation
of the plasma colloids. The action of
aluminum on the protoplasm is exactly
the same as its action on a non-living
gel. In low concentrations it precipitates the colloid, in somewhat higher
concentrations no precipitation takes
place, and in still higher concentrations
the colloid is again precipitated.
It has been found possible to replace
mercury in the animal body by using
an innocuous electrolyte such as sodium
chloride. It may be possible similarly
to replace a readily adsorbed metal in
plants by ions which, while they are
only slightly absorbed, are present in
such a high concentration as to enable
the removal of the injurious metal from
the interface, since even a monovalent
ion may have a pronounced effect on
the colloidal behavior of an ion of
higher valence.
Finally, there are a few elements
which have been reported as extremely
toxic to plants, and, in the lowest concentrations employed, have not been
found to exert a stimulating effect. The
fact that copper, boron, and zinc were
long considered toxic, or at least nonessential, should lead one to accept
with caution the "toxic" properties of
many of the less common elements. In
many cases it is simply a question of
obtaining a sufficiently low concentration, to find that many more elements
are indispensable, or at least stimulating, to plant growth. It may be postulated that every substance which in a
definite concentration will kill protoplasm, in smaller quantities will inhibit development and in still greater
dilutions will act as a stimulant. The
immediate source, of energy for cells is
oxidation of elements or compounds
which yield energy by this process. Any
element, therefore, when viewed from
the standpoint of an energy source for
plants, may be considered essential.
It should be kept in mind that the
addition of some of these rarer ele-

^^

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ments to many soils would be useless,
since, minute traces only being required, they would probably not be the
limiting factor in crop growth. On the
other hand, while the soil might contain
small quantities of these constituents,
the addition of a readily available form
might result in a marked increase in
crop yield.
The remainder of this bulletin is devoted to a review of existing literature
on the subject, an explanation of experimental work done with the occurrence and determination of various less
common elements in fertilizers, the effect of the addition of various elements
to fertilizers on the growth of crop
plants, the effect of various elements
on the growth of algae, with summary
and conclusion.

For

R E A L Economy and S U R E
Brown Patch Control use

CUSEX

At the recommended dosage, Curex
will c o s t y o u $ 1 . 4 5 p e r g r e e n !
C U R E X c o n t a i n s 2 0 % of m e r c u r y
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F o r y o u g r e e n k e e p e r s w h o w i s h to
obtain the highest degree of control
w i t h o u t s h o c k or d a m a g e to t h e turf
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AUGUST MEETING

The August meeting was held on the
12th at the Ponkapoag Golf Club, Canton, Mass. This course is owned and
operated by the State under the Metropolitan District Commission, and is both
daily fee and also yearly membership
in its operation. As this was the first
time that the club had met on a fee
course, the tournament was of special
interest. The winners were:
1st net, Arthur Fontaine, 104-66
2nd net, O. L. Wendell, 90-67
3rd net, Lloyd Stott, 98-68
4th net, Carl Treat, 91-70
5th net, Joseph Johnson, 100-71

We heard recently that the stork had
paid two visits to Rhode Island State
recently, on the 28th of June to leave
R. W. Peckham of Sachuest recently Barbara Dare with the Norths, and on
broke the course record there, when he July 28th to bring Robert Ira Campbell
shot a fine 33, including four birdies.
to Director and Mrs. Gilbert.

A Bulletin issued this year by the
Rhode Island Agri. Experiment Station
as Contribution No. 469, "The Relative
Seed Yields in Different Species and
Varieties of Bent Grass", by H. F. A.
North and T. E. Odland, gives the results of the experiments conducted at
the R. I. Station for the past several
years, mention of which has been made
in the NEWSLETTER many times previously. The Summary and Conclusions,
as given in this bulletin, are as follows :
S u m m a r y and Conclusions

The fine bent grasses have been
found eminently adapted for putting
greens over much of the northern half
of the United States. Fine bents have
formed beautiful and enduring lawn
turf in New England since colonial
times, and more recently have been
found valuable in a variety of sports
turf.
The growing of these grasses for
seed has become an important industry
in certain sections of this country. Very
little investigational work on the problems of bent seed production has been
reported. Results of experimental work
at the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station on seed production of
different species and varieties of bent
grass are reported in this paper.
Experiments were begun for the purpose of obtaining an estimate of the
yield of seed that might be expected
under commercial production and at
the same time to discover how closely
the seeded turf would resemble the turf
from a vegetative planting in a number
of strains. Other experiments that have
been reported in previous publications
concerned fertilizer tests on colonial
bent grown for seed and the relative
value of the different bents for golf
greens.
It has been shown that the turf from
seed and the turf from vegetative planting in a strain tend to become very
similar in putting quality.
Quadruplicate plats were planted
with 12 different bent grasses and satisfactory stands were secured. The
species included were A g r o s t i s alba, A .
tenuis, A. palustris, a n d A. canina.
Rather high levels of fertility were
maintained. Tabular data on the
growth and yield of recleaned seed are
presented for the years 1930 to 1934.
Colonial and velvet bents were found

to continue relatively free from weeds
and mixtures in practically full stands.
Although mixing with colonial bent was
evident in plats of redtop before lime
was applied, the stands continued relatively pure.
Stands of creeping bent were short
lived and permitted of invasion by
weeds and other bent grasses.
The yield of seed varied widely from
year to year and varied also among the
grasses. The average yield of seed for
the period varied from 58 pounds per
acre for B. P. I. 14,276 velvet bent to
213 pounds for redtop. Astoria colonial
out-yielded Rhode Island colonial by
about 20%. Highland velvet bent
yielded about 15% more than Rhode
Island colonial.
Based upon the seed yield of redtop,
there was a gradual downward trend in
the percentage yield of the colonials,
a gradual upward trend in velvet bents,
and a rapid downward trend in creeping
bents.
The experiments indicate that the improved vegetative strains of velvet bent
can be successfully grown for seed production, but that the stolon strains of
creeping bent are more difficult to grow
for this purpose.
The high quality of velvet bent turf
for the putting green and lawn may be
expected to increase the demand for
the seed. Seed of exceptional strains,
such as B. P. I. 14,276 and Kernwood,
should command a special premium in
price.
The annual club championship will be
held at our next meeting, on Sept. 9th
at the Winchester C. C., Winchester,
Mass. It has been several years since we
last met at Winchester, and there
should be a large attendance to play
and examine this fine course.
Among the new features, advertising
of which has recently reached our desk,
are the Toro Rust Proof Bed Knives,
now cadmium plated to give permanent protection against rust and corrosion; and, the new Buel Kultivator,
which has fixed spikes instead of the
hinged spikes of the well-known Perforator.

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o n t h e g r e e n . It n o t o n l y s a v e s labor, b u t it a l s o g i v e s y o u a j o b of
c u t t i n g t h a t will e q u a l or s u r p a s s a n y l a w n m o w e r m a n u f a c t u r e d ,
w h e t h e r it b e h a n d or p o w e r .

Y o u will i m m e d i a t e l y n o t i c e t h e v a s t i m p r o v e m e n t in t h e p u t t i n g
s u r f a c e of y o u r g r e e n s , a n d y o u r m e m b e r s w i l l v e r y q u i c k l y p a s s
their favorable comments.
W i t h all its a d v a n t a g e s a n d c o n v e n i e n c e s , this m o w e r is w i t h i n
t h e e c o n o m i c a l b u d j e t o f a n y g o l f club, a s it o n l y c o s t s $ 2 2 0 . 0 0
c o m p l e t e f o r t h e 2 1 " size. T h i s p r i c e includeis a r u b b e r t i r e d c a r t
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Lack of proper plant food in the soil
accounts for more poor lawns, scraggly
shrubs and mediocre flowering plants
The following paragraphs are from than all other causes combined.
a letter to our club from Mr. Harold W.
Pierce, Chairman of the Green Section
of the U. S. G. A. This letter was read
Timeliness—Any program for brown
at the August meeting, but no action
was taken at that time. Any thoughts patch control must depend on prevailor reactions by our members will be ing weather conditions. Since the disease tends to develop rapidly during
appreciated by your president.
humid weather, it is well to
You are doubtless aware that on ac- warm,
shorten the interval between applicacount of smaller income from champion- tions
during such conditions. In generships and the resignation of many mem- al, applications
every two weeks are
ber clubs, that the income of our Asso- sufficient
to prevent brown patch, but
ciation has been materially reduced, and during warm,
or humid weather, ^ ^
therefore it was necessary to curtail it is advisable torainy
repeat the applications
funds allotted to our Green Section re- at weekly intervals.
search work.
The importance of this work is fully
realized by our Executive Committee,
and therefore at our June meeting the
general policy of seeking outside conFeeding turf is as interesting as life
tributions for this work was considered. itself. In fact, it is life itself, for grass
It was therefore, voted to try to ob- plants are vegetable life just as man is
tain contributions from sectional golf a part of the animal life of our world.
associations, The Professional Golfers' It is interesting, too, to note how closely
Association, Golf Club Manufacturers these two types of life are connected.
Assoc., National Assoc. of Golf Ball Man must eat foods that will supply
Manufacturers, Power and Gang Lawn bone, tissue and fats or carbohydrates.
Mower Manufacturers Assoc., National So must all plant life have foods that
Fertilizer Assoc., Seed Trade Associa- will supply tissue or fiber, root develoption, The National Association of Green- ing material just as man must have
keepers of America, and other associa- material for bone building; and just
tions and organizations that may be in- as a salad makes our own meals more
palatable, so does Potash make the other
terested in this work.
food ingredients more readily available
It was also voted that no subscription to
the plants.
should be accepted from any concern
that could benefit directly from any
Man cannot and does not eat the
tests that we should make to the ex- same foods that a camel, horse or dog'
clusion of others. The only exception live on, nor do the camel, horse or dog
to this ruling would be to accept dona- thrive best on one food. It must be
tions from individuals who feel that balanced. This same analogy is applithey have benefited directly or indirect- cable to plant life. Roses thrive best
ly from our Green Section research on one kind of plant food, corn on anwork.
other, potatoes (tuberous fruit) on another, and so on, ad infinitum. It is
easy to see then why it is so necessary
to select plant foods that have been
SUGGESTIONS FROM OUR FILES
actually found to furnish those materials that really supply nourishment
to the kind of plant under discussion
it be grass, flower, vegetable
Pall fertilization on fairways with whether
organic materials has passed the experi- or shrub.
mental stage. It is now a proven fact
Again, we find another difference in
that benefits are greater than when ap- plant
life. We may have a rose garden
plied in the spring.
or an old fashioned garden filled with
Excess waterfall and artificial fair- a profuse variety of flowers that will
way watering systems have proven the afford bloom all through the summer
need of additional plant food, preferably and fall. Each flower has its place and
in the fall. Without this added food, time of blooming and then becomes
dormant until the next season, and we
weeds will predominate.
L E T T E R F R O M U . S. G. A .

Seed Prices Are LOWER
but

the Quality of Woodco Brand Seeds
Remains Constantly HIGH
Write For Prices
Grass

Seed Division

F. H. WOODRUFF & SONS
MILFORD, CONN.

Y o u m a y also obtain our seeds f r o m

NEW ENGLAND TORO COMPANY

1121 Washington Street

NEW ENGLAND GROWN
Winter-hardy,

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New England Golf Courses
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K I N G S T O N , R. I.

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Tested Seeds
and

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85 STATE STREET
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feed these plants to produce the finest
blooms. It is quite different with grass
or turf for it is expected to remain in
-its_j)rime all through the season from
early ^rmg-.jintil late fall without the
rest period which the flowers receive.
It is true that some grasses are at their
best at different times of the season,
but generally they must all "hold up".
Why then try to use the same forcing
methods that are used on flowers?
Would it not be better to supply the
sod with a sufficient amount of properly
blended f o o d that is known to be b e s t
f o r g r a s s p l a n t s and so blended that it
will gradually become available to the
plants so that they can use it up completely?
"Low Maintenance for Fairway
Mowers"

A new departure in Fairway Mower
Maintenance is brought to our attentiin by the announcement of the Power
Lawn Mower Service Company of
Somerville that their National Mowers
are bonded with an Eight Year Maintenance Agreement between the factory
and the purchaser.
You can send the Heavy Duty
Nationals to the factory at the end of
eight years, or at any time previous,
and the factory will rebuild them, replace all worn or broken parts, all
cutting blades, repaint, sharpen, and
make practically like new, at a price
not to exceed $15.00 per unit.

so reports the birth of Junior Pyle in
June, and that his new address is now
400 Campfield Ave., Hartford.
The July meeting of the Rhode Island
Greenkeepers Association was held on
the 29th with Tom Galvin at the Rhode
Island Country Club. The annual clambake was held on August 19th at the
Montaup Country Club, Portsmouth.
P. H. Woodruff & Sons of Milford,
Conn, have recently issued the second
bulletin concerning their grass plots at
Milford. This bulletin covers the work
during 1934 and spring readings of
1935. Some very interesting information may be obtained from this bulletin, which may be obtained free from
the company.
A new book on club management is
"Club Economies, Suggestions for
Membership Clubs and How to Operate
within the Budget", by Archie P. Reeve.
This book may be secured from the
Cleveland Publishing Co., 90 Broad St.,
New York City, at $3.00 delivered.
Why, these balls bound.
All's

Well

Put up your iron.

That Ends

Well.

Twelfth

Night.

Swearing till my very roof was dry.
The Merchant

of

Venice.

I'll see what hole is here.
Titus
Anclronicus.
A letter from Everett Pyle, now of
Goodwin Park, Hartford, Conn., brings
news of the No. 14276 Velvet, reported
He is not so big as the end of his
in the last NEWSLETTER as purchased club.
Love's Labour
Lost.
from Prank Robinson. Everett writes
that this has been planted in a nursery
which covers 2% acres, and that he beIn your bad strokes, Brutus, you give
lieves that this may be the largest area good woods.
of this strain planted anywhere. He al•Julius Caesar,

NEWSLETTER

11

To combine an ideal 6-6-4 formula
with a humus-forming organic
base, as in
* N E W PROCESS

FAIRWAY
m a k e s a f e r t i l i z e r w h i c h is A L L
p l a n t f o o d . T h a t ' s w h y it d o e s
suich a s w e l l j o b f o r golf t u r f .
F i n d o u t a b o u t it.

Geieral Chemical
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The other two can he used for
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It Is a m a t t e r of record, t h a t
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W o r t h i n g t o n Overgreens pay for t h e m selves in the money they save.
You m a y be skeptical a b o u t it.
B u t send for the Catalog. Get the
full facts. See for yourself.

ltf orfchingtori
Lower

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Sales A g e n c i e s In A l l
P r i n c i p a l C i t i e s of
U . S. A .

Plan Fall Feedings As Usual
with

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HJLORGANITE

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D E A L T U R F ]]
LIZER J)

Do not neglect your fairways this fall because abundant rainfall has
produced fine turf. Excessive growth has depleted the plant food reserves
in the soil wTiich must be restored to assure better turf next season.
Because Milorganite is largely water insoluble and strictly organic,
it is the safe and ideal fertilizer for fall use. No need to Worry about
the possibility of unsightly burned fairways if Milorganite is selected.
Soil processes release its plant food slowly, in sufficient quantities to
stimulate fall growth. The residual nitrogen, instead of being lost by
leaching, remains dormant in the soil, ready to nourish the grass as soon
as soil micro-organisms renew activity in the spring. Besides its valuable
nitrogen, 1000 pounds of Milorganite contain all the phosphoric acid
used by an acre of turf during a growing season. Then, too, Milorganite
is easiest to apply, and, best of all, is reasonably priced.
\'In regions where crab grass is a major problem, a generous application of Milorganite
this fall will increase turf density and minimize crab
grass infestation next season."
WRITE

FOR

FALL

PRICES.

Distributed by

NEW ENGLAND TORO COMPANY
1121 Washington Street
West Newton, Mass.