PROCEEDING S of the 14 th ANNUAL NORTHWEST TURF CONFERENCE Sept. 28=29=30,1960 WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY PULLMAN, WASHINGTON NORTHWEST TURF M E M B E R S H I P DUES PARK DEPARTMENTS L e s s than 150 A c r e s T o t a l A r e a 150 A c r e s or M o r e Annual Dues $ 2 0 . 00 $ 4 0 . 00 CEMETERIES L e s s than 4 0 0 I n t e r m e n t s P e r Annum 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 I n t e r m e n t s P e r Annum 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 I n t e r m e n t s P e r Annum M o r e than 8 0 0 I n t e r m e n t s P e r Annum $ 2 0 . 00 $25.00 $30.00 $ 4 0 . 00 GOLF COURSES L e s s than E i g h t e e n H o l e s Eighteen Holes or More N u r s e r y , L a n d s c a p i n g and Ground S p r a y i n g F i r m s A r c h i t e c t s and E n g i n e e r i n g F i r m s E q u i p m e n t and M a t e r i a l Supply F i r m s Participating Membership Associate Membership All Others $ 2 0 . 00 $40.00 $ 2 0 . 00 $ 2 0 . 00 $ 2 0 . 00 $10.00 $5.00 $ 2 0 . 00 1. Annual D u e s p a y a b l e on o r b e f o r e May 15th e a c h y e a r . D u e s a r e b a s e d on annual due date non p r o - r a t e d . 2. M e m b e r s h i p i n c l u d e s r e g i s t r a t i o n f e e f o r one p e r s o n at Annual T u r f C o n f e r e n c e . O t h e r p e r s o n s f r o m m e m b e r o r g a n i z a t i o n r e g i s t r a t i o n f e e $ 5 . 00 3. NO I N I T I A T I O N F E E S A R E C H A R G E D 4. Non m e m b e r s m a y a t t e n d the annual C o n f e r e n c e by paying a $ 1 0 . 00 r e g i s t r a t i o n f e e . F o r f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on D u e s , c o n t a c t Northwest Turf T r e a s u r e r . NORTHWEST T U R F ASSOCIATION BOARD OF DIRECTORS John H a r r i s o n Hayden L a k e Golf & Country Club Hayden L a k e , Idaho Paul Brown E v e r g r e e n C e m e t e r y , 111 E . S e a t t l e 33, W a s h i n g t o n Dick Haskell Seattle Park Development 1 0 1 3 2 R a i n i e r Avenue, S e a t t l e 88, Don Hogan National I r r i g a t i o n Consultants 1910 M i n o r Avenue, S e a t t l e 1, W a s h . Henry Land, Sr. Glen P r o c t o r Wash T a c o m a Golf & C o u n t r y Club 9 2 1 0 Winona Avenue, S . W. , T a c o m a , Washington Golf & Country Club 222 South 1 1 1 t h . , S e a t t l e 88, Rainier Ken Putnam S e a t t l e Golf C o u r s e S e a t t l e 77, Washington Byron Reed E . P . B a l t z & Son 9817 E a s t Burnside, S a m Zook Aurora Wash. P o r t l a n d 16, Ore. W a v e r l y Golf & Country Club 1100 S . E . W a v e r l y D r i v e P o r t l a n d 22, O r e g o n OFFICERS 1959 1959-60 I960 Don Hogan Glen P r o c t o r Henry Land, S r . J . K. P a t t e r s o n President Vice-President Treasurer Secretary Glen P r o c t o r Byron Reed Henry Land, S r J . K. Patterson MEMBERS I WE S T T U R F A S S O C I A T I O N A g a t e B e a c h GC P . O. B o x 1416 New P o r t , O r e g o n J . A. A - l P i o n e e r Spraying Service 520 South 5 3 r d S t r e e t T a c o m a , Washington Don M i l l e r B a l t z & Son E . 9817 E . Burnside St. Portland, Oregon Byron Reed B e l l i n g ham G & CC 3 729 M e r i d i a n S t . B e l l i n g h a m , Washington R. B e n t l e y Co. 4 1 2 6 A i r P o r t Way S e a t t l e 8, Washington Bill Strahl B r o a d m o o r GC 2340 B r o a d m o o r Drive S e a t t l e , Washington J. Jaslowski C a l d w e l l P a r k Dept. City Hall Caldwell, G. Hammer C e d a r C r e s t GC Route 1 Marysville, City of A m e r i c a n F a l l s American Falls, C l a r k s t o n GC I n c . P . O. B o x 72 Clarkston, Washington Charles Mitchell C o e u r D ! a l e n e CC Hay den L a k e , J. C o l l e g e GC P . O. B o x 2 4 4 6 P a r k l a n d , Washington C o l u m b i a - E d g e w a t e r CC 2137 N. E . B r i d g e t o n Rd. Portland, Oregon Cushman Sales 1329 N. A s h Spokane, Washington V . W. Stone The D a l l e s CC Route 3, Chenowith Rd. Dalles, Oregon Sidney White Dow C h e m i c a l Co. 307 B r o a d St. S e a t t l e , Washington John F i s h e r E l k s G & CC B o x 187 S e l a h , Washington M. E l k s A l l e n m o r e GC 2 1 2 5 S. C e d a r T a c o m a , Washington K. T y s o n , E n u m c l a w GC R t . 3, B o x 599 E n u m c l a w , Washington J. P. Idaho Stevenson Gettle Washington Idaho Idaho David W e s t , Clerk Harrison Joe Greco Goddard Mihelick Pres. E u g e n e CC 225 Country Club Rd. Eugene, Oregon John Zoller E v e r e t t G & CC P . O. B o x 5 4 5 E v e r e t t , Washington B. E v e r g r e e n C e m e t e r y Co. 1111 E . A u r o r a A v e . S e a t t l e , Washington Mr. F i r c r e s t GC 6520 Regents Blvd. T a c o m a , Washington Art Burger F o r e s t H i l l s GC Route 2 Carnelius, Mr. Westfall F o r e s t Lawn C e m e t e r y 6 7 0 1 - 3 0 t h A v e . S . W. S e a t t l e , Washington Mr. Sears F o r e s t Lawn C e m e n t e r y , Inc. R t . 2, B o x 1279 B B r e m e r t o n , Washington C. Baker F o r t L e w i s GC Route 3 Olym pia, Wa s hington D. Latimer 901 L a n e St. S e a t t l e 14, Washington C a r l Kuhn G a l b r a t h & Co. 2 4 2 8 A l a s k a Way S e a t t l e , Washington Mr. G a r d e n s of F l o r a l H i l l s , Inc. B o x 7023 S e a t t l e 33, Jim Hess G l e n d a l e CC P . O. B o x 797 B e l l e v u e , Washington C. G l e n d o v e e r GC 1 4 0 1 5 N. E , G l i s a n St. Portland, Oregon Ed Fluter G r a y s H a r b o r CC Route 1, B o x 33 0 A b e r d e e n , Washington H. 12427 S . E . 128th St. Renton, Washington Mr. Highland P o i n t G a r d e n s 7 6 2 2 S i m m o n d s Rd. B o t h e l l , Washington J e r r y Munro H i l l c r e s t CC I n c . B o x 1083 B o i s e , Idaho Joe Leonard Inglewood G & CC Route 6 Kenmore, Washington J a c k Spaulding J a c k l i n S e e d Co. Dishman, Washington K i t s a p G & CC P . O. B o x 3 9 7 B r e m e r t o n , Washington H. D. F o w l e r , Inc. Greenwood C e m e t e r y , Inc. Oregon Washington Gourley Perrott McKenzie Bauman Banks Thachell A r t Olson J . C. Hart 3 L a k e s P u b l i c GC P . O. B o x 23 7 Wenatchee, Washington L e w i s t o n G & CC Lewiston, L i b e r t y L a k e GC B o x 23 5 Liberty Lake, Longview G & CC P . O. B o x 1 0 7 5 Longview, Washington A1 Clapp A. V . 202 C e n t r a l Building Victoria, B r i t i s h Columbia M r . Macan, Architect M a n i t o G & CC P . O. B o x 8 0 2 5 Manito Station Spokane 36, Washington C. Meadow P a r k GC 7 1 0 8 Hannah P i e r c e R d . T a c o m a 9, Washington J a c k Sandle M i c h e l L u m b e r Co. B o x 513 Oswego, Home owner M i l l e r P r o d u c t s Co. 7737 N. E . K i l l i n g s w o r t h Portland, Oregon M t . View C e m e t e r y P . O. B o x 63 2 W a l l a Walla, W a s h i n g t o n Bryan Brewer, M t . View M e m o r i a l P a r k 4 1 0 0 S t e i l a c o o m B l v d . S . W. T a c o m a 99, W a s h i n g t o n E a r l Slifko, M u l t n o m a h Stadium 1844 S 0 W . M o r r i s o n St. Portland, Oregon J o h n Howie Macan Idaho Washington Oregon N a t i o n a l I r r i g a t i o n C o n s u l - 1901 M i n o r A v e . Seattle, Washington ant, I n c . C. W. Margan GC Everhart Supt. Supt. Don Hogan J o h n Holm Northern Lights F a r m & Nursery B o x 1196 Fairbanks, Northwest Mower & Marine 7723 24th N. W. S e a t t l e 7, W a s h i n g t o n Ed Rogers NuLife F e r t i l i z e r s 2 0 3 0 L i n c o l n Avenue T a c o m a , Washington George Harrison O a k r i d g e GC Route 1, B o x 98 M o n t e s a n o , Washington O l y m p i a G & CC P . O. B o x 1063 Olympia, Washington G. Law ton O r c h a r d Hill G & CC P . O. B o x 8 8 5 C a m a s , Washington Merle Ratcliff Oregon Turf & Chemical Co. 728 N. 3 1 s t Corvallis, Oregon H. Schudel, Alaska Manager P . O. B o x 97 Medina, Washington M. 3 3 0 8 H a r b o r A v e . S . W. S e a t t l e 6, Washington Lee F r y e r P e a c t P o r t a l GC 190 King G e o r g e Highway White R o c k , B . C. H. S w a f f e r P e n d l e t o n CC Pendleton, C. L . M c D e r v i t t , Mgr. Pennsalt Chemical Products 2901 T a y l o r Way T a c o m a , Washington Dale Johnson P o i s o n I m p l e m e n t Co. E . 210 M o n t g o m e r y S t . Spokane, Washington A. G. A n d e r s o n P o r t l a n d GC 5 9 0 0 S . W 0 S c h a l l s F e r r y Rd. M r . Portland, Oregon R a i n i e r G & CC 1856 S. 112th S t . S e a t t l e 88, Washington Glen P r o c t o r R a m s e y - W a i t e Co. P . O. B o x 5173 Eugene, Oregon Taylor Ramsey R e a m e s G & CC 731 Main S t . Klamath Falls, O v e r l a k e GC Pacific Agro. Co. Oregon Oregon Bauman Junor J a c k Shults 1 4 7 5 6 27th N 0 E 0 S e a t t l e 55, Washington George Mack, R i v e r s i d e G & CC 8 1 0 5 N. E . S u n d e r l a n d A v e . Portland, Oregon William Sanders R o s e b u r g GC Route 2, B o x 727 Roseburg, Oregon R o y a l Oaks CC 8 9 1 7 N 0 E 0 4th P l a i n V a n c o u v e r , Washington Walter Heider Sandpoint G & CC 8 3 3 3 - 5 5 t h St. N 0 E 0 S e a t t l e 5, Washington H. W. Land, 0„ Mo S c o t t & Sons Co. P . O. B o x 3 27 Salem, Oregon Ed Croft, S e a t t l e G & CC 145th G r e e n w o o d S e a t t l e 77, Washington Ken P u t n a m Seattle Park Department 1013 2 R a i n i e r Avenue S e a t t l e 88, Washington D. S h e l t o n - B a y s h o r e GC B o x 207 Shelton, Washington E d S h o r t Co. 2400 S i x t h A v e . So. S e a t t l e 4, Washington Regional Chemicals, Inc. Jr. Jr. Rep. Haskell John Carper Spokane G & CC Route 5 Spokane 53, Spokane P a r k D e p a r t m e n t 5 0 4 City Hall Spokane, Washington S u n s e t Hill M e m o r i a l P a r k B o x 4 6 1 Bellevue, Swift & Co. Washington Washington P e O. B o x 38 North P o r t l a n d , Oregon N. Beardsley L . M. Pennington R . W. F i n c h , Mgr. T a c o m a C & GC G r a v e l l y L a k e D r i v e S . W. T a c o m a 99, Washington H. W. Land, T a c o m a S e e d Co. P . O. B o x 4 6 8 T a c o m a , Washington Chen Rowe T r i City GC P . O. B o x 4 5 6 K e n n e w i c k , Washington F . M. Twin F a l l s B o x 867 Twin F a l l s , Ernest Craner Van Walter Inc. & Rogers, Idaho Sr. Bishop 4 0 0 0 1 s t A v e . So. S e a t t l e 4, Washington Kenneth Wade Route 2, B o x 3 4 4 Puyallup, Washington Home owner Corydon W a g n e r P . O. B o x 3 4 1 7 T a c o m a 99, Washington Home owner W a l l a W a l l a CC P . O. B o x 523 W a l l a Walla, Washington R o l l a n d Wade W a n d e r m e r e GC Route 5 Spokane, Clarence Ripley W a s h . T u r f & T o r o Co. 1200 S t e w a r t S t . S e a t t l e , Washington Art Elliott W a v e r l e y CC 1100 S . E . W a v e r l e y D r . P o r t l a n d 22, O r e g o n S a m Zook W e l l i n g t o n Hills GC Woodinville, R. W e n a t c h e e G & CC P . O. B o x 1479 W e n a t c h e e , Washington G e o r g e Hoggatt W e s t e r n GC Supply Co. 1240 S 0 E . 12th A v e . Portland, Oregon Charles Blohm Western P l a s t i c s Corp. 3 1 1 0 R u s t o n Way T a c o m a , Washington Dave E . C a r o l Wieting 13504 21st N . E . S e a t t l e 55, Washington Y a k i m a CC P . O. B o x 1403 Y a k i m a , Washington Washington Washington Crim Joe E. Hulo Pattinger T A B L E OF CONTENTS LAWN R E N O V A T I O N - N E E D F O R - P R E V E N T I O N RENOVATION METHODS Roy L. Goss 1 S N O W M O L D C O N T R O L AND O T H E R D I S E A S E S T U D I E S IN E A S T E R N WASHINGTON Ted F i l e r 7 T U R F D I S E A S E S T U D I E S IN W E S T E R N WASHINGTON C h a r l e s J . Gould 11 CRABGRASS CONTROL TRIALS A. G. Law and J . K. P a t t e r s o n 15 NITROGEN SOURCE T E S T J . K. P a t t e r s o n and A . G. Law 17 AQUATIC W E E D C O N T R O L Henry C a r s n e r 21 NEW T E C H N I Q U E S F O R T H E S T U D Y O F R O O T S IN P L A C E V . C. B r i n k 25 M A I N T E N A N C E O F T R E E S AND S H R U B S F O R THE G O L F COURSE R o l a n d Koeph 29 P R O T E C T I N G G O L F G R E E N S AGAINST W I N T E R K I L L J . R. Watson 37 B U I L T - I N H E A D A C H E S ON G O L F C O U R S E S Glen P r o c t e r , M o d e r a t o r A. V . Mac an Roy Goss Milt B a u m a n Dick Haskell 41 A T H L E T I C F I E L D MANAGEMENT Norman Goetze 45 SPECIFICATIONS FOR A METHOD OF PUTTING GREEN CONSTRUCTION Bill Bengeyfield 51 SOIL FOR HEAVILY T R A F F I C K E D T U R F AREAS Roy Goss 59 IRRIGATION PUMPS John F . Schrunk 65 LAWN R E N O V A T I O N - N E E D F O R - P R E V E N T I O N RENOVATION METHODS Roy L . Goss* Lawn r e n o v a t i o n i s c e r t a i n l y not a new c o n c e p t in lawn m a n a g e m e n t . It i s s o m e t h i n g that has b e e n p r a c t i c e d f o r m a n y y e a r s , and t h e r e w i l l a l w a y s b e a continuing need f o r this type of p r a c t i c e on o l d e r e s t a b l i s h e d l a w n s . Renovation a s the t e r m i m p l i e s c o n s t i t u t e s a changing o v e r of an e x i s t i n g p r o b l e m . R e n o v a t i o n c a n i m p l y anything f r o m m e r e l y r e m o v i n g t h a t c h to c o m p l e t e r e m o v a l of a l l sod, r e l e v e l i n g the ground, and c o m p l e t e l y r e s e e d i n g . R e n o v a t i o n a s I s h a l l d i s c u s s it today w i l l be c o n c e r n e d only with the r e m o v a l of c e r t a i n u n d e s i r a b l e f a c t o r s and with the b r i n g i n g about of n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r the p r o p e r growth and m a n a g e m e n t of t u r f g r a s s e s . In t h i s d i s c u s s i o n the f i r s t a s s u m p t i o n that I w i s h to m a k e i s that t h e r e a r e no m a j o r l i m i t i n g s o i l p r o b l e m s e x i s t i n g . The only p r o b l e m i s w h e r e g r a s s h a s gotten out of hand due to l a x m a n a g e m e n t , the l o s s of t h i s g r a s s by d i s e a s e or o t h e r c a u s e s , to w h e r e w e e d s o r u n d e s i r a b l e g r a s s e s have invaded to the point that renovation becomes n e c e s s a r y . Need f o r R e n o v a t i o n 1. T h a t c h . The f o r m a t i o n of d e n s e m a t s of dead but not d e c o m p o s e d s t o l o n s , g r a s s s t e m s , and p e r h a p s l e a v e s i s one of the m a j o r c a u s e s f o r the t h a t c h f o r m a t i o n . T h a t c h o r m a t a c c u m u l a t i o n to depths of 8 to 10 i n c h e s i s not u n c o m m o n . M o r e often, t h a t c h i s e n c o u n t e r e d in depths of 2 to 4 i n c h e s deep, w h i c h i m p o s e s s o m e s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s upon the growth and p r o p e r m a n a g e m e n t of our lawn g r a s s e s . T h a t c h not only s e r v e s a s a w o n d e r f u l r e t r e a t f o r i n s e c t s and d i s e a s e s but i t a l s o i n t e r f e r e s with the m o v e m e n t of w a t e r , a i r , and n u t r i e n t s into the s o i l . When this m a t of dead g r a s s builds up deep enough on the s o i l s u r f a c e , w a t e r tends to run off a s i t would f r o m a hay s t a c k . T e n s i o n builds up on the s u r f a c e of the g r a s s when it i s dry and d o e s not allow w a t e r to e n t e r r e a d i l y . On lawns that have s l o p e s , this w a t e r w i l l m o r e often run off than run in. D e e p t h a t c h e s w i l l s o a k up a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of the applied s p r i n k l e r w a t e r to the point w h e r e s u r f a c e rooting i s induced. When f r e q u e n t light a p p l i c a t i o n s of s p r i n k l e r w a t e r a r e applied it i s quite often only enough to wet t h i s t h a t c h l a y e r . A good p o r t i o n of t h i s applied w a t e r i s a v a i l a b l e f o r i m m e d i a t e e v a p o r a t i o n due to a c t i o n of sun and wind, h e n c e you m a y s a y the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the applied i r r i g a t i o n i s v e r y low. The m o r e that the lawn g r a s s tends to grow and develop r o o t s on the s u r f a c e the m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e t h i s g r a s s i s to p e r i o d s of drought or e x t r e m e l y hot w e a t h e r . If t h i s t h a t c h condition c o n t i n u e s u n c h e c k e d then it i s only a m a t t e r of t i m e until r e n o v a t i o n b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y . 2. S u m m e r L o s s . F o r the s a k e of no b e t t e r t e r m f o r t h i s phenomenon I a m l i s t i n g it a s s u m m e r l o s s . S o m e g r a s s e s j u s t cannot w i t h s t a n d e x t r e m e h e a t c o n d i t i o n s , and of c o u r s e the one that i s m o s t f a m i l i a r to a l l of us i s P o a A s s i s t a n t A g r o n o m i s t and E x t e n s i o n T u r f S p e c i a l i s t , ton E x p e r i m e n t Station, Puyallup, Washington Western Washing- annua Q L a w n s that run high to P o a annua s u f f e r the g r e a t e s t l o s s f r o m e x t r e m e l y hot conditions in the s u m m e r . T h i s l o s s g e n e r a l l y d o e s not o c c u r in any one s p e c i f i c a r e a in the lawn, but it i s g e n e r a l l y s c a t t e r e d throughout the e n t i r e lawn. In t h i s c a s e it l e a v e s the lawn looking v e r y r a g g e d and u n e v e n . L o s s of d e s i r a b l e t u r f g r a s s e s a l s o o c c u r s in the s u m m e r due to i n a d e quate or i m p r o p e r i r r i g a t i o n m e t h o d s . In s o m e a r e a s w a t e r i s r a t i o n e d during c r i t i c a l p e r i o d s in the s u m m e r , and not enough w a t e r c a n be applied to the lawn to k e e p it in a g r e e n and growing c o n d i t i o n . If t h i s p e r i o d i s e x t e n d e d enough s o m e of t h e s e g r a s s e s not only go d o r m a n t but s o m e die out c o m p l e t e l y l e a v i n g l a r g e dead a r e a s in the lawn. If l e f t to n a t u r e t h e s e l a r g e dead a r e a s w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i l l in, but the type of g r a s s to which they f i l l i s a l m o s t a l w a y s u n d e s i r able Q To say the l e a s t t h e s e a r e a s w i l l not f i l l in until the f a l l c o o l s e a s o n a r r i v e s and in m o s t c a s e s i t i s P o a annua and w e e d s . L o s s of t u r f c a n a l s o o c c u r in the s u m m e r w h e r e adequate a m o u n t s of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r a r e being applied if the w a t e r does not p e n e t r a t e the s o i l c T h a t c h f o r m a t i o n , c o m p a c t e d s o i l s , or j u s t plain s t e e p g r a d e s w i l l c a u s e t h i s . 3 . D i s e a s e s . C e r t a i n t u r f g r a s s d i s e a s e s w i l l k i l l out enough of e x i s t i n g lawns to n e c e s s i t a t e r e n o v a t i o n in the f a l L T h i s i s not so m u c h a p r o b l e m in the P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t a s it i s in o t h e r a r e a s of the United S t a t e s . However, d i s e a s e s s u c h a s r e d t h r e a d and F u s a r i u m patch c a n w e a k e n the t u r f to s u c h a d e g r e e that i t c a n be invaded by u n d e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s , e v e n t u a l l y c a u s i n g the need for renovation. 4 . Weeds 0 Weed populations l a r g e enough to c a u s e r e n o v a t i o n c a n o c c u r . L a w n s that have b e e n s e r i o u s l y n e g l e c t e d f o r f e r t i l i z a t i o n and o t h e r m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s c a n develop v e r y l a r g e w e e d p o p u l a t i o n s . If t h e s e w e e d s a r e c h e m i c a l l y r e m o v e d , then quite often so m u c h b a r e ground i s e x p o s e d that s o m e m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e needed to b r i n g the a r e a b a c k into a d e s i r a b l e lawn. C r a b g r a s s , even though not s e v e r e in w e s t e r n Washington, could a s s u m e s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n s in e a s t e r n Washington, e a s t e r n O r e g o n , and Idaho. This g r a s s y w e e d c a n build up i t s population v e r y r a p i d l y to the point w h e r e it c a n t a k e o v e r d e s i r a b l e t u r f s p e c i e s . With the advent of f a l l and f r o s t t h i s g r a s s i s k i l l e d i m m e d i a t e l y l e a v i n g the lawn b r o w n and dead 0 T h i s would be adequate c a u s e f o r a r e n o v a t i o n p r o g r a m . V e l v e t g r a s s and o t h e r weedy g r a s s e s in the N o r t h w e s t in s o m e c a s e s a r e building up to the point w h e r e r e n o v a t i o n w i l l e v e n tually b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y . T h e s e a r e only a few e x a m p l e s of w e e d s that w i l l c a u s e o r b r i n g about the need f o r r e n o v a t i o n in the f u t u r e . Many o t h e r s a r e p r e s e n t i n g s i m i l i a r p r o b l e m s i f r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s a r e not m a d e q u i c k l y . P r e v e n t i n g the Need f o r R e n o v a t i o n 1. S p e c i e s . The s e l e c t i o n of the p r o p e r s p e c i e s of t u r f g r a s s f o r your lawn i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t in e l i m i n a t i n g any f u t u r e need f o r lawn r e n o v a t i o n . The l o n g - l i v e d p e r e n n i a l s a r e the o n e s which we should s e l e c t f o r our p e r m a n e n t p l a n t i n g s . In e a s t e r n Washington, Oregon, and Idaho any of the b l u e g r a s s e s and f e s c u e s do a wonderful j o b f o r p e r m a n e n t l a w n s . However, in w e s t e r n Washington, Oregon, and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a it i s a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . In this w e t t e r , m i l e r c l i m a t e the b l u e g r a s s e s do not t h r i v e so w e l l , and a r e e v e n t u a l l y o v e r r i d d e n by native b e n t g r a s s e s and o t h e r e n c r o a c h i n g native g r a s s e s . It i s w e l l known that the b e n t g r a s s e s , both the c r e e p i n g and n o n c r e e p i n g t y p e s , w i l l e v e n t u a l l y c a u s e s e r i o u s t r o u b l e with thatching if they a r e not p r o p e r l y m a n a g e d at a l l t i m e s . It would look to one at this point that it i s d i f f i c u l t to find a g r a s s w h i c h would p e r f o r m s a t i s f a c t o r i l y on the w e s t c o a s t . T h i s i s only p a r t i a l l y t r u e , s i n c e the b e n t g r a s s e s in c o n j u n c t i o n with r e d f e s c u e o r c h e w i n g s f e s c u e m a k e e x c e l l e n t quality lawns in w e s t e r n Washington p r o v i d e d they a r e given p r o p e r m a n a g e m e n t . The r e a s o n why b e n t g r a s s e s have not b e e n s p e c i f i c a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d in w e s t e r n Washington i s that they a c t u a l l y r e s p o n d a s s h o r t - l i v e d p e r e n n i a l s . In m o s t c a s e s they do not p e r s i s t f o r any l o n g e r than 3 to 4 y e a r s a s s o l i d s t a n d s . They b e c o m e invaded by annual b l u e g r a s s e s and b e n t g r a s s e s a s w e l l a s by o t h e r w e e d s and o t h e r g r a s s e s . When the b l u e g r a s s e s a r e r e p l a c e d by native v e g e t a t i v e or c r e e p i n g t y p e s of b e n t g r a s s e s then thatching i s a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e . When t h i s o c c u r s the r e n o v a t i o n w i l l g e n e r a l l y follow within a s h o r t p e r i o d . It i s t h e r e f o r e i m p e r a t i v e that we s e l e c t the p r o p e r s p e c i e s f o r the p r o p e r g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n . 2. Mowing. Mowing i s p e r h a p s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t point in the m a n a g e m e n t of our t u r f g r a s s e s in p r e v e n t i n g any need f o r lawn r e n o v a t i o n . High mowing does not r e m o v e enough of the old s t e m s and v e g e t a t i v e p o r t i o n s to p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m lying on the s u r f a c e w h e r e they a c c u m u l a t e and e v e n t u a l l y c a u s e t h e s e t h a t c h i n g c o n d i t i o n s . A s the s t e m s and s t o l o n s a c c u m u l a t e they r e t a i n m o r e w a t e r and m o r e of the plant n u t r i e n t s , t h e r e b y e n c o u r a g i n g s u r f a c e r o o t i n g . S u r f a c e r o o t i n g w i l l continue to add m o r e to the t h a t c h with t i m e . In e a s t e r n Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , the b l u e g r a s s and f e s c u e t u r f s should be m o w e d to h e i g h t s of 3/4 to 1 i n c h without any i l l e f f e c t s . T h e s e g r a s s e s c a n even b e m o w e d to 1/2 inch, h o w e v e r , t h i s i s r a r e l y n e c e s s a r y . Mowing to about 3/4 of an i n c h w i l l p r o m o t e l e a f i n g out c l o s e r to the ground and d i s c o u r a g e s t e m m i n e s s of the g r a s s e s . If the b l u e g r a s s e s and f e s c u e s w e r e m o w e d to 2 i n c h e s o r so in height, s e r i o u s t h a t c h a c c u m u l a t i o n would o c c u r in a p e r i o d of t i m e . T h e b l u e g r a s s e s , due to new s h o o t s being put up f r o m the r h i z o m e s , i n c r e a s e t h e i r population v e r y r a p i d l y . E v e n t u a l l y a d e n s e , tough m a t of dead s t e m s w i l l o c c u p y m o s t of the s o i l s u r f a c e . In w e s t e r n Washington, w h e r e the b e n t g r a s s e s and f e s c u e s a r e the p r e d o m i n a n t t y p e s , mowing should n e v e r be p r a c t i c e d h i g h e r than 1 i n c h . S i n c e the b e n t g r a s s e s continue t h e i r growth throughout the w i n t e r , it c a n be s a i d that they grow e f f e c t i v e l y a l l y e a r long. H e n c e s t o l o n and s t e m a c c u m u l a t i o n i s v e r y r a p i d with the b e n t g r a s s e s . If t h e s e g r a s s e s a r e cut down to 3/4 of an i n c h in height t h e r e i s a m i n i m u m a c c u m u l a t i o n of t h i s o r g a n i c d e b r i s . One of the f a i l u r e s of i n d u s t r y today i s the p r o d u c t i o n of mowing equipm e n t without p r o p e r c o n s u l t a t i o n to d e t e r m i n e the u s e of this e q u i p m e n t . Many of our r o t a r y m o w e r s today w i l l not cut c l o s e l y enough to p r e v e n t this thatching f o r m a t i o n , and even s o m e of the r e e l type m o w e r s w i l l not get down this low e i t h e r . A n o t h e r s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n i s that e v e n though the m o w e r s w i l l a d j u s t to s u i t a b l e h e i g h t s , the i n c r e m e n t s b e t w e e n the s e t t i n g s a r e so l a r g e that to s e t down to a l o w e r height r e s u l t s in s e r i o u s i n j u r y to the g r a s s e s . These are probl e m s that an a g r o n o m i s t c a n b r i n g out, but cannot p r e v e n t due to the i n d u s t r i a l tie-up. 3 . F e r t i l i z a t i o n . T h i s i s a m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t , s i n c e high r a t e s of n i t r o g e n tend to d i s c o u r a g e t h a t c h f o r m a t i o n , w h e r e a s low r a t e s of n i t r o g e n w i l l i n c r e a s e t h a t c h f o r m a t i o n . P e r h a p s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o p e r a t i n g h e r e i s that enough n i t r o g e n i s a v a i l a b l e f o r d e c o m p o s i t i o n of a c c u m u l a t i n g o r g a n i c d e b r i s a s c o m p a r e d to l i t t l e n i t r o g e n a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s d e c o m p o s i t i o n under low n i t r o g e n l e v e l s . T h i s i s the c a r b o n / n i t r o g e n r a t i o in a c t i o n . If the c a r b o n / n i t r o g e n r a t i o b e c o m e s too wide, then we c a n c e r t a i n l y e x p e c t t h a t c h f o r m a t i o n b e c a u s e b a c t e r i a l d e c a y w i l l not k e e p a b r e a s t of the a c c u m u l a t i o n of the o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l . P e r h a p s a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r o p e r a t i n g h e r e i s that g r a s s with high l e v e l s of n i t r o g e n c o n t a i n s a l o w e r a m o u n t of l i g n i f i e d t i s s u e w h i c h w i l l b r e a k down m o r e r e a d i l y than the highly l i g n i f i e d t i s s u e of g r a s s e s with low n i t r o g e n l e v e l s . T h i s d i s c u s s i o n of n i t r o g e n i s not to d i s c r e d i t p h o s phorous and potash;, but only e m p h a s i z e s that t h e s e two should be in a d e q u a t e a m o u n t s and in b a l a n c e with a l l of the n u t r i e n t s . H o w e v e r , it i s known that n i t r o g e n i s one of the c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s in t h a t c h a c c u m u l a t i o n . I b e l i e v e that it would be s a f e to say that t u r f g r a s s e s , w h e t h e r in the e a s t e r n p a r t of the n o r t h w e s t e r n s t a t e s or on the w e s t c o a s t p r o p e r , should r e c e i v e a m i n i m u m of 4 l b s . of a v a i l a b l e n i t r o g e n annually, that i s , during the growing s e a s o n . The m a x i m u m r a t e of n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n should b e a round 8 l b s . of n i t r o g e n per 1000 s q . ft. T h i s n i t r o g e n , o r any of the f e r t i l i z e r s f o r that m a t t e r , should b e applied to the a r e a in a m i n i m u m of t h r e e e q u a l a p p l i c a t i o n s throughout the s e a s o n , or a s m a n y a s four or five if you go to the h i g h e r r a t e s of f e r t i l i z a t i o n . 4 . O t h e r . Under this s e c t i o n a multitude of things could be m e n t i o n e d that would p o s s i b l y p r e v e n t any need f o r lawn r e n o v a t i o n . H o w e v e r , two or t h r e e of the m o r e i m p o r t a n t ones w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d . I r r i g a t i o n , which w a s m e n t i o n e d only b r i e f l y p r e v i o u s l y , i s i m p o r t a n t in p r e v e n t i n g a need f o r r e n o vation„ I n s t e a d of the c o m m o n l y r e c o m m e n d e d f r e q u e n t and light a p p l i c a t i o n s of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , we would r a t h e r r e c o m m e n d deep and thorough l e s s f r e quent, i r r i g a t i o n . On m a n y o c c a s i o n s I have found that w h e r e i r r i g a t i o n s a r e f r e q u e n t and light w a t e r has n e v e r p e n e t r a t e d the s o i l , but h a s only b e e n a b l e to wet the t h a t c h l a y e r . A deep i r r i g a t i o n w i l l wet the s o i l down to at l e a s t 8 to 10 i n c h e s deep and p e r h a p s e v e n a foot, if t h i s m u c h good s o i l e x i s t s . V e r t i c a l mowing, power r a k i n g , or any c o m b i n a t i o n of t h a t c h r e m o v a l and a e r a t i o n , or o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l t r e a t m e n t s w i l l tend to p r e v e n t t h a t c h f o r m a t i o n or l o s s of t u r f g r a s s e s and p r e v e n t the need f o r lawn r e n o v a t i o n . 5. The C u r e or Lawn R e n o v a t i o n . The following s t e p s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r r e n o v a t i n g an old lawn that h a s e i t h e r b e e n l o s t by t h a t c h a c c u m u l a t i o n , d i s e a s e , s u m m e r l o s s , or o t h e r c a u s e s , or when one m e r e l y wants to r e e s t a b l i s h a b e t t e r - q u a l i t y lawn. As pointed out b e f o r e , t h i s does not c o n s i d e r c o m p l e t e l y r e b u i l d i n g with new s o i l s . A. Mow the lawn to a height of 1/2 i n c h and r e m o v e a l l the old c l i p p i n g s . T h i s w i l l c e r t a i n l y be a h a r s h t r e a t m e n t to the e x i s t i n g g r a s s , p a r t i c u l a r l y if it h a s b e e n cut at h e i g h t s of 1 - 1 / 2 to 2 i n c h e s or h i g h e r . The g r a s s w i l l a p p e a r dead and m u c h of it w i l l be, h o w e v e r , a good p o r t i o n of the m o r e d e s i r a b l e g r a s s e s will come back. B. Power rake, Aero-thatch, verti-cut, or a e r a t i o n . a . P o w e r r a k e i s a r o t a r y i n s t r u m e n t with s m a l l s p r i n g t i n e s d e s i g n e d to s c r a t c h out or r a k e out a l l of the old o r g a n i c d e b r i s on the s o i l s u r f a c e . T h i s m a c h i n e should run o v e r the g r a s s enough t i m e s so that the old d e b r i s i s r a k e d out, down to new s o i l . T h i s does not m e a n to s t r i p the ground c o m p l e t e l y b a r e , but to r a k e so that s o m e s o i l i s e x p o s e d , and s o m e of the g r a s s i s s t i l l r o o t e d to the s o i l . bo An a e r o - t h a t c h i s a m a c h i n e that h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d on the m a r k e t in r e c e n t y e a r s . It w i l l both r a k e out and cut g r o o v e s into the s o i l . The t h a t c h i s r e m o v e d , and the s o i l i s lightly t i l l e d in one o p e r a t i o n . T h i s m a c h i n e then w i l l l e a v e a s u i t a b l e s e e d bed f o r s u b s e q u e n t r e s e e d i n g . c . V e r t i - c u t . The v e r t i - c u t m a c h i n e i s d e s i g n e d a l m o s t s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h a t c h r e m o v a l . T h i s m a c h i n e w i l l cut out a l l of the old t h a t c h , r e m o v i n g m o s t of the s u r f a c e s t o l o n s and cutting b a c k the e x i s t i n g growth to the ground l i n e . With a l l of t h e s e m a c h i n e s , the p r i m e o b j e c t i v e i s to r e m o v e the t h a t c h and e x p o s e s o m e of the m i n e r a l s o i l so that r e s e e d i n g c a n be p r a c t i c e d . A f t e r a l l of the o r g a n i c d e b r i s h a s b e e n r e m o v e d f r o m the s o i l s u r f a c e , i n s p e c t the lawn and s e e if there a r e high spots that should b e r e m o v e d o r if t h e r e a r e low spots that should be f i l l e d . A f t e r t h i s has b e e n t a k e n c a r e of, p r o c e e d with the o v e r - s e e d i n g of the lawn. B r o a d c a s t enough s e e d o v e r the s u r f a c e of the lawn to i n s u r e a good r e p l a c e m e n t stand of young s e e d l i n g s . In the c a s e s of b e n t g r a s s e s and f e s c u e c o m b i n a t i o n , 2 to 3 l b s . of s e e d per 1000 s q . ft. should be b r o a d c a s t . In the c a s e s of b l u e g r a s s e s , about 2 l b s . of s e e d p e r 1000 s q . f t . should b e s u f f i c i e n t . T h e r e a r e two a p p r o a c h e s f o r getting s e e d into the s o i l . The f i r s t would b e to r a k e the s e e d in lightly a f t e r b r o a d c a s t i n g and then r o l l the s u r f a c e down. T h e s e c o n d would be to r a k e the s e e d in, lightly top d r e s s with a s u i t a b l e s o i l m i x t u r e , and r o l l a f t e r that. B y a p p r o a c h i n g the r e n o v a t i o n p r o b l e m in t h i s m a n n e r you c a n t a k e a d v a n t a g e of s o m e good g r a s s e s s t i l l r e m a i n i n g in the lawn a r e a . T h e s e w i l l q u i c k l y r e c o v e r and soon give an adequate s u r f a c e c o v e r while the s e e d l i n g s a r e e s t a b l i s h i n g . T h e y w i l l b e f a s t in e s t a b l i s h i n g , and the m e t h o d w i l l p e r h a p s be l e s s e x p e n s i v e in the long r u n . Poor space structure, texture, water-holding capacity, aeration, c o m paction, n u t r i e n t s , e t c . , a r e a l l i n s e p a r a b l e f a c t o r s in t u r f s o i l s . Many of t h e s e a r e r e l a t e d to the t e m p e r a t u r e f a c t o r which i s so i m p o r t a n t to r o o t growth. SNOWMOLD C O N T R O L AND O T H E R D I S E A S E S T U D I E S IN E A S T E R N WASHINGTON Ted F i l e r 1 Thank you, D r . P a t t e r s o n , I m u s t s a y i t i s a p l e a s u r e to be h e r e today. The w o r k I have b e e n doing on the c o n t r o l of snowmold h a s b e e n in c o n j u n c t i o n with the A g r o n o m y D e p a r t m e n t at Washington S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . Our o b j e c t i v e in doing r e s e a r c h on c o n t r o l of t u r f d i s e a s e s in the e a s t e r n p a r t of the s t a t e i s not to t e s t new m a t e r i a l ; we have g e n e r a l l y u s e d the m a t e r i a l s which D r . Gould h a s t e s t e d in his w o r k . In the f i r s t t e s t s we put out in 1958, we n o t i c e that the r a t e s of c h e m i c a l s w h i c h do s u c h a good j o b on the w e s t side of the C a s c a d e s w i l l not do the j o b in the e a s t e r n p a r t of the s t a t e . We a l s o n o t i c e d that w h e r e it i s n e c e s s a r y on the c o a s t to u s e ten g a l l o n s of w a t e r a s the c a r r i e r in the a p p l i c a t i o n of the c h e m i c a l s , this does not a p p e a r to be t r u e in the e a s t e r n p a r t of the s t a t e . I b e l i e v e that the big d i f f e r e n c e i s the t i m e of y e a r the c h e m i c a l s a r e a p p l i e d . Our w o r k i s with snowmold and not F u s a r i u m patch, although we do have a d i s e a s e c o m p l e x in which both F u s a r i u m n i v a l e and Typhula sp. a r e p r e s e n t . I want to point out a t this t i m e that the r e s u l t s I a m about to show you a r e m o s t l y f r o m one y e a r ' s w o r k . I b e l i e v e that the t e s t should be continued for a n o t h e r y e a r , and i f the r e s u l t s a r e s i m i l a r they could b e u s e d . If any one wants to u s e t h e s e c h e m i c a l s and r a t e s he should do so with c a u t i o n to t e s t the r a t e s . T h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m would b e getting d i s c o l o r a t i o n of the g r a s s . The i d e a l t i m e to put the c h e m i c a l s out would b e b e f o r e the f i r s t s n o w f a l l o r b e t t e r y e t b e f o r e the p e r m a n e n t snow c o v e r . In this way you could get by with one or two s p r a y t r e a t m e n t s in the f a l l . S l i d e 1. F i e l d plot on Putting g r e e n in 1958 P M A S 2 oz. gave 9 1 . 2 p e r c e n t c o n t r o l . P a n a g o n 2 o z . gave 6 0 . 2 p e r c e n t c o n t r o l . S l i d e 2. Will show the a m o u n t of snowmold we had at P u l l m a n that y e a r . The g r e e n s w e r e s p r a y e d in e a r l y S e p t e m b e r (2 o z . P M A S ) . T h i s gave only 20 p e r cent control. S l i d e 3. T h i s shows the s u m m a r y of the r e s u l t s of l a s t y e a r ' s w o r k . The f i r s t thing I want to point out i s the d i f f e r e n c e found in c o n t r o l when d i f f e r e n t a m o u n t s of w a t e r w e r e u s e d with c h e m i c a l s at the s a m e r a t e . F o r e x a m p l e , P M A S with 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave t w i c e the c o n t r o l a s with 10 g a l l o n s of w a t e r . The d i f f e r e n c e s obtained in c o n t r o l w e r e s i m i l a r with m o s t of the c h e m i c a l s used, but the g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s a p p e a r e d when the amount of the c h e m i c a l u s e d was of a " m a r g i n a l d o s a g e ' 1 (a d o s a g e w h i c h m a y give good c o n t r o l under i d e a l c o n d i tions ). ^ D e p a r t m e n t of P l a n t P a t h o l o g y , Washington. Washington S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Pullman, P M A S - 1 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave Pullman 73% Spokane 97% P M A S - 1 oz . 10 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 51% 30. 3% P M A S - 2 oz . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 95% 95% P M A S - 2 oz . 10 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 92% 90% C a l o c l o r - 3 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 93% 93% C a l o c l o r - 4 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 95% 95% Cadminate - 2 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 93% 8 8 . 1% Cadminate - 4 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 98% 85% P a n a g o n - 4 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 91% 100% P a n a g o n - 6 o z . 5 g a l l o n s of w a t e r gave 95% 100% Slide 4 . T h i s i s a p i c t u r e of #8 g r e e n at P u l l m a n on the 1959 study. T h i s shows the a m o u n t of snowmold we had on the b u n k e r s and the edge of the t e s t p l o t s . P i c t u r e s t a k e n in M a r c h , I 9 6 0 . S l i d e 5. P l o t on g r e e n #8 at P u l l m a n . Shows the c h e c k p l o t s . On the r i g h t i s P a n a g e n 4 o z . , b e l o w the P a n a g e n i s C a l o c l o r 3 o z . , on the l e f t i s P a n o g e n 6 o z . , then the c h e c k and this plot a r e P M A S 2 oz. S l i d e 6. T h i s i s #2 g r e e n at P u l l m a n . T h i s a l s o shows the a m o u n t of s n o w m o l d we had on the edge of the p l o t s . You c a n s e e that in the t r e a t e d a r e a t h e r e w a s v e r y l i t t l e snowmold on any of the plots e x c e p t the c h e c k p l o t s . S l i d e 7. T h i s i s #2 g r e e n at P u l l m a n . T h i s i s to show the c o m p a r a t i v e c o n t r o l of s o m e of the c h e m i c a l s u s e d . P a n o g e n 4 oz. on the r i g h t of the c o n t r o l . C a d m i n a t e 4 o z . , C a l o c l o r 3 o z . 5 g a l . B e l o w i s C a l o c l o r 4 o z . 10 g a l . and to the l e f t i s P a n o g e n 6 oz. , the c h e c k and a b o v e a r e P M A S 1 o z . S l i d e 8 . A c l o s e - u p of plots t r e a t e d with P a n o g e n 4 o z . , C a l o c l o r 4 oz. and P a n o g e n 6 oz. S l i d e 9 . The next two s l i d e s show the a m o u n t of p h y t o t o x i c i t y we had f r o m the a p p l i c a t i o n of the f u n g i c i d e s . P a n o g e n and C a d m i n a t e gave v e r y l i t t l e phytot o x i c i t y P M A S , C a l o c l o r c a u s e d the t u r f to b e d i s c o l o r e d , and m e r c u r y c h l o r i d e caused extensive discoloration. Slide 10. T h i s shows a l s o the a m o u n t of p h y t o t o x i c i t y we got when applying the c h e m i c a l s at the d i f f e r e n t r a t e s . Summary P M A S - 2 o z . p e r 1000 s q . ft. (5 gal. of w a t e r ) C a l o c l o r - 3 o z . in 5 g a l . of w a t e r C a d m i n a t e - 2 oz. in 5 g a l . of w a t e r P a n o g e n - 4 o z . in 5 g a l . of w a t e r Any of the above c h e m i c a l s w i l l give c o n t r o l of s n o w m o l d i f a p p l i e d a f t e r f i r s t s n o w f a l l or b e f o r e p e r m a n e n t snow c o v e r . I a m at p r e s e n t working on f a i r y r i n g d i s e a s e . I a m not w o r k i n g on c o n t r o l a s such, but I a n t i c i p a t e that in m y r e s e a r c h I w i l l b r i n g out enough i n f o r m a t i o n through w h i c h s o m e type of c o n t r o l can be w o r k e d out. I have b e e n working with t h i s p r o b l e m s i n c e I c a m e to Washington. I have no p o s i t i v e f a c t s to p r e s e n t at this t i m e , but I do have i n d i c a t i o n s that the fungus w i l l r e d u c e g r o w t h of g r a s s and that it i s p a t h o g e n i c . I a l s o b e l i e v e that s o m e s u b s t a n c e i s p r e s e n t in the s o i l w h e r e the fungus has grown w h i c h r e d u c e d the p e r m e a b i l i t y of the s o i l . T U R F D I S E A S E S T U D I E S IN W E S T E R N WASHINGTON Charles J. Gould* The m o r e we study t u r f d i s e a s e s in w e s t e r n Washington, the m o r e c o m p l e x the s i t u a t i o n a p p e a r s . Many d i f f e r e n t kinds of fungi have b e e n found to b e involved, and t h e s e v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y in p a t h o g e n i c i t y . In addition, v a r i o u s e n v i o r n m e n t a l f a c t o r s e x e r t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e . S u c h f a c t o r s a s a i r and s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s , r e l a t i v e humidity, s o i l m o i s t u r e , s o i l type, s o i l nutrition, and o t h e r s i n f l u e n c e d i s e a s e d e v e l o p m e n t , individually and c o l l e c t i v e l y . Nutrition i s one f a c t o r that we should e x a m i n e m o r e c l o s e l y s i n c e i t i s proving to be one of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t in r e t a r d i n g or s t i m u l a t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t of the fungi c a u s i n g s u c h m a j o r d i s e a s e s a s F u s a r i u m patch, r e d t h r e a d , and f a i r y r i n g . T h i s p a p e r i n c l u d e s c o m m e n t s found in the l i t e r a t u r e on the e f f e c t of n u t r i t i o n on t u r f d i s e a s e s , s u p p l e m e n t e d with a s u m m a r y of e x p e r i m e n t s and o b s e r v a tions in w e s t e r n Washington. General Nutrition The l i t e r a t u r e s t a t e s that low l e v e l s of n u t r i t i o n a r e c o n d u c i v e to d e v e l o p m e n t of f a i r y ring, r u s t , and a n t h r a c n o s e , w h e r e a s high l e v e l s of n u t r i t i o n f a v o r Cur v u l a r i a ( c a u s i n g fading out). The m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r of g e n e r a l n u t r i t i o n i s p r o b a b l y the p r e s e n c e or l a c k of n i t r o g e n . Nitrogen N i t r o g e n i s the s u b j e c t of m o r e r e f e r e n c e s in the l i t e r a t u r e than any o t h e r n u t r i e n t . Low l e v e l s of n i t r o g e n a r e r e p o r t e d to f a v o r r e d t h r e a d , d o l l a r spot, r u s t , and f a i r y r i n g . High l e v e l s of n i t r o g e n f a v o r F u s a r i u m patch, b r o w n patch, d a m p i n g - o f f , and powdery m i l d e w . On the o t h e r hand, r e c e n t w o r k by Couch a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e has d e m o n s t r a t e d that e x t r e m e s of e i t h e r high or low l e v e l s of n i t r o g e n f a v o r the H e l m i n t h o s p o r i u m b l i g h t s , while P y t h i u m d e v e l o p m e n t i s u n a f f e c t e d a t any l e v e l . P o t a s h and P h o s p h o r u s T h e r e a r e v e r y few r e f e r e n c e s to the e f f e c t of the o t h e r two m a j o r n u t r i ent e l e m e n t s on d i s e a s e d e v e l o p m e n t . P o w d e r y m i l d e w i s f a v o r e d by low l e v e l s of potash, but this e l e m e n t i s not supposed to i n f l u e n c e the d e v e l o p m e n t of e i t h e r d o l l a r shot o r P y t h i u m a t any l e v e l . High l e v e l s of p h o s p h o r u s s t i m u l a t e r e d t h r e a d d e v e l o p m e n t , but brown patch w a s not a f f e c t e d by any l e v e l . Lime Low l e v e l s of l i m e f a v o r c o p p e r spot. Work done by S m i t h in England h a s shown that high l e v e l s f a v o r both f u s a r i u m patch and Ophiobolus patch. P l a n t P a t h o l o g i s t , Washington S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , E x p e r i m e n t Station, Puyallup, Washington W e s t e r n Washington On the o t h e r hand, r e s e a r c h by Couch a t P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e has shown that e x t r e m e s of l i m e (high and low) f a v o r P y t h i u m . General L e t us now look a t the t h r e e m a j o r d i s e a s e s a f f e c t i n g both h i g h - c u t (lawn) and l o w - c u t (putting g r e e n ) t u r f s in w e s t e r n Washington. I 9 6 0 h a s b e e n an unu s u a l l y f a v o r a b l e y e a r f o r t u r f d i s e a s e s of a l l kinds in the N o r t h w e s t . T h e m i l d w i n t e r of 1 9 5 9 - 6 0 a p p a r e n t l y p e r m i t t e d m a n y of the fungi to s u r v i v e in l a r g e n u m b e r s . T h i s condition, t o g e t h e r with a p r o l o n g e d m i l d , m o i s t s p r i n g and s h o r t s u m m e r , a p p a r e n t l y e n a b l e d t h e s e fungi to build up to v e r y high l e v e l s of d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s . F u s a r i u m patch h a s b e e n u n u s u a l l y s e v e r e in l a w n - t y p e t u r f during the l a s t few m o n t h s . F a i r y Ring F o r m a n y y e a r s we have o b s e r v e d that the fungus c a u s i n g f a i r y ring i s g e n e r a l l y m u c h m o r e d e s t r u c t i v e on t u r f w h i c h i s u n d e r w a t e r e d and u n d e r n o u r i s h e d . Its d e v e l o p m e n t a l s o s e e m s to be f a v o r e d by heavy a p p l i c a t i o n s of o r g a n i c types of f e r t i l i z e r s . The l a t t e r a p p a r e n t l y s e r v e a s s o u r c e s of food f o r the fungus. In c a s e s of u n d e r n o u r i s h m e n t , the fungus a p p e a r s c a p a b l e of e x t r a c t i n g n u t r i e n t s and w a t e r f r o m the s o i l m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y than do g r a s s r o o t s . When t u r f i s w e l l w a t e r e d and w e l l f e r t i l i z e d , the g r a s s i s s t i m u l a t e d and a p p a r e n t l y can m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y c o m p e t e with the f a i r y ring fungus. Although the fungus i s not e l i m i n a t e d by s u c h t r e a t m e n t , it does b e c o m e l e s s o b j e c t i o n a b l e . T h i s i s our m o s t p r a c t i c a l c o n t r o l m e a s u r e a t the p r e s e n t t i m e . T h e only o t h e r solution i s a c o m p l e t e r e n o v a t i o n by t r e a t i n g i n f e s t e d s o i l with s u c h m a t e r i a l s a s m e t h y l b r o m i d e , c h l o r p i c r i n , o r f o r m a l d e h y d e , followed by r e - s e e d ing. D i r e c t i o n s f o r t h i s a r e c o n t a i n e d in Washington A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t Stations C i r c u l a r 330. Red T h r e a d A s m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , the l i t e r a t u r e r e p o r t s that this d i s e a s e i s i n c r e a s e d by h e a v y a p p l i c a t i o n s of l i m e , phospate, and c o m p o s t , and by v a r i o u s m i x t u r e s of the a b o v e . It has b e e n r e d u c e d by a p p l i c a t i o n s of s u c h f e r t i l i z e r s a s a m m o n i u m s u l f a t e and sodium n i t r a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y e a r l y in the y e a r . M c L e a n in B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a h a s found that growth of the fungus in c u l t u r e i s s t i m u l a t e d m o r e b y n i t r o g e n f r o m n i t r a t e and a m m o n i u m s o u r c e s than f r o m urea. In c o o p e r a t i v e t e s t s in w e s t e r n Washington with D r s . G o s s and A u s t e n s o n , we have found that the u s e of n i t r o g e n d e f i n i t e l y helps o v e r c o m e the r a v a g e s of r e d t h r e a d . So f a r we h a v e n ' t n o t i c e d any p a r t i c u l a r d i f f e r e n c e a s to w h e t h e r the n i t r o g e n c a m e f r o m u r a m i t e , u r e a , or i n o r g a n i c s o u r c e s . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i s to apply n i t r o g e n e a r l y and to m a i n t a i n an a d e q u a t e f e r t i l i z a tion p r o g r a m throughout the y e a r . We s t i l l do not know how n i t r o g e n w o r k s - w h e t h e r by p r o m o t i n g r e s i s t a n c e in g r a s s o r by enabling i t to grow f a s t e r than the fungus c a n i n f e c t . Although the u s e of n i t r o g e n h a s given us good c o n t r o l of the d i s e a s e , we s t i l l b e l i e v e that a f u n g i c i d a l p r o g r a m i s d e s i r a b l e . In f a c t , we hope that if a s u i t a b l e fungicide can be found the b e n e f i t f r o m f e r t i l i z e r s w i l l b e p r o l o n g e d . None of the f u n g i c i d e s t e s t e d to date have given topnotch c o n t r o l . The m e r c u r i e s u s e d f o r F u s a r i u m and o t h e r pathogens have p r o v e n p r a c t i c a l l y w o r t h l e s s a g a i n s t the r e d t h r e a d fungus under our c o n d i t i o n s . The b e s t m a t e r i a l s found to date a r e c a d m i u m compounds and C y p r e x . T h e y w e r e t e s t e d l a s t y e a r at the r a t e s r e c o m m e n d e d by the m a n u f a c t u r e r s . At t h o s e l e v e l s they gave s o m e p r o m i s i n g l e a d s but not s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l . T h e r e f o r e , we intend to r e - t e s t t h e m next y e a r a t h i g h e r r a t e s . We s h a l l a l s o t e s t s o m e new m a t e r i a l s . We a r e a t t e m p t i n g to d e v e l o p a good l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e that w i l l d e t e c t f u n g i c i d e s that have l i t t l e e f f e c t on t u r f d i s e a s e s . Such a t e c h n i q u e would e l i m i n a t e the n e e d to f i e l d - t e s t t h e m during " s c r e e n i n g . " A f t e r the l a b o r a t o r y s c r e e n i n g , only the b e s t m a t e r i a l s w i l l b e t e s t e d f o r p h y t o t o x i c i t y on g r a s s in the g r e e n h o u s e . T h o s e s u r v i v i n g t h i s t e s t w i l l then b e t r i e d in f e s c u e plots at our s t a t i o n . Fusarium Patch T h e r e i s m u c h l i t e r a t u r e on the e f f e c t of v a r i o u s f e r t i l i z e r s and l i m e on the d e v e l o p m e n t of F u s a r i u m p a t c h d i s e a s e . One r e f e r e n c e p u b l i s h e d about 50 y e a r s ago m e n t i o n s that m a n u r e s tend to f a v o r the d e v e l o p m e n t of the fungus. S e v e r a l o t h e r w o r k s s t a t e that o r g a n i c s o u r c e s of n i t r o g e n s t i m u l a t e fungus g r o w t h m o r e than do i n o r g a n i c s o u r c e s . U r e a has a l s o b e e n r e p o r t e d a s f a v o r ing fungus growth, and s o m e r e c e n t w o r k in C a l i f o r n i a i n d i c a t e s that u r e a - f o r m a l d e h y d e types a r e w o r s e than u r e a in t h i s r e s p e c t . However, h e a v y r a t e s of any kind of n i t r o g e n w i l l i n c r e a s e the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of g r a s s to a t t a c k by the F u s a r i u m fungus. A l s o r e c e n t w o r k in E n g l a n d i n d i c a t e s that i f a f e r t i l i z e r i s u n b a l a n c e d i n s o f a r a s N, P, and K a r e c o n c e r n e d , the d i s e a s e w i l l be m o r e s e v e r e . Of the i n o r g a n i c s o u r c e s of n i t r o g e n , c a l c i u m n i t r a t e has b e e n r e p o r t ed a s one of the l e a s t s t i m u l a t i n g to the fungus. In s u m m a r i z i n g the e f f e c t s of n i t r o g e n on F u s a r i u m patch, it a p p e a r s that the o r g a n i c types i n c r e a s e the d i s e a s e m o s t , followed by u r e a - f o r m a l d e h y d e and u r e a and f i n a l l y the i n o r g a n i c s o u r c e s . Although both the l i t e r a t u r e and our o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e that o r g a n i c and r e l a t e d s o u r c e s of n i t r o g e n f a v o r the F u s a r i u m , we r e a l i z e that such types have a v e r y d e f i n i t e p l a c e in t u r f m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e r e f o r e , it b e c o m e s a m a t t e r of using t h e m j u d i c i o u s l y ; in o t h e r w o r d s , of putting t h e m on a t t i m e s of the y e a r when F u s a r i u m a t t a c k s a r e not e x p e c t e d , o r , if needed a t o t h e r t i m e s , a t a s low l e v e l s a s p r a c t i c a b l e . If high l e v e l s m u s t b e u s e d during F u s a r i u m - t y p e ( i . e 0 , c o o l , m o i s t ) w e a t h e r , then i t w i l l a l s o be n e c e s s a r y to a d h e r e r e l i g i o u s l y to a f u n g i c i d a l t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m . L i m e has b e e n r e p o r t e d a s f a v o r i n g the F u s a r i u m , but i r o n s u l f a t e i s supposed to r e d u c e a t t a c k s . Not m u c h i s r e p o r t e d on the e f f e c t of o t h e r e l e ments. T e s t s on C o n t r o l l i n g F u s a r i u m P a t c h We have r e p o r t e d p r e v i o u s l y that the P M A t y p e s of f u n g i c i d e s a r e v e r y e f f e c t i v e in c o n t r o l l i n g F u s a r i u m patch d i s e a s e in w e s t e r n Washington. Howe v e r , at t i m e s they have b u r n e d g r a s s a l s o . T h e r e f o r e , we b e g a n s e a r c h i n g a few y e a r s ago f o r ways of o v e r c o m i n g s u c h b u r n i n g . The addition of i r o n s u l fate did not help; in f a c t i t tended to a g g r a v a t e the t r o u b l e . The i n c l u s i o n of n i t r o g e n compounds a p p e a r e d p r o m i s i n g , so r e s e a r c h along this l i n e w a s e x panded. We soon found that the burning w a s s o m e t i m e s i n c r e a s e d and d i s e a s e c o n t r o l was d e c r e a s e d by r a t e s of 1 / 2 l b . and h i g h e r of a c t u a l n i t r o g e n . This w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e with u r e a and c a l c i u m n i t r a t e . However, a t r a t e s of 1/8 o r 1/4 l b . of a c t u a l n i t r o g e n certain, m a t e r i a l s p r e v e n t e d burning without i n c r e a s i n g the d i s e a s e . A f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , we s e t t l e d upon the n i t r a t e t y p e s . Of t h e s e , c a l c i u m and a m m o n i u m n i t r a t e s a p p e a r to b e the m o s t p r a c t i c a l to u s e . The d e t a i l e d r e s u l t s of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be publ i s h e d l a t e r . M e a n w h i l e , our r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e i r t r a i l a r e given b e l o w . Studies a r e a l s o being i n i t i a t e d in the g r e e n h o u s e to d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n n u t r i t i o n of t u r f and i n f e c t i o n by the F u s a r i u m p a t c h fungus. We a r e a l s o obtaining data on the d e v e l o p m e n t of the d i s e a s e in u n s p r a y e d t u r f f e r t i l i z e r p l o t s . T h i s w o r k i s being done in c o o p e r a t i o n with R o y G o s s . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r C o n t r o l of F u s a r i u m P a t c h A s a r e s u l t of e x t e n s i v e t e s t s with v a r i o u s f u n g i c i d e s in c o o p e r a t i o n with R o y G o s s , V e r n M i l l e r , and v a r i o u s golf c o u r s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , we r e c o m m e n d the following: U s e P M A type ( 1 0 % a c t i v e a s P M A S , Tag, e t c . ) a t 3/4 o z . in 10 g a l . of w a t e r / 1 0 0 0 s q . f e e t . Add n i t r a t e n i t r o g e n to this solution a t 1/8 l b . of a c t u a l n i t r o g e n during p e r i o d s when P M A - b u r n i n g m a y be e x p e c t e d . The n i t r o g e n m a y b e o m i t t e d at o t h e r t i m e s . S i n c e s u c h m e r c u r y compounds a s the a b o v e u s u a l l y give the m o s t r a p i d c o n t r o l of the F u s a r i u m patch, they a r e our p r e f e r r e d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . However, they have shown a t e n d e n c y to p r o d u c e thin t u r f in w e s t e r n Washington. In c o n t r a s t to this, m a n y c a d m i u m compounds have p r o d u c e d a d e n s e turf, but the c a d m i u m s t e s t e d to date have not b e e n a s e f f e c t i v e in c o n t r o l l i n g the F u s a r i u m a s the m e r c u r i a l s . C a d m i u m c h l o r i d e ( t e s t e d a s Caddy) i s the m o s t p r o m i s i n g c a d m i u m m a t e r i a l found so f a r . In o r d e r to obtain the b e s t q u a l i t i e s of both t y p e s of m a t e r i a l s , we r e c o m m e n d an a l t e r n a t i n g s c h e d u l e of P M A and Caddy, u n l e s s the d i s e a s e d e v e l o p s s e v e r e l y ; in s u c h c a s e s we s u g g e s t the u s e of P M A until F u s a r i u m is b r o u g h t under c o n t r o l . Needed, of c o u r s e , i s a good c o m b i n a t i o n of s u c h m a t e r i a l s in one f o r m u l a t i o n . We and v a r i o u s c h e m i c a l c o m p a n i e s a r e w o r k i n g along t h i s l i n e . Such a c o m b i n a t i o n would be highly d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e we a p p a r e n t l y have a c o m p l e x of d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n s and s p e c i e s of F u s a r i u m c a p a b l e of c a u s i n g t r o u b l e . Since d i f f e r e n t f u n g i c i d e s c o n t r o l d i f f e r e n t pathogens, it s t a n d s to r e a s o n that a m i x t u r e g e n e r a l l y would b e m o r e e f f e c t i v e than an individual compound. None of the c o m m e r c i a l m i x t u r e s now a v a i l a b l e a r e a d e q u a t e l y e f f e c t i v e under our c o n ditions. R e s i s t a n t t y p e s of g r a s s e s a r e a l s o needed for both putting g r e e n and lawntype t u r f s . P e n n c r o s s has shown c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s i s t a n c e h e r e , but it h a s n ' t g e n e r a l l y produced a good putting t u r f in w e s t e r n W a s h i n g t o n . S e a s i d e h a s a l s o a p p e a r e d r e s i s t a n t at t i m e s , and y e t at o t h e r t i m e s it h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d a s being s u s c e p t i b l e to the fungus. T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s m a y b e e x p l a i n e d by the u s e of d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n s of this v a r i e t y . Many y e a r s ago S e a s i d e was r e p o r t e d a s being m u c h m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to F u s a r i u m than the C o l o n i a l t y p e s . Under w e s t e r n Washington c o n d i t i o n s , the r e v e r s e i s t r u e . M o d e r n r e s e a r c h i s s e l d o m done without a s s i s t a n c e f r o m o t h e r s . In addition to m y a s s o c i a t e s , Rog G o s s and V . L,. M i l l e r , I w i s h to e x p r e s s m y a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r a s s i s t a n c e in the t u r f d i s e a s e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m f r o m m a n y golf c o u r s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , the N o r t h w e s t T u r f A s s o c i a t i o n , the U . S . Golf A s s o c i a tion, C a l i f o r n i a S p r a y - C h e m i c a l C o r p . , O. M. S c o t t ' s S e e d Co. , and W. A. Cleary Corporation. CRABGRASS CONTROL TRIALS A, G. Law and J . K. Patterson A f o l l o w - u p t r i a l for c r a b g r a s s c o n t r o l w a s m a d e on the C l a r k s t o n Golf C o u r s e in the I 9 6 0 s e a s o n (in c o o p e r a t i o n with C h a r l e s M i t c h e l l , golf c o u r s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ) . T r i a l s in 1959 had shown p r e - e m e r g e n c e t r e a t m e n t with D a c thal a t 10 and 12 l b s . to be quite e f f e c t i v e , with no s e r i o u s e f f e c t s of r e s i d u e and without e x c e s s i v e l y high r a t e o r c o s t . Other m a t e r i a l s u s e d that w e r e e f f e c t i v e w e r e c o n s i d e r e d p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s b e c a u s e of r e s i d u e (Ca a r s e n a t e a t 500 l b s . p e r a c r e ) o r c o s t l y (as c h l o r o d a n e a t 70 l b s . p e r a c r e ) . One new c h e m i c a l was a l s o e v a l u a t e d . Two f o r m u l a t i o n s , of Zytron, both g r a n u l a r and e m u l s i o n (including M - 1 3 2 9 ) , w e r e u s e d a s p r e - e m e r g e n c e c h e m i c a l s . Two i t e m s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d in evaluating the t r e a t m e n t s . These are: 1. P l o t s w e r e d r y f r o m s p r i n g t r e a t m e n t - - M a r c h 26 until August 10 b e c a u s e of a w a t e r s h o r t a g e . T h i s undoubtedly r e s u l t e d in s o m e l o s s of e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the p r e - e m e r g e n c e t r e a t m e n t s a s t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e that t h e s e c h e m i c a l s d e c o m p o s e in the p r e s e n c e of sunlight. 2. In s p i t e of the e r r o r in u s i n g D a c t h a l a t o n e - h a l f the r e c o m m e n d e d r a t e , c o n t r o l of c r a b g r a s s w a s b e s t with D a c t h a l . M - 1 3 29 ( Z y t r o n e m u l s i o n ) a t 8 l b s . p e r a c r e w a s m o r e e f f e c t i v e than the o t h e r Z y t r o n m a t e r i a l s but it i s l i k e l y t h i s i s not a r e l i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e b e c a u s e of the v a r i a b i l i t y of the data, v a r i a b i l i t y c a u s e d in p a r t by the f a i l u r e of the w a t e r s y s t e m . P r e - emerge T r e a t e d M a r c h 26 Material Dacthal 2 Rate 1? # / a c r e 40 f/acre 37 37 34 # / a c r e 30 4 oz/1000 53 6 oz/1000 50 8 oz/1000 70 3 oz/1000 67 5 oz/1000 60 7 oz/1000 57 Zi Zytron E Zytron G C r a b g r a s s in % check^ R a t i n g on S e p t e m b e r 21, Considerable injury I960 D a c t h a l applied a t o n e - h a l f r a t e intended. Material M 1329 Post-emerge Material R h o m e Haas Fenac SD 6 6 2 2 Rate C r a b g r a s s in % c h e c k 4 oz/1000 63 6 oz/1000 60 8 oz/1000 40 Some F . rubra injury 2 t r e a t m e n t s - August 1 and August 24 Rate C r a b g r a s s in 2 #/acre 70 4 #/acre 60 4 #/acre 90 6 #/acre 50 2 #/acre 70 4 #/acre 40 % check The r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of D a c t h a l in I 9 6 0 c o r r e s p o n d s with the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s m a t e r i a l in 1 9 5 9 . D a t a on the c a r r y o v e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s of D a c thal ( 1 9 5 9 p l o t s ) show the 10 and 12 lb. r a t e s t i l l f r e e of c r a b g r a s s in I 9 6 0 . T h e c h e c k plot showed 60 per c e n t c o v e r a g e of c r a b g r a s s . S i m i l a r c a r r y o v e r e f f e c t s w e r e shown on the c h l o r o d a n e ( 7 0 # / a c r e ) and Ca a r s e n a t e (500 # / a c r e ) plots. NITROGEN SOURCE T E S T J . K. P a t t e r s o n and A. G. Law In the s u m m e r of 1959, we r e c e i v e d a g r a n t to t e s t b a r l e y s p r o u t s (a p r o d u c t of the m a l t i n g p r o c e s s ) a s a s o u r c e f o r n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r . P l o t s e s t a b l i s h e d on four b l u e g r a s s e s : M e r i o n , Newport, D e l t a , and P . N. W. (a b l u e g r a s s s e l e c t i o n ) w h i c h provided four r e p l i c a t i o n s . These bluegrasses c u t a s lawn turf, to the height of 1 in. e a c h w e e k . bywere local were S i n c e the b a r l e y s p r o u t s r e s e m b l e d s o m e of the c o m m o n o r g a n i c f e r t i l i z e r s p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e on the m a r k e t , two of t h e s e l a t t e r f o r m s w e r e u s e d in the t e s t , one in 1959 and a n o t h e r in I 9 6 0 . One s o u r c e of a slowly a v a i l a b l e i n o r g a n i c s o u r c e w a s u s e d e a c h y e a r and one s o l u b l e n i t r a t e s o u r c e w a s u s e d . S i n c e a m i x t u r e of o r g a n i c and s o l u b l e i n o r g a n i c s i s often c o m m o n l y u s e d on the t u r f a r e a s , t h e s e m i x t u r e s w e r e a l s o i n c l u d e d . T a b l e 1 included the data t a k e n a s a r e s u l t of t h e s e t e s t s (one pound of n i t r o g e n w a s applied e a c h month during the s u m m e r f r o m the v a r i o u s sources). T A B L E 1. Nitrogen Source T r i a l 1959 j rating I960 rating 5. 8 5. 0 B a r l e y sprouts 5. 0 5. 1 Inorganic (slowly available) 4. 2 4. 8 Organic 5. 0 5. 0 Inorganic (soluble) 6. 8 5. 1 5. 8 5. 1 j o r g a n i c and j inorganic j B a r l e y s p r o u t s and i inorganic R a t i n g w a s on the b a s i s of c o l o r with 7 being the b e s t and 3 the l o w e s t . A s c a n be s e e n f r o m T a b l e 1, the b a r l e y s p r o u t s w e r e equal in e f f e c t i v e n e s s to the o r g a n i c f e r t i l i z e r s t e s t e d . The s o l u b l e i n o r g a n i c w a s s u p e r i o r the f i r s t y e a r but not in I 9 6 0 (the plots in I 9 6 0 r e c e i v e d the s a m e type f e r t i l i z e r a s had b e e n applied in 1 9 5 9 ) . In I 9 6 0 , the r a t i n g s d i f f e r e d v e r y l i t t l e e x c e p t that the i n o r g a n i c s l o w r e l e a s e f e r t i l i z e r s t i l l l a g g e d in e f f e c t i v e n e s s . It m i g h t be noted that the b a r l e y s p r o u t s c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s o m e of the c o m m e r c i a l o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s in N P K c o n t e n t having an a n a l y s i s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4. 4 - 1 . 5 - 1 . 5 f o r t h e s e e l e m e n t s . During s o m e g r e e n h o u s e t r i a l s with a m i x t u r e of b a r l e y s p r o u t s and soil, it w a s noted that high r a t e s of b a r l e y s p r o u t s p r e v e n t e d the e m e r g e n c e of s o m e of the t u r f g r a s s e s . It w a s d e c i d e d to t e s t o t h e r f e r t i l i z e r m a t e r i a l s to s e e if this was a unique p r o p e r t y of b a r l e y s p r o u t s . S o i l - s a n d m i x t u r e w a s m i x e d with v a r i o u s f e r t i l i z e r s so that the a p p r o x i m a t e n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n w a s 1200, 2400, and 3 6 0 0 pounds of " N " p e r a c r e ( r a t e s 1, 2, and 3 in the t a b l e ) . Sudang r a s s w a s then planted to a s s e s s the growth i n c r e a s e and any t o x i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s e f e r t i l i z e r s a t such high r a t e s . T a b l e 2 c o n t a i n s the data f r o m t h i s trial. T A B L E 2. E f f e c t of High R a t e s of N i t r o g e n on G r a s s Growth Fertilizer Rate None Ammonium Sulfate Ammonium Nitrate Inorganic (slow r e l e a s e ) B a r l e y sprouts Organic Growth in p e r c e n t of c h e c k plot 2nd and 3 r d m o n t h s 1st month Total 100 100 100 1 310 540 450 2 330 730 540 3 3 80 550 480 1 170 490 330 2 150 290 240 3 toxic toxic toxic 1 3 50 540 460 2 260 470 380 3 200 430 340 1 3 20 400 370 2 800 630 700 3 280 520 460 1 3 20 510 430 2 3 20 550 460 3 310 470 410 The high r a t e s w e r e a l l l e s s e f f e c t i v e than the m e d i u m r a t e (2) of 2400 pounds of " N " per a c r e . Two f e r t i l i z e r s , the i n o r g a n i c s l o w - r e l e a s e type and the A m m o n i u m n i t r a t e , w e r e s l i g h t l y t o x i c a t the m e d i u m r a t e a s c o m p a r e d to the 1200 pounds of " N " applied. On the a v e r a g e the f e r t i l i z e r s w e r e m o r e e f f e c t i v e during the s e c o n d and third m o n t h s a s c o m p a r e d to the f i r s t m o n t h ' s growth, a g a i n pointing to s o m e e a r l y y i e l d d e p r e s s i o n due to the high r a t e s . S t r a n g e l y , the s o l u b l e n i t r o g e n s o u r c e s did not p r o d u c e any m o r e i m m e d i a t e flush of growth during the f i r s t m o n t h than did the o r g a n i c s o r the s l o w l y a v a i l a b l e i n o r g a n i c . B a r l e y s p r o u t s p e r f o r m e d a s w e l l in t h i s t e s t a s did any of the o t h e r s o u r c e s of " N " so it does not a p p e a r to be unique in i t s t o x i c p r o p e r t i e s when applied at high r a t e s . AQUATIC WEED C O N T R O L Henry C a r s n e r * A q u a t i c weed c o n t r o l i s b e c o m i n g an i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n p r a c t i c e a s o u r l a k e s a r e developed and l a n d o w n e r s d e s i r e to p r o t e c t t h e i r p r o p e r t y v a l u e s and i n c r e a s e the r e c r e a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l of the w a t e r s Weed-infested waters u s u a l l y d e g r a d e adjoining p r o p e r t y v a l u e s and i n t e r f e r e with s a l e s in addition to being a r e a l h a z a r d to b a t h e r s . S o m e a q u a t i c plant s p e c i e s w i l l a c t u a l l y t r a p a s w i m m e r . E x c e s s i v e w e e d s a l s o i n t e r f e r e with fishing, o b s t r u c t i r r i gation m a c h i n e r y , and r e t a r d the flow of d r a i n a g e w a t e r . The p u r p o s e of a q u a t i c weed c o n t r o l i s to r e m o v e or o t h e r w i s e c o n t r o l o b j e c t i o n a b l e a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n f o r the b e n e f i t of w a t e r u s e r s . C o m m o n a q u a t i c plants f a l l into t h r e e g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s , e a c h r e q u i r i n g s e p a r a t e c o n s i d e r a tion in e s t a b l i s h i n g a c h e m i c a l c o n t r o l p r o g r a m . S u b m e r g e d plants include but a r e not l i m i t e d to the following: E l o d e a , C e r a t o p h y l l u m , Myrophyllum, and v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of P o t a m o g e t o n , N a j a s f l e x i l l s , U t i c u l a r i a v u l g a r i s , C h a r a and s e v e r a l f o r m s of Cyanophyta and Chlorphyta. E m e r g e n t plants a r e t h o s e which a r e m a i n l y above the s u r f a c e and a r e f r e q u e n t l y r o o t e d to the b o t t o m . T h e s e plants g e n e r a l l y i n c l u d e the following: L e m n a m i n o r , Azola, Nymphozanthus, B r a n s e n i s , H e t e r a n t h e n a , and A l i s m a plantago. M a r g i n a l plants include n u m e r o u s s p e c i e s , h o w e v e r we u s u a l l y think of P o l y g o n u m , Typha, J u n c u s , S c i r p u s , S a l i x , Alnus, and v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of C a r e x a s the m o s t c o m m o n o f f e n d e r s . Controlling aquatic weeds: mechanical, t h r e e c o m m o n m e t h o d s in u s e today. biological, and c h e m i c a l a r e the M e c h a n i c a l r e m o v a l i s p r a c t i c e d e x t e n s i v e l y in v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s of the N o r t h w e s t . An i m p r e s s i v e a r r a y of m e c h a n i c a l e q u i p m e n t i s to b e found f r o m the i r r i g a t e d v a l l e y s of Idaho to the r i v e r d e l t a s of Washington and O r e g o n . T h i s equipment i n c l u d e s e x p e n s i v e u n d e r w a t e r m o w e r s , h e a v y a n c h o r c h a i n s and c a b l e s u s e d a s d r a g s , hand cutting, dredging, and d r a g l i n e s . In g e n e r a l , m e c h a n i c a l weed c o n t r o l i s e x p e n s i v e and o f f e r s no p r o s p e c t of d i m i n i s h i n g c o s t s . A s i d e f r o m the e x p e n s e of the a c t u a l d r a g o r cutting o p e r a t i o n , i t i s often n e c e s s a r y to r e m o v e the cut w e e d s p h y s i c a l l y f r o m the w a t e r s , u s u a l l y at a bar s c r e e n . F e r t i l i z a t i o n a s a m e a n s of c o n t r o l i s not d e v e l o p e d e x t e n s i v e l y outside the w a r m w a t e r s of the s o u t h e r n s t a t e s . T h i s m e t h o d depends upon the d e v e l o p m e n t of a d e n s e planktonic a l g a e " b l o o m " w h i c h s h a d e s the b o t t o m and i n t e r f e r e s with o r p r e v e n t s the growth of s u b m e r g e d plants, s i n c e p h o t o s y n t h e s i s c a n n o t o c c u r in the a b s e n c e of light. The m a t e r i a l c o s t f o r annual f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s quite high, and is u s u a l l y j u s t i f i e d only on h i g h - p r o d u c i n g f i s h ponds. Consulting B i o l o g i s t , N o r t h w e s t Weed S e r v i c e , Tacoma, Washington. C h e m i c a l c o n t r o l i s proving to be the m o s t p r a c t i c a l and e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d of c o n t r o l l i n g a q u a t i c w e e d s . However, it m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d that a c h e m i c a l p r o g r a m c a n be a t w o - e d g e d s w o r d in that p r o p e r l y u s e d i t c a n be b e n e f i c i a l and e c o n o m i c a l , w h e r e a s i m p r o p e r u s e c a n c a u s e s e r i o u s d a m a g e and e x p e n s e . In e n t e r i n g into a c h e m i c a l a q u a t i c p r o g r a m , one a s s u m e s f a r g r e a t e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y than i s e n c o u n t e r e d in o t h e r c h e m i c a l p r o g r a m s . Chemi c a l s put into the w a t e r do not r e m a i n in p l a c e , t h e r e f o r e it i s n e c e s s a r y to p r e d i c t a c c u r a t e l y the m o v e m e n t and c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s u c h c h e m i c a l s during the p e r i o d of a c t i v i t y . On s m a l l c l o s e d ponds the p r o b l e m i s r e d u c e d , but by no m e a n s e l i m i n a t e d . On l a r g e l a k e s the p r e l i m i n a r y w o r k often r e q u i r e s a y e a r to c o m p l e t e . The i n f o r m a t i o n obtained e n a b l e s the a p p l i c a t o r to s e l e c t and apply a c h e m i c a l at the p r o p e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n in a m a n n e r that i s s a f e and without i n j u r y to man, fish, a n i m a l s , or plant l i f e o t h e r than that being c o n t r o l l e d . In s o m e i n s t a n c e s this i n v o l v e s being a c c u r a t e to 1/10 ppm o r about 1/3 cup of c h e m i c a l to 1 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s of w a t e r . Many l a k e s have o u t l e t s which c a r r y w a t e r and c h e m i c a l s out of the l a k e and to the p r o p e r t y of o t h e r people and e v e n t u a l l y to the s a l t w a t e r This fact c r e a t e s m a n y p r o b l e m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y on the c o a s t a l r e g i o n s . S o m e of our a q u a t i c h e r b i c i d e s a r e m o r e t o x i c in s a l t w a t e r , and m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s a r e often found to be s e n s i t i v e to c h e m i c a l s at t r a c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , we know that w a t e r supplied to o y s t e r t a n k s in s t a i n l e s s s t e e l pipes w i l l c a r r y enough i o n i z e d s t e e l to k i l l the o y s t e r during the spawning p e r i o d . Metallic compounds have d e s t r o y e d m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s in e n t i r e e s t u a r i e s . I r r i g a t i o n and o t h e r u s e of the effluent pose a m o s t s e r i o u s p r o b l e m . F o r e x a m p l e , a given c h e m i c a l m i g h t be s a f e at 1. 5 ppm in s u c h w a t e r but at 2 ppm m a y c a u s e i n j u r y to i r r i g a t e d p l a n t s . A n i m a l s and even m a n often drink s u c h w a t e r and the a p p l i c a t i o n m u s t be a b s o l u t e l y c e r t a i n that no i n j u r y i s p o s s i b l e . R e a s o n a b l y s u r e i s not enough F o r e x a m p l e , suppose s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n b e c o m e i l l and go h o m e a f t e r s w i m m i n g in w a t e r that w a s t r e a t e d . The a p p l i c a t o r has a l e g a l and m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n to know p o s i t i v e l y that the w a t e r was h a r m l e s s and that humans a r e in no d a n g e r f r o m the c h e m i c a l s which w e r e u s e d . W a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e i s an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in the a c t i v e p e r i o d of our o r g a n i c h e r b i c i d e s , and l a b o r a t o r y work i s n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b l i s h the point of d i s s i p a t i o n . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s g a t h e r e d through y e a r s of e x p e r i e n c e and r e s e a r c h and often r e q u i r e s s e p a r a t e data for e a c h body of w a t e r . Biochemi c a l oxygen d e m a n d i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in w a t e r supporting f i s h l i f e . S o m e of our b e s t a q u a t i c h e r b i c i d e s a r e a l s o e f f e c t i v e f i s h t o x i c a n t s R e s u l t s to e x p e c t . T h e r e i s no o n e - s h o t c u r e - a l l f o r a q u a t i c w e e d s . T h e r e i s no c h e m i c a l that c a n be s a f e l y u s e d which w i l l s t e r i l i z e the b o t t o m of a l a k e . A r e a l i s t i c p r o g r a m i s one of c o n t r o l without e x c e s s i v e e c o l o g i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e and one that should be e n t e r e d into on a l o n g - t e r m b a s i s . It m u s t be r e a l i z e d that m a n y a q u a t i c plants r e p r o d u c e by s p o r e s , and the e l i m i n a t i o n of one s p e c i e s often e n a b l e s d o r m a n t s p o r e s of a n o t h e r s p e c i e s to grow w h e r e they had not p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t e d . It has b e e n m y e x p e r i e n c e that one a p p l i c a tion of c h e m i c a l s w i l l give about 90 p e r c e n t c o n t r o l of e x i s t i n g plants the f i r s t y e a r , but that r e g r o w t h u s u a l l y o c c u r s . The r e g r o w t h i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t ly r e d u c e d at the t h i r d y e a r and often does not r e q u i r e e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t thereafter. S w i m m e r ' s i t c h . S c h i s i z o m e ( e c c a r i d e r m a t i t i s ) , s w i m m e r ' s itch, i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to a q u a t i c weeds, and I w i l l b r i e f l y m e n t i o n that the s a m e p r e c a u t i o n s should be o b s e r v e d in i t s c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s r e l a t e d to f i s h damage. I might m e n t i o n the w o r k done on S t e i l a c o o m L a k e t h i s y e a r under the p r o v i s i o n s of a new law in t h i s s t a t e w h e r e i n p r o p e r t y o w n e r s m a y petition the c o u r t s to a s s e s s the l a k e f r o n t p r o p e r t y o w n e r s a p r o r a t e d amount of a c o u r t a p p r o v e d p r o g r a m . The p r e l i m i n a r y w o r k w a s c o m p l e t e d b e t w e e n May 1959 and J u n e I 9 6 0 , so that the data w e r e quite w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e l a k e w a s c l o s e d to a l l u s e f r o m J u n e 20 until J u n e 24 to p e r m i t the s a f e , u n i n t e r r u p t e d a p p l i c a t i o n of the h e r b i c i d e s . The l a k e w a s t r e a t e d for s u b m e r g e d a q u a t i c plants of the P o t a m o g e t o n s p e c i e s and for pond l i l i e s and s w i m m e r ' s i t c h . A f t e r 3 w e e k s the w e e d s w e r e a l l dead, and s o m e w e r e f l o a t i n g upside down on the s u r f a c e . The w a t e r b e c a m e c r y s t a l c l e a r and r e m a i n e d c l e a r f o r about 3 w e e k s b e f o r e the planktonic a l g a e b e g a n to develop a g a i n . D u r i n g the f i r s t w e e k in August r e g r o w t h was noted on about 5 p e r c e n t of the a r e a . The s w i m m e r ' s i t c h r e m a i n e d c o n t r o l l e d until the f i r s t week in August when the f i r s t c a s e was r e p o r t e d . About 10 s u b s e q u e n t c a s e s w e r e r e p o r t e d during the following w e e k . The r e p o r t e d l o c a t i o n s w e r e r e t r e a t e d with good r e s u l t s . In s u m m a r y , I would s a y that the c o n t r o l on S t e i l a c o o m L a k e was b e t t e r than 9 0 p e r c e n t e f f e c t i v e f o r both w e e d s and s w i m m e r ' s i t c h . NEW T E C H N I Q U E S F O R T H E S T U D Y O F R O O T S IN P L A C E V . C. Brink1 We s e e , in the light, the a b o v e - g r o u n d p a r t s of plants; we s e e l e a v e s , f l o w e r , and f r u i t grow and t u r n c o l o r ; we h a r v e s t the a e r i a l p a r t s , f e e d them, e a t them, o r u s e t h e m for o r n a m e n t . But what i m a g e s do we have of the u n d e r ground p a r t s of p l a n t s ? How do we e n v i s i o n s e e d s g e r m i n a t i n g in the soil, r o o t s growing through the i n t e r s t i c e s of the soil, taking in w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s , e x c r e t i n g s u b s t a n c e s , dying and d e c a y i n g , or c o m p e t i n g for s p a c e and n u t r i e n t s ? To t e c h n i c a l m a n and l a y m a n a l i k e the i m a g e of the plant r o o t in p l a c e i s i m p e r f e c t and f e e b l y d e v e l o p e d . Our view of a h i g h e r plant i s s u r e l y i n c o m plete b e c a u s e we s e l d o m s e e i t s r o o t s . F i n e t u r f p r o b l e m s t u r n e d m y thoughts t o w a r d s r o o t s . So m a n y q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the m a n a g e m e n t of t u r f s e e m e d to be d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s the r o o t s we could not s e e . What was happening to the r o o t s y s t e m s of our g r a s s e s in wint e r in our cold, r a i n - s o d d e n s o i l s in the P a c i f i c s l o p e ? How w e r e r o o t s p e r f o r m i n g under f r e q u e n t w a t e r i n g , f r e q u e n t mowing, and heavy t r a f f i c in t h i s s o i l and that o n e ? I sought a n s w e r s in the l i t e r a t u r e , and I found u n c e r t a i n t y and s o m e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the t i m e - h o n o r e d m e t h o d s of r o o t study s t r u c k m e a s l a b o r i o u s and e x p e n s i v e . In the m a n n e r of a l l good p r o f e s s o r s I found a g r a d u a t e student, M r . R e x F r e d e r i c k , to a s s i s t m e in a s e a r c h f o r u p - t o - d a t e or new m e t h o d s of r o o t study. W e a v e r (1) and his a s s o c i a t e s in the United S t a t e s , o v e r t h i r t y y e a r s ago, c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to the l o n g - n e g l e c t e d f i e l d of r o o t study. As a r e s u l t of t h e s e t r e m e n d o u s l a b o r s it was shown that the r o o t s y s t e m s of h i g h e r plants a r e r e m a r k a b l y d i v e r s e , and that s o m e s p e c i e s have a r i c h l y b r a n c h e d s y s t e m and e x p l o i t l a r g e s o i l v o l u m e s but that o t h e r s e x p l o i t r e s t r i c t e d v o l u m e s v e r y t h o r o u g h l y . P a v l y c h e n k o ( 2 ) in C a n a d a and S a l i s b u r y (3) in E n g l a n d c a l l e d a t tention a few y e a r s l a t e r to the s t r i k i n g r e d u c t i o n of r o o t s y s t e m s in c o m p e t i tion. B y and l a r g e , however, the d i f f i c u l t y of exhuming e n t i r e r o o t s has b e e n too g r e a t f o r m o s t i n v e s t i g a t o r s , and s e r i o u s r o o t s t u d i e s have b e e n few. In v e r y r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e has b e e n a r e n e w e d i n t e r e s t in r o o t d e v e l o p m e n t s . C h a m b l e e (4) and B u r t o n (5) in the S . E . S t a t e s p i o n e e r e d in the u s e of radio-tracers. In the United Kingdom, T r o u g h t o n (6) c o m p i l e d an i m p r e s s i v e l i t e r a t u r e on the u n d e r g r o u n d o r g a n s of g r a s s e s and B a k e r (7) and B o g g i e (8) a c t i v e l y e m p l o y e d new t e c h n i q u e s . Goedewaagen (9) in Holland c o n t r i b u t e d i m p o r t a n t l y to m e t h o d o l o g y . T h i s i s to m e n t i o n only a few n a m e s . As s t a t e d we d e c i d e d to d i r e c t our a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d s m e t h o d s of r o o t study r a t h e r than e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n per s e . We have e n c o u n t e r e d m a n y d i f f i c u l t i e s , and at b e s t I r e p o r t this a f t e r n o o n p r o g r e s s only. F i r s t of a l l we f e l t s o m e m e t h o d of d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of r o o t s would be a d v i s e d . C u s t o m a r i l y this i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by e x p o s i n g a s o i l t r e n c h and c a r e fully washing away s o i l p a r t i c l e s . However, f o r fine t u r f we took c o r e s and couver, Head, D i v i s i o n of P l a n t S c i e n c e , B . C. U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , Van- d e v e l o p e d e q u i p m e n t s i m i l a r to that d e s c r i b e d by W i l l i a m s and B a k e r ( 1 0 ) f o r washing the r o o t s of e a c h c o r e . In a r o t a t i n g funnel with a 6 0 - m e s h s e i v e , the c o r e i s s u b j e c t e d to two j e t s of w a t e r and the s o i l p a r t i c l e s a r e gently w a s h e d f r o m the r o o t s . We have not y e t r e a c h e d the s t a g e of s e t t i n g our units in s e r i e s but w i l l do so s h o r t l y . We find sawdust, peat, e t c . , u s e d in t o p - d r e s s i n g g r e e n s to be a m a j o r c o n t a m i n a n t of the r o o t s . Ignition of the r o o t s a m p l e s and s u b t r a c t i n g the a s h f r o m the c r u d e d r y weight give a r e a s o n a b l e c o r r e c t i o n f o r m i n e r a l m a t t e r a d h e r i n g to w a s h e d r o o t s . D i r e c t washing, no m a t t e r how c a r e f u l l y i t i s done, has i n h e r e n t w e a k n e s s e s f o r r o o t study. a ) In the f i r s t p l a c e , in turf, i t i s a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h the r o o t s of one plant f r o m t h o s e of a n o t h e r growing c l o s e by. How a r e we to study the i n t e r w o v e n s y s t e m s of m i x e d t u r f ? b ) In the s e c o n d p l a c e d i s t i n c t i o n of living r o o t s f r o m dead i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t . How a r e w e a k l y a b s o r b i n g o r n o n a b s o r b i n g r o o t s to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h o s e which a r e a c t i v e ? One w o r k e r s t a t e s that o n e - h a l f of the r o o t s y s t e m of a p e r e n n i a l g r a s s d i e s e a c h y e a r and m u s t be r e p l a c e d . B u t do we r e a l l y k n o w ? When i s it r e p l a c e d ? The l i t e r a t u r e i s not v e r y c l e a r y e t on the s e a s o n a l c y c l e of r o o t growth. c ) In the t h i r d p l a c e , i t i s r a r e l y p o s s i b l e to r e t a i n a l l of the fine r o o t s and r o o t h a i r s which a r e a m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t of the r o o t s y s t e m . Salisbury s a y s r o o t h a i r s i n c r e a s e the a b s o r b i n g a r e a of r o o t s s e v e n f o l d or m o r e , and that a good t u r f m a y have 3 to 7 tons of r o o t s p e r a c r e . A s i n g l e plant growing without c o m p e t i t i o n , and only 4 months old, was b e l i e v e d by one w o r k e r to have a r o o t s y s t e m , if " l i n e r a l y a r r a y e d , " 5 0 0 m i l e s long, i . e . , f r o m S e a t t l e to B o i s e o r t h e r e a b o u t s . The a b s o r b i n g a r e a of t h i s s i n g l e plant w a s e s t i m a t e d to c o v e r a c i t y l o t 75 f x 1 0 0 ' . The l i m i t a t i o n s of d i r e c t washing technique i m p e l l e d us to t r y o t h e r app r o a c h e s to r o o t d e v e l o p m e n t . At f i r s t we t r i e d to c o n s t r u c t " w i n d o w s " t h r o u g h which we could look a t r o o t s at a g l a s s - s o i l i n t e r f a c e . We m a d e b o x e s with g l a s s f a c e s s e a l e d f r o m light e x c e p t f o r the p u r p o s e s of our e x a m i n a t i o n . B e l a t e d l y , we found that to " s e e " r o o t s by this m e t h o d i t was i m p o r t a n t to k e e p the s o i l v o l u m e at a m i n i m u m o r wait a long t i m e f o r r o o t s to a p p e a r . R e c e n t l y , t h e r e f o r e , we have b e e n using thin g l a s s s l i d e s containing thin s o i l s e c t i o n s . One thing t h e s e " w i n d o w s " r e v e a l e d was that r o o t s of c l o s e l y planted s e e d l i n g s g r e w j u s t a s f a s t a s t h o s e of thinly planted s e e d l i n g s . Seeding r a t e s of 3 0 0 l b s . per a c r e gave r o o t s y s t e m s j u s t a s long a s t h o s e of 20 l b s . per a c r e . S e e d l i n g s , no m a t t e r how t h i c k l y planted, do not b e g i n to e x p l o i t the s o i l v o l u m e . Older plants of c o u r s e p r o b a b l y do have r o o t s y s t e m s which fully e x p l o i t the s o i l v o l u m e but s e e d l i n g s do not. S e e d l i n g r o o t s a p p a r e n t l y do not c o m p e t e in any i m p o r t a n t way. Our " w i n d o w s " had l i m i t a t i o n s too. S i n c e r o o t s a r e p r i m a r i l y a b s o r b i n g o r g a n s we w o n d e r e d if they could not be m a d e to a b s o r b m a r k e r s u b s t a n c e s " s t r a t e g i c a l l y " p l a c e d in the s o i l . We asked, for e x a m p l e , how long i t took a t u r f g r a s s r o o t to r e a c h the 4 in. depth, or the 12 in. depth or w h e t h e r , in f a c t , i t e v e r r e a c h e d t h i s depth. We needed to find m a t e r i a l s which could be e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d in the plant and which could be r e a d i l y a b s o r b e d . We needed to p l a c e t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s in the s o i l so a s to d i s t r u b the s o i l and the plant a s little as possible. P l a c e m e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s w e r e o v e r c o m e in l a r g e m e a s u r e . At f i r s t we t r i e d dyes and s u b s t a n c e s which f l u o r e s c e in u l t r a v i o l e t l i g h t . A c i d f u c h s i n s e r v e d w e l l when s o i l v o l u m e s w e r e s m a l l . But in the f i e l d with l a r g e plants and l a r g e s o i l v o l u m e s we could not get enough dye and f l u o r e s c e n t s u b s t a n c e into r o o t s to m a k e it " s h o w " in the a e r i a l p a r t s of the plant. Next, a s our m a r k e r s u b s t a n c e , we t r i e d l i t h i u m , an e l e m e n t w h i c h i s v e r y l i m i t e d in s o i l s but which i s taken up by plants a s r e a d i l y a s i s the f e r t i l i z e r e l e m e n t , p o t a s s i u m ( S a y r e , 1940). It i s an e l e m e n t , too, which b e c o m e s a s s o c i a t e d with the b a s e c o m p l e x of the s o i l and d o e s not m o v e with the s o i l w a t e r . B y placing s m a l l a m o u n t s of l i t h i u m at v a r i o u s depths in the soil, we could l i t e r a l l y , " s e e " the r o o t s a s they r e a c h e d our l i t h i u m l o c a t i o n s . Through p h o t o m e t r i c a n a l y s i s , we found that the e l e m e n t a p p e a r e d in the l e a v e s a l m o s t a s soon a s r o o t s r e a c h e d the p l a c e m e n t . 32 E v e n b e t t e r than l i t h i u m a s a m a r k e r s u b s t a n c e was P a radioactive i s o t o p e of p h o s p h o r u s . B e t a e m a n a t i o n s f r o m this i s o t o p e a r e e n e r g e t i c and a r e e a s i l y r e c o r d e d with a G e i g e r c o u n t e r . A l m o s t a s soon a s r o o t s r e a c h e d v e r y s m a l l p l a c e m e n t s of P 3 2 we could d e t e c t i t in the l e a v e s . 32 Using l i t h i u m and P we w e r e a b l e to a s c e r t a i n that r o o t s of individual plants in a young, s o l i d t u r f grow a l m o s t s t r a i g h t down; the r o o t s do not s p r e a d but e x p l o i t the s o i l d i r e c t l y below t h e m . C u r r e n t l y we a r e t r y i n g i n j e c t i o n and s p r a y i n g t e c h n i q u e s with t u r f s p e c i e s u s i n g r a d i o i s o t o p e s and o t h e r t h i n g s . We hope we w i l l be a b l e to obtain x - r a y photographs or a u t o r a d i o g r a p h s of r o o t s growing in p l a c e . No one m e t h o d i s l i k e l y to give us a l l the a n s w e r s needed. P e r h a p s m o r e m e t h o d s of r o o t study a r e needed. On the o t h e r hand, m a y b e the m e t h o d s at hand a r e the ones, and we w i l l be a b l e soon to s a y what happens to r o o t s in w i n t e r or what happens to r o o t s when we w a t e r and mow t u r f f r e q u e n t l y , or how r o o t s b e h a v e under c o m p a c t i o n . References 1. Weaver, J . E. Inc. (1926). R o o t D e v e l o p m e n t of F i e l d C r o p s , M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Co. , 2. Troughton, A. The U n d e r g r o u n d O r g a n s or H e r b a g e G r a s s e s , C o m m . A g r i c . B u r e a u x B u l l No. 4 4 . F a r n h a m R o y a l , B u c k s , E n g l a n d ( 1 9 5 7 ) . 3. B o z z i e , R . and A. H. Knight. " S t u d i e s of the R o o t D e v e l o p m e n t of P l a n t s on the F i e l d Using R a d i o a c t i v e T r a c e r s . P a r t I C o m m u n i t i e s Growing in a Mineral Soil. " J . Ecol. 46: 6 2 1 - 8 (1958). 4. B u r t o n , J . W. , H. E . Divane, and R . L,. C a r t e r . " R o o t P e n e t r a t i o n , D i s t r i b u t i o n and A c t i v i t y in S o u t h e r n G r a s s e s M e a s u r e d by Y i e l d , Drought S y m p t o m s and P 3 2 Uptake. " A g r o n . J . 4 6 : 2 2 9 - 3 3 ( 1 9 5 4 ) . P a v l y c h e n k o , T . K. " Q u a n t i t a t i v e Study of the E n t i r e R o o t S y s t e m s of W e e d s and C r o p P l a n t s Under F i e l d C o n d i t i o n s . n E c o l o g y 18: 6 2 - 7 9 (1937). S a l i s b u r y , E . J . " T h e B i o l o g i c a l E q u i p m e n t of S p e c i e s in R e l a t i o n to C o m p e t i t i o n . " J . E c o l . 17: 1 9 7 - 2 2 2 ( 1 9 2 9 ) . C h a m b l e e , D. S. , W. W. Woodhouse, Comt. (1952) and N. S . H a l l . South. S o i l R e s . W i l l i a m s and B a k e r . " S t u d i e s on the R o o t D e v e l o p m e n t of H e r b a g e P l a n t s . B r i t . G r a s s l a n d S o c . J . 12: 4 9 - 5 5 ( 1 9 5 7 ) . M A I N T E N A N C E O F T R E E S AND S H R U B S FOR THE GOLF COURSE R o l a n d Koeph* The s u b j e c t m a t t e r d i s c u s s e d thus f a r at this 14th Annual R e g i o n a l T u r f C o n f e r e n c e has b e e n c e n t e r e d c h i e f l y upon the e c o n o m i c s of the production and c a r e of g r a s s , a s applied p a r t i c u l a r l y to golf c o u r s e s and a t h l e t i c f i e l d s . And Otherit i s only n a t u r a l and p r o p e r to put the bulk of s t r e s s on s u c h t o p i c s . w i s e , what i s t h e r e of m o r e i m p o r t a n c e in your b u s i n e s s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , in the o v e r - a l l p i c t u r e of golf c o u r s e m a n a g e m e n t , it would s e e m n e g l e c t f u l , indeed, not to c o n s i d e r s o m e of the o t h e r e l e m e n t s p e r tinent to grounds m a n a g e m e n t . T h a t i s why, I s u s p e c t , that I was a s k e d to s a y s o m e t h i n g about the m a i n t e n a n c e of t r e e s and s h u r b s . I would r a t h e r l i k e to c l a r i f y m y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the t i t l e of my s u b j e c t a s p r i n t e d in the p r o g r a m . It m e r e l y s a y s " M a i n t e n a n c e of T r e e s and S h r u b s . " I should l i k e to take the l i b e r t y to b r o a d e n t h i s to " P l a n n i n g the M a i n t e n a n c e of T r e e s and S h r u b s . " B y the way of a p p r o a c h , then, suppose we f i r s t e x a m i n e the r e a s o n s f o r t r e e s and s h r u b s on the golf c o u r s e . B e s i d e s giving s o m e p l e a s u r e and s a t i s f a c t i o n in the e s t h e t i c s e n s e , do they not at the s a m e t i m e m a k e m o r e work and d e l i v e r m o r e h e a d a c h e s in m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s ? I ' m s u r e we c a n a c c e d e in s o m e d e g r e e to both. Then why have t h e m ? F i r s t of all, b e c a u s e of t h e i r v e r y u s e f u l f u n c t i o n s : 1. S e p a r a t i o n and s c r e e n i n g f r o m sight and sound, a s for i n s t a n c e , b o r d e r plantings a d j a c e n t abutting p r o p e r t y , r o a d s and highways, o r any o t h e r disturbing feature. 2. D e l i n e a t i o n of d i r e c t i o n of play, the b a c k g r o u n d to a c c e n t the g r e e n s . s u c h a s the outlining of f a i r w a y s , or 3 . Windbreak, both f o r p e r s o n a l c o m f o r t of the p l a y e r s , and m o r e i m p o r t a n t yet, the d i m i n i s h i n g of the e f f e c t s of drying winds upon the g r a s s . 4. P e r s o n a l c o m f o r t to the e x t e n t of s h e l t e r f r o m sun and r a i n . 5. E r o s i o n d e t e r r e n t s , bankments, or otherwise. a s with c o v e r plantings on s t e e p s l o p e s , em- Now, secondly, we l i k e to s e e t r e e s and s h r u b s on our golf c o u r s e s f o r t h e i r l a n d s c a p e e f f e c t . I ' m s u r e that t h e r e i s no need to expand f u r t h e r on t h i s . What c o u r s e s r e c e i v e the m o s t p a t r o n a g e ? The monotonous b a r r e n ones, or t h o s e with a good c o v e r of t r e e s and g r e e n e r y ? So much, then, f o r the philosophy of t r e e s . Next, to the planning. What kinds or s p e c i e s ought to be u s e d on the golf c o u r s e ? H e r e we should give c o g n i z a n c e to the following: D i r e c t o r of H o r t i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t r y and Grounds M a i n t e n a n c e , P a r k D e p a r t m e n t , S e a t t l e , Washington. Seattle 1. Availability 2. Adaptability and s u i t a b i l i t y 3. Economy (cost) In the m a t t e r of a v a i l a b i l i t y , one should by a l l m e a n s give a p p r a i s a l to t r e e s and s h r u b s a l r e a d y on hand. A r e they s u f f i c i e n t ? A r e they s a t i s f a c t o r y , o r should they be r e p l a c e d ? Can you m o v e s o m e to or f r o m o t h e r l o c a t i o n s on the c o u r s e . If it t u r n s out that you m u s t buy additional m a t e r i a l , what about the s p e c i e s that you have in m i n d ? Have you t a k e n into a c c o u n t the f a c t o r s of u l t i m a t e h a b i t and growth, a v a i l a b l e s o i l and w a t e r ? E a c h s p e c i e h a s c e r t a i n p r e f e r e n c e s and t o l e r a n c e s which m a y or m a y not l i m i t i t s u s e in the l o c a t i o n c o n templated. Again, will this t r e e or s h r u b get along without an abundance of attention, o r m u s t you " p l a n t - s i t " with i t to m a k e it grow or to k e e p the w e e d s f r o m o v e r w h e l m i n g i t ? It s e e m s to m e , a s w e l l a s i t m u s t to you, I ' m s u r e , that t h e r e i s a l r e a d y enough to do on the c o u r s e without s u c h t h i n g s . In o t h e r w o r d s , you m u s t have t r e e s and s h r u b s that c a n take it - and l i k e i t ! Now, a w o r d about buying n u r s e r y m a t e r i a l . Get what w i l l f i l l the b i l l in the b e s t m a n n e r , but don't w a s t e your m o n e y on e x o t i c , fancy, and h i g h - p r i c e d s t o c k . You a r e not t r y i n g to c r e a t e a b o t a n i c a l g a r d e n . S i m p l e m a s s and u t i l ity a r e your p u r p o s e s , and the c o u r s e w i l l look the b e t t e r f o r i t . So, t h e r e f o r e , along the l i n e s of s e l e c t i n g planting m a t e r i a l s , I would s a y that native or indigenous s p e c i e s , m o r e often than not, p r e s e n t the b e s t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for l a n d s c a p e m a t e r i a l . T h e s e we know to be a c c l i m a t e d and hardy, so why not e x p l o i t t h e m . If t h e s e a r e not enough, or not r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , we can look to s o m e of the i n t r o d u c e d s p e c i e s which have b e e n a l r e a d y proven in your a r e a . Among the u s e f u l and s u i t a b l e s p e c i e s of c o n i f e r o u s t r e e s native to the w e s t e r n slope, the following a r e r e c o m m e n d e d : Douglas F i r Western Hemlock Western Red Cedar Incense Cedar Grand F i r C o a s t Redwood California Big T r e e White P i n e J a c k Pine Lawson Cypress Pseudotsuga taxifolia Tsuga heterophylla Thuja plicata Libocedrus decurrens Abies grandis Sequoia s e m p e r v i r e n s Sequoia gigantea Pinus monticola Pinus contorta Chamaecyparis lawsoniana In addition, any of the following i n t r o d u c e d s p e c i e s g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e f r o m n u r s e r i e s , w i l l a l s o be found to b e s u i t a b l e : Austrian Black Pine Scotch Pine Deodar Cedar Atlas Cedar Pinus nigra Pinus s y l v e s t r i s Cedrus deodara Cedrus atlantica Although i t m a y be d e s i r a b l e to k e e p deciduous t r e e s at a m i n i m u m , p a r t i c u l a r l y in c l o s e v i c i n i t y to the g r e e n , f o r s a k e of v a r i e t y and c o n t r a s t , w h e r e they c a n be u s e d e l s e w h e r e , the following will p r o v e s a t i s f a c t o r y : Norway Maple S y c a m o r e Maple Hedge Maple M o n t p e l i e r Maple P a p e r or S i l v e r B i r c h E u r o p e a n o r White B i r c h O r e g o n White Oak S c a r l e t Oak P a c i f i c Dogwood Madrona European Ash European B e e c h Weeping Willow European Hornbeam Sweet Gum B l a c k Walnut Golden Chain Tulip T r e e London P l a n e T r e e A c e r platanoides A c e r pseudoplatanous Acer campestre Acer monspessulanum Betula papyrifera B e tula a l b a Quercus garryana Quercus coccinea Cornus nuttallii Arbutus m e n z i e s i i Sorbus aucuparia Fagus sylvatica Salix babylonica Carpinus betulus Liquidambar styrasiflua Juglans nigra Laburnum anagyroides Liriodendron tulipifera Platanus acerifolia So f a r I have not m e n t i o n e d anything in the way of s h r u b s . W h e r e such m a y s e e m d e s i r a b l e , in addition to what native m a t e r i a l m a y a l r e a d y be e s t a b l i s h e d , a s e l e c t i o n f r o m among s o m e of the following old standbys w i l l not be amiss: Forsythia Weigelia Tall Spirea P i n k F l o w e r i n g Dogwood Mock O r a n g e European Cranberry Bush Regel Privet English Laurel Forsythia fortuneii Weigelia r o s e a Spirea prunifolia Cornus florida Philadelphus coronarius V i b u r n u m opulus Ligustrum regelianum Prunus L a u r o c e r a s u s O c c a s i o n a l l y one m a y e n c o u n t e r the p r o b l e m of c o v e r plants for s t e e p b a n k s or s l o p e s . And quite often t h e s e w i l l be c u t s devoid of humus s o i l and exposing poor-quality subsoil. In t h e s e l o c a t i o n s , b e c a u s e of the poor soil, u s e of l e g u m i n o u s plants i s r e c o m m e n d e d , that i s , t h o s e which b e l o n g to the pea f a m i l y . B e c a u s e they a r e not dependent upon the s o i l f o r n i t r o g e n , they p r o v e quite a b l e to m a k e out with poor s o i l c o n d i t i o n s which m i g h t d i s c o u r a g e o t h e r t y p e s of s h r u b s . If planted c l o s e l y , they a l s o w i l l v e r y q u i c k l y m a k e a d e n s e c o v e r and e f f e c t i v e l y i n h i b i t or s u p p r e s s the growth of intruding w e e d s . T h o s e which have b e e n proven s u c c e s s f u l p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r d r y c l a y or g r a v e l b a n k s a r e : Spanish B r o o m C a l i f o r n i a Hybrid B r o o m Moonlight B r o o m Kew B r o o m Dwarf P r i c k l y Genista Bladder-senna Spartium junceum Cytisus scoparius var. Genista praecox Genista kewensis G e n i s t a his panic a Colutea a r b o r e s c e n s None of the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d a r e f l a t ground c o v e r s , s u c h a s ivy, k i n n i T h o s e types a l l r e q u i r e too m u c h i n kinnic or s i m i l a r procumbent c r e e p e r s . t i m a t e a t t e n t i o n to get to the point of a c h i e v i n g an e f f e c t i v e c o v e r . L e a v e t h e m f o r the r o c k g a r d e n or the patio. Launching into my d i s c u s s i o n of m a i n t e n a n c e p r o p e r , a s p e r t a i n i n g to t r e e s and s h r u b s , it s e e m s a l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e to b e g i n with planting. I c a n ' t hope even to a p p r o a c h an adequate t r e a t m e n t of t h i s p h a s e of m a i n t e n a n c e in the t i m e allotted, but I think s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l s , at l e a s t , m i g h t w e l l be r e viewed briefly. Planting 1. T r e e s and s h r u b s c a n be m o v e d with the l e a s t p o s s i b l e c a s u a l t y d u r ing the r a i n y m o n t h s , but not too l a t e in the s p r i n g a f t e r deciduous m a t e r i a l has s e t f o r t h f r e s h l e a v e s . 2. Adequate p r e p a r a t i o n of the ground should p r e c e d e m o v i n g . For s h r u b s the a r e a should be spaded or t i l l e d at l e a s t , but p r e f e r a b l y s o m e w h a t d e e p e r than the depth of the r o o t s of the plants which a r e to be s e t out. If the e x i s t i n g s o i l has d e f i c i e n c i e s , they should be c o r r e c t e d by the addition of hum u s , m a n u r e or o t h e r w i s e , at the t i m e of ground p r e p a r a t i o n . 3 . F o r t r e e s , the planting hole should be p r e p a r e d in advance, taking s p e c i a l c a r e to dig at l e a s t a t h i r d a g a i n a s big in d i a m e t e r and depth a s the r o o t s p r e a d or b a l l of the t r e e to be planted. Too l a r g e i s j u s t r i g h t . If the b o t t o m of the e x c a v a t i o n should happen to turn out to be h a r d o r i m p e r v i o u s soil, u n l i k e l y to d r a i n r e a d i l y , the d r a i n a g e had b e t t e r be p r o v i d e d . V e r y few t r e e s w i l l e n j o y wet f e e t . L i k e w i s e if the e x c a v a t e d s o i l i s poor, i t had b e t t e r be d i s c a r d e d and humus t o p s o i l b r o u g h t in for b a c k f i l l i n g . 4 . In moving a deciduous t r e e or shrub, u s u a l l y b a r e r o o t , f r o m the n u r s e r y o r f r o m w h a t e v e r p l a c e it i s dug, be c a r e f u l to k e e p the b a r e r o o t s f r o m b e c o m i n g e x p o s e d to drying a i r . T h e e n t i r e s u c c e s s of the o p e r a t i o n depends upon this p r e c a u t i o n . I c a n ' t e m p h a s i z e it too s t r o n g l y ! Good p r o t e c t i o n c a n b e given while moving by k e e p i n g the r o o t s h e e l e d in o r c o v e r e d with wet sawdust or wet l e a f m u l c h . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and handling of b a l l e d t r e e s and s h r u b s a l s o should r e c e i v e s i m i l a r attention, although the e a r t h b a l l in t h i s c a s e m a y c o n t a i n enough m o i s t u r e to d i s p e n s e with the m u l c h i n g . If b a l l e d plants a r e to be s t o r e d in a s e r v i c e a r e a o r the l i k e f o r s o m e days p r i o r to planting, then by a l l m e a n s c o v e r the b a l l s with plenty of m u l c h m a t e r i a l . A w o r d m o r e in the m a t t e r of handling heavy b a l l e d m a t e r i a l . Do not pick up the t r e e by the trunk o r b r a n c h e s . D o n ' t c a r r y i t l i k e a bunch of c a r r o t s . The s t r a i n f r o m the weight of the e a r t h b a l l l i k e l y w i l l r u p t u r e s o m e of the r o o t s , or p e r h a p s even the e n t i r e m a i n s y s t e m , a f t e r w h i c h you m i g h t a s w e l l throw your plant away. A l l t r e e s , deciduous or e v e r g r e e n , should be provided with a s t u r d y s t a k e when planted. Windsway, which i s s u r e to happen in the a b s e n c e of supp o r t to any newly planted t r e e , will, ten c h a n c e s to one, r e s u l t in s e v e r e d a m age to the r o o t s by w r e n c h i n g or drying out, or both, and t o t a l l o s s of the t r e e . F o r t a l l t r e e s , that i s , too t a l l to b e a d e q u a t e l y staked, provide a t h r e e - w a y w i r e guy a n c h o r e d to f i r m and s e c u r e l y d r i v e n s t a k e s in the ground, and p r o t e c t e d f r o m g i r d l i n g the t r e e by a c o l l a r of r u b b e r g a r d e n h o s e . 6. Now that you a r e r e a d y to plant your t r e e or shrub, b a c k f i l l the hole with l o o s e s o i l so that, when placed, the top of the b a l l w i l l be about two i n c h e s l o w e r than the s u r f a c e of the ground. If a t r e e s t a k e i s to be used, i t should be p l a c e d u p r i g h t and driven, o r at l e a s t s t a r t e d , a s c l o s e l y to the s t e m a s p o s s i b l e without s e v e r i n g r o o t s . For b a l l e d t r e e s , p l a c e the s t a k e next to the b a l l at an angle, but do not under any c i r c u m s t a n c e s d r i v e the s t a k e through the b a l l . Having taken c a r e of t h e s e p r e l i m i n a r i e s and s e e i n g that the r o o t s a r e s p r e a d in a n a t u r a l fashion, now b e g i n filling in a l l a r o u n d them, m e a n w h i l e t r a m p i n g the b a c k f i l l s o i l down, at the s a m e t i m e s e e i n g that the t r e e r e m a i n s e r e c t and i s not f o r c e d out of plumb. Do not a t t e m p t to c o r r e c t m i s a l i g n m e n t a f t e r the b a c k f i l l i s m a d e by t r y i n g to pull the top of the t r e e . In finishing the b a c k f i l l , l e a v e a s l i g h t d e p r e s s i o n a l l a r o u n d the trunk a s a sink to hold w a t e r . Now w a t e r - s e t t l e thoroughly and a n c h o r the t r u c k s e c u r e l y to the s t a k e n e a r i t s top, using a p i e c e of g a r d e n h o s e e n c i r c l i n g the trunk in f i g u r e - e i g h t f a s h i o n with the ends n a i l e d s e c u r e l y to the s t a k e . F o r b a l l e d t r e e s , f a s t e n the trunk to the i n c l i n e d s t a k e p r e v i o u s l y m e n tioned at the point that the s t a k e c r o s s e s the t r u n k . All t h e s e d o ' s and d o n ' t s m a y s e e m r e d i c u l o u s l y e l e m e n t a r y , but at the s a m e t i m e too m a n y of t h e m a r e n e g l e c t e d or i g n o r e d - with the obvious r e s u l t . So m u c h for planting. Pruning In c o n n e c t i o n with the s u b j e c t of planting, s o m e t h i n g should be s a i d about pruning. At the s a m e t i m e , i t i s one of the h a r d e s t to d e s c r i b e by w o r d s alone - - a n d one of the m o s t involved. I s h a l l not, t h e r e f o r e , go too f a r into the d e t a i l s , but s e e if I c a n j u s t b r i n g out s o m e of the s a l i e n t p o i n t s . P r u n i n g of t r e e s and s h r u b s c o m p r i s e s the m e t h o d i c a l r e m o v a l of p a r t s of a plant, t r e e , or s h r u b with the o b j e c t of i m p r o v i n g it in s o m e r e s p e c t f o r the p u r p o s e you have in mind. The m o t i v e s m a y be one or s e v e r a l of the following: 1. E l i m i n a t i o n of dead or u s e l e s s p a r t s 2. To c h a n g e the shape, appearance, 3 . To i m p r o v e the growth, v i g o r , of e x c e s s b r a n c h e s . or c h a r a c t e r of growth. or p r o d u c t i v e n e s s by the e l i m i n a t i o n To do the j o b p r o p e r l y , f i r s t of all, r e q u i r e s a thorough knowledge of the growth h a b i t s of the t r e e or s h r u b . D o e s it n o r m a l l y have a s p r e a d i n g habit when m a t u r e , or does i t have a s t r a i g h t l e a d e r ? Will your cutting change that h a b i t ? Or do you want to change i t ? I ' l l have m o r e to s a y about t h i s a l i t t l e later. Next, what i s the b e s t t i m e to p r u n e . Many people have a s k e d m e this q u e s t i o n , thanked m e f o r m y a d v i c e , and then have gone r i g h t a h e a d and done a s they d a r n w e l l p l e a s e d . So I ' m not going to t e l l you when to p r u n e . There i s an old saying to the e f f e c t that "the b e s t t i m e to prune i s any t i m e you have a s h a r p k n i f e . " To s o m e e x t e n t t h i s i s not w r o n g . But at the s a m e t i m e it i s not e n t i r e l y c o r r e c t f r o m the standpoint of being l e a s t h a r m f u l , o r m o s t b e n e f i c i a l , to the t r e e o r s h r u b . E a r l y spring, with s o m e few e x c e p t i o n s , while a t r e e i s s t i l l d o r m a n t , but b e f o r e the new growth s t a r t s , i s the b e s t t i m e to prune deciduous t r e e s because: 1. The f r a m e w o r k of the t r e e i s m o s t e a s i l y o b s e r v e d and e v a l u a t e d while the f o l i a g e i s a b s e n t . 2. Wounds will tend to h e a l m o r e r a p i d l y in the s p r i n g . As to the e x c e p t i o n s I have in mind, s o m e s p e c i e s of t r e e s , s u c h a s m a p l e s , b e e c h , and c h e r r i e s exude and w a s t e an e x c e s s of sap with s p r i n g pruning. We have m a d e a p r a c t i c e of pruning t h e s e t y p e s a f t e r m i d s u m m e r with b e t t e r r e s u l t s . With shade t r e e s , m o r e o v e r , i t m a y be m o r e p r e f e r a b l e to do c o r r e c t i v e pruning in the l a t e s u m m e r while the t r e e i s s t i l l in f o l i a g e so that you c a n m o r e c o m p l e t e l y gauge the e x t e n t of n e c e s s a r y b r a n c h e l i m i n a tion. thus: A few o t h e r p e r t i n e n t f a c t s about pruning m i g h t b r i e f l y be s u m m a r i z e d 1. In s h o r t e n i n g a b r a n c h or tip, cut at a c r o t c h or next to a s t r o n g l a t e r a l . T h e l a t e r a l w i l l then a s s u m e the l e a d without v a s t s u c k e r i n g , s u c h a s g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s if the s e v e r a n c e i s m a d e at s o m e d i s t a n c e along the b r a n c h . 2. Make c l e a n flush c u t s next to the trunk or m a i n b r a n c h . D o n ' t l e a v e s t u b s . The b a r k w i l l n e v e r h e a l o v e r them, but e v e n t u a l l y die b a c k to the trunk, or even f a r t h e r . The stub w i l l rot, and i n s e c t s and fungus gain e n t r a n c e to the m a i n b o r e of the t r e e . 3 . P a i n t a l l c u t s of two i n c h e s , or b i g g e r , with l e a d and oil paint or p r e f e r a b l y a s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d f u n g u s - i n h i b i t i n g t r e e paint. D o n ' t a s s u m e that the p u r p o s e of the paint i s to " s t o p the bleeding, " or to h e a l the wound. T h e r e i s no a p p l i c a t i o n of anything that w i l l h a s t e n the h e a l i n g p r o c e s s on e i t h e r plants o r a n i m a l s . N a t u r e w i l l take c a r e of that in i t s own way. All you c a n do i s to t r y to p r e v e n t i n f e c t i o n which i s the e n e m y of h e a l i n g . I m e n t i o n e d awhile ago that I would s a y s o m e t h i n g m o r e in c o n n e c t i o n with changing the habit of growth in a t r e e , and by that I intended to d i s c u s s topping of t r e e s and i t s e f f e c t . Now it will not m a t t e r , nor w i l l i t c h a n g e the habit of a t r e e , if a dead top b r a n c h or l e a d e r i s r e m o v e d . But, in the c a s e of deciduous t r e e s e s p e c i a l l y , what happens i f you top t h e m ? In a l l l i k e l i h o o d a v a s t p r o f u s i o n of r a p idly growing c o m p e t i n g l e a d e r s w i l l s p r i n g forth, even to w i t c h e s b r o o m e f f e c t . M o s t l i k e l y you will end up with m o r e b r a n c h e s and a b i g g e r top than you s t a r t e d with. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c shape and upper s t r u c t u r e of the t r e e w i l l have changed, g e n e r a l l y f o r the w o r s e - and w h y ? L e t ' s s e e if I c a n t e l l you in a few w o r d s . As you a l r e a d y m a y be a w a r e of, b e s i d e s the b r a n c h e s and buds which have n o r m a l l y developed, t h e r e e x i s t within and j u s t i n s i d e the b a r k many, a c t u a l l y thousands, m o r e l a t e n t o r none m e r g i n g buds. T h e y o c c u r m o s t e v e r y w h e r e along the trunk and b r a n c h e s . S o m e t i m e s , a s you have often s e e n , they s u c c e e d in b r e a k i n g through and f o r m ing c l u s t e r s of new growth. G e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , the m o s t of t h e m r e m a i n latent, or at l e a s t they n e v e r b r e a k through and you would n e v e r s u s p e c t they e x i s t . The a m a z i n g f a c t i s , h o w e v e r , that they a c t u a l l y continue to grow a s n o n e m e r g e n t buds or b r a n c h e s , elongating a s the t r e e or b r a n c h i n c r e a s e s in g i r t h . T h e y c a n be d i s c e r n e d under the m i c r o s c o p e in t r e e s e c t i o n s . How i s it then, you wonder, that m o r e of t h e s e buds do not continue to e m e r g e and j u s t c o v e r the t r e e with b r a n c h e s and f o l i a g e ? T h e r e m u s t be s o m e t h i n g which p r e v e n t s t h e m f r o m doing i t . And, a s i t so happens, t h e r e i s . The m o s t a c t i v e p a r t s of the t r e e , f r o m the standpoint of growth and p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , a r e those which r e c e i v e the m o s t light, that i s , the tips or top b r a n c h e s and t h e i r tip buds. And h e r e i n i s c o n t a i n e d or p r o d u c e d a g r o w t h regulating hormone, better described, perhaps, as a growth-limiting hormone. Under n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s this h o r m o n e i s t r a n s l o c a t e d by m e a n s of sap c i r c u l a t i o n to a l l the l o w e r p a r t s of the t r e e w h e r e it s u p p r e s s e s or a r r e s t s the d e v e l o p m e n t of the thousands of l a t e n t b u d s . A c e s s a t i o n in the t r a n s m i s s i o n of this h o r m o n e at once r e l e a s e s the r e s t r a i n t on t h e s e buds, and they i m m e d i a t e l y s e t about growth which soon e r u p t s through the e x t e r i o r b a r k , and, with no m e a n s of r e g u l a t i o n t h e r e a f t e r , p r o d u c e s a p r o f u s i o n of new b r a n c h e s . That, then, i s the r e a s o n f o r not topping t r e e s . with no plan. It w i l l be a d a m r e l e a s e d . You w i l l only get a plant B e f o r e concluding m y r e m a r k s on pruning, a l l of which so f a r h a s b e e n in r e l a t i o n to t r e e s , I should l i k e to touch on a few things about pruning of s h r u b s . As a g e n e r a l a x i o m , deciduous f l o w e r i n g s h r u b s should be pruned i m m e d i a t e l y following the b l o o m i n g p e r i o d . P r u n i n g then i s done only if you want to r e d u c e the s i z e of the bush, and p e r h a p s at the s a m e t i m e c l e a n out s o m e of the old h a r d e x h a u s t e d wood. In that c a s e , p r o c e e d by cutting out a l l of the dead b r a n c h e s and the o l d e s t b r a n c h e s at the ground, leaving s o m e , a h a l f dozen or m o r e , good v i g o r o u s b r a n c h e s . If the r e m a i n i n g b r a n c h e s , f o r your p u r p o s e , a r e s t i l l too high, cut t h e m b a c k s o m e w h e r e to the height wanted and m a k e the cut next to a m i n o r b r a n c h l e t or l e a d e r . It i s not r e c o m m e n d e d , though often done, to a c c o m p l i s h pruning of s h r u b s by m e r e l y s h e a r i n g the whole w o r k s off at a c o n v e n i e n t height and c a l l i n g that it. T h e r e a r e o c c a s i o n s when the t i m e that c a n be spent on pruning i s l i m i t e d , or the m a n doing the j o b not a s p r o f i c i e n t a s you'd l i k e . In that c a s e t h e r e m a y be s o m e s m a l l j u s t i f i c a t i o n at taking s h o r t c u t s . B u t y o u ' l l get j u s t b r u s h a f t e r the new growth a g a i n d e v e l o p s ! If t h a t ' s what you want, t h a t ' s what y o u ' l l get. I should point out s o m e t h i n g a l s o in the m a n n e r of pruning the l e g u m i n o u s plants r e c o m m e n d e d a s bank c o v e r s , the B r o o m s e s p e c i a l l y . While it i s p e r f e c t l y a l l r i g h t and s a t i s f a c t o r y to l e t t h e m go without pruning, they will, howe v e r , a f t e r a few y e a r s b e c o m e l e g g y and apt to be r a t h e r t o p - h e a v y and b r e a k ing o v e r . To f o r e s t a l l t h i s , it i s good p r a c t i c e about e v e r y t h i r d y e a r to s h e a r t h e m off a c r o s s the top down to a point n e a r , but not below, the g r e e n wood. T h i s w i l l produce m o r e s t u r d y and bushy plants, and t h a t ' s what y o u ' r e a f t e r . P R O T E C T I N G G O L F G R E E N S AGAINST W I N T E R K I L L J . R. Watson"^ In y e a r s when snow c o v e r i s light or a b s e n t m a n y golf g r e e n s in the n o r t h e r n United S t a t e s and in Canada a r e s e v e r e l y d a m a g e d f r o m " w i n t e r k i l l . t f The g r e a t e s t i n j u r y s e e m s to o c c u r in l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g and i s a p p a r ently a r e s u l t of d e s i c c a t i o n . G r e e n s l o c a t e d on high e x p o s e d s i t e s , a s w e l l a s s i t e s s u b j e c t to e x c e s s i v e wind m o v e m e n t , g e n e r a l l y s u f f e r the g r e a t e s t damage. In addition to the d i r e c t i n j u r y , g r e e n s w e a k e n e d by d e s i c c a t i o n s u f f e r m o r e e x t e n s i v e d a m a g e when a t t a c k e d by snowmold and o t h e r w i n t e r d i s e a s e producing o r g a n i s m s . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n of d e s i c c a t i o n and snowmold i s p r o b a b l y r e s p o n s i b l e for m o r e d a m a g e to golf g r e e n s in the n o r t h e r n l a t i t u d e s than any o t h e r n a t u r a l phenomenon. Golf c o u r s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e m p l o y s e v e r a l t e c h n i q u e s to c o m b a t w i n t e r k i l l . S o m e of t h o s e in m o r e g e n e r a l u s e a r e : (1) The e r e c t i n g of snow f e n c e and piling of b r u s h to hold snow in p l a c e . Snow i s an e x c e l l e n t p r o t e c t o r or " i n s u l a t o r , " and if adequate s n o w f a l l o c c u r s , this t e c h n i q u e i s u s u a l l y quite e f f e c t i v e . (2) C o v e r i n g the g r e e n s with v a r i o u s t y p e s of o r g a n i c mulch, such a s s t r a w and peat, which p r o v i d e s adequate i n s u l a t i o n and hold s u f f i c i e n t m o i s t u r e to p r e v e n t d e s i c c a t i o n . However, it i s s e l d o m p o s s i b l e to r e m o v e a l l of the l i t t e r f r o m the g r e e n in the s p r i n g , and, a s a r e s u l t , a s u b s t a n t i a l amount of u n d e c o m p o s e d o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s added to the g r e e n s e a c h y e a r . T h i s f u r t h e r c o n t r i b u t e s to the b u i l d - u p of t h a t c h on the g r e e n s . ( 3 ) W a t e r i s often hauled to g r e e n s in tanks and applied in l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g b e f o r e i r r i gation s y s t e m s c a n be t u r n e d on. T h i s a i d s in c o m b a t i n g d e s i c c a t i o n , and i f s u f f i c i e n t a m o u n t s c a n be applied often enough w i l l p r e v e n t d a m a g e . The i n c o n v e n i e n c e and c o s t of such an o p e r a t i o n a r e i t s m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n s . To d e t e r m i n e i f the t u r f g r a s s on golf g r e e n s could be p h y s i c a l l y p r o - ^ t e c t e d f r o m w i n t e r k i l l , a study c o m p a r i n g c l e a r p o l y e t h y l e n e (4 m i l P o l y f i l m ) and b l a c k 2 " i n s u l a t e d polyethylene ( C e l l - U - M a t 3 ) with u n p r o t e c t e d a r e a s was u n d e r t a k e n at the T o r o R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r in the w i n t e r of 1959-60. M a t e r i a l s and Methods The b l a n k e t s of the two types of p o l y e t h y l e n e w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 x 12 f e e t in s i z e . A d j a c e n t a r e a s of c o m p a r a b l e s i z e w e r e d e s i g n a t e d a s " u n p r o t e c t e d " p l o t s . The t e s t w a s r e p l i c a t e d t h r e e t i m e s . T h e r m o c o u p l e s w e r e p l a c e d at 2, 4, and 6 i n c h depths under e a c h plot of e a c h r e p l i c a t i o n . A t m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e s at 3 i n c h e s and at 6 f e e t a s D i r e c t o r , Agronomy Division, M i n n e a p o l i s 20, M i n n e s o t a . 2 Dow C h e m i c a l Co. Toro Manufacturing Corporation, Trademark. Wood C o n v e r s i o n Co. Trademark. w e l l a s at the 2, 4, and 6 i n c h s o i l depths w e r e r e c o r d e d p e r i o d i c a l l y through the w i n t e r . All r e a d i n g s w e r e m a d e s h o r t l y a f t e r noon; h e n c e , the e x t r e m e lows u s u a l l y r e g i s t e r e d at night w e r e not r e c o r d e d . It w a s a n t i c i p a t e d that an e n v i r o n m e n t c o n d u c i v e to s n o w m o l d a c t i v i t y would be developed; t h e r e f o r e , a l l plots w e r e t r e a t e d with a m i x t u r e of M i l o r g a n i t e and C a l o - C l o r p r i o r to laying down the b l a n k e t s . (See Golf C o u r s e R e p o r t e r , V o l . 24, No. 7, Sept. - O c t . 1956 and Golfdom, V o l . 30, No. 10, October 1956.) T h e y w e r e held in d r i l l e d in the lath e v e r y t h e m into the s o i l . The t u r e s w e r e r e a d f i r s t on p l a c e by nailing l a t h a r o u n d the e d g e s . Holes w e r e 2 o r 3 f e e t and 2 0 - p e n n y s p i k e s w e r e d r i v e n through s o i l was f r o z e n but not c o v e r e d with snow. TemperaD e c e m b e r 18, 1959. Results R e s u l t s of the study a r e shown in T a b l e 1. The m i n i m u m and m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e s r e c o r d e d during the p e r i o d of the t e s t - D e c e m b e r 18, 1959 to A p r i l 13, I 9 6 0 - a r e shown in T a b l e 1. T A B L E 1. Temperature Ranges Recorded Plot Ambient Unprotected Clear Polyfilm B l a c k Insulated Cell-U-Mat Min. T e m p . Date Max. Temp. Date 3" -6° F. Jan. 5 74° F. A p r i l 11 6' -9° F. Jan. 5 68° F. A p r i l 12 2" 4° F. Jan. 5 57° F. A p r i l 13 4" 5 Jan. 5 52 A p r i l 13 6" 6 Jan. 5 48 A p r i l 13 2" 10° F . Jan. 5 73° F. A p r i l 13 4" 10 Jan. 5 58 A p r i l 13 6" 11 Jan. 5 54 A p r i l 13 2" 18° F . Jan. 5 40° F. April 5 4" 18 Jan. 5 40 April 5 6" 18 Jan. 40 April 5 5 The m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e s at the 2, 4, and 6 i n c h s o i l depths showed l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n under the individual t r e a t m e n t s . Such w a s e s s e n t i a l l y t r u e until m i d - M a r c h when a t m o s p h e r i c t e m p e r a t u r e s b e g a n an upward t r e n d . Discussion As p r e v i o u s l y stated, l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n o c c u r r e d in the t e m p e r a t u r e s r e c o r d e d at the 2, 4, and 6 i n c h s o i l depths under the individual plots until app r o x i m a t e l y the middle of M a r c h when a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s b e g a n an upward t r e n d . B e t w e e n the t r e a t m e n t s , however, t h e r e w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y during e x t r e m e c o l d s p e l l s . During the w i n t e r m o n t h s and p r i o r to the g e n e r a l w a r m - u p , the l o w e s t t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e r e c o r d e d under the u n p r o t e c t e d p l o t s . T e m p e r a t u r e s at the s a m e t i m e under the i n s u l a t e d C e l l - U - M a t plots w e r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r . T e m p e r a t u r e s under the c l e a r P o l y f i l m w e r e intermediate. F r o m the middle of M a r c h until the end of the study, t e m p e r a t u r e s under a l l plots b e g a n to r i s e . The g r e a t e s t a c c e l e r a t i o n o c c u r r e d under the P o l y f i l m . T e m p e r a t u r e s under the C e l l - U - M a t i n c r e a s e d v e r y g r a d u a l l y and at the end of the study w e r e only a few d e g r e e s above f r e e z i n g . T e m p e r a t u r e s under the unprotected a r e a s were intermediate. The i n s u l a t i n g p r o p e r t y of the C e l l - U - M a t i s c l e a r l y evident. On A p r i l 18 the s o i l under the C e l l - U - M a t plot had thawed only an i n c h or two, w h e r e a s that under the u n p r o t e c t e d a r e a was thawed s o m e 8 to 10 i n c h e s and under the P o l y f i l m s o m e 24 to 3 0 i n c h e s . As would be e x p e c t e d a m a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e in growth a c t i v i t y o c c u r r e d under the individual plots f r o m the middle of M a r c h until the end of the t e s t . Growth a c t i v i t y under the P o l y f i l m was m a r k e d l y a c c e l e r a t e d in e a r l y April, and by the middle of A p r i l t h e s e plots e x h i b i t e d growth and d e n s i t y c o m p a r a b l e to that n o r m a l l y e x p e c t e d a f t e r 4 to 6 w e e k s of s p r i n g w e a t h e r . E s s e n t i a l l y no growth had o c c u r r e d under the C e l l - U - M a t up until the t i m e t h e s e b l a n k e t s w e r e r e m o v e d . Around the e d g e s and in a few a r e a s w h e r e m e l t e d snow f o r m e d p o c k e t s , growth had b e e n initiated, but b e c a u s e of the a b s e n c e of light the plants were s e v e r e l y etiolated. T h e e a r l y a c c e l e r a t e d g r o w t h a c t i v i t y under the P o l y f i l m w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the m a t e r i a l a r e s u c h that it p e r m i t s t r a n s m i s s i o n of sunlight with a s u b s e q u e n t b u i l d - u p and s t o r a g e of h e a t . In addition, the m a t e r i a l c o n s e r v e s m o i s t u r e e v a p o r a t i n g f r o m the s o i l and t r a n s p i r i n g f r o m the p l a n t s . The c o n d e n s a t i o n and a c c u m u l a t i o n of t h i s m o i s t u r e on the u n d e r neath side of the P o l y f i l m no doubt c o n t r i b u t e to f u r t h e r h e a t s t o r a g e . Certainly, it p r o v i d e s adequate m o i s t u r e for growth and c o m p l e t e l y p r e v e n t s d e s i c c a t i o n . In a s e n s e the m a t e r i a l a c t s a s a " g r e e n h o u s e . ,f T h i s a r t i f i c i a l production of growth in the e a r l y s p r i n g - - s o m e two to t h r e e w e e k s p r i o r to n o r m a l - - m a y p r o v e e s p e c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e f r o m the s t a n d point of producing a h e a l t h y v i g o r o u s b e n t g r a s s a b l e to c o m p e t e m o r e f a v o r a b l y with P o a annua. The h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s under the P o l y f i l m should p e r m i t the b e n t g r a s s to i n i t i a t e growth a s e a r l y a s P o a annua. The w a r m e r , m o r e deeply thawed s o i l should l i k e w i s e p e r m i t the production of a f u n c t i o n a l l y d e e p e r r o o t s y s t e m much e a r l i e r than n o r m a l . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n of e a r l y a c c e l e r a t e d growth and d e e p e r r o o t s would p r o d u c e m o r e healthy plants with g r e a t e r d e n s i t y and v i g o r . Such was evident on the P o l y f i l m plots under the c o n d i t i o n s of this study. In c o n t r a s t to the e a r l y a c c e l e r a t e d growth o c c u r r i n g under the P o l y f i l m t u r f g r a s s under the C e l l - U - M a t was e s s e n t i a l l y d o r m a n t when the plots w e r e u n c o v e r e d . T u r f g r a s s on the u n p r o t e c t e d a r e a s was l i k e w i s e d o r m a n t at this t i m e ; h o w e v e r , growth s t a r t e d within a few days, w h e r e a s on the C e l l - U - M a t plots an additional 5 to 7 days w e r e r e q u i r e d . T h e s e a r e a s did not , f c a t c h u p " to u n p r o t e c t e d a r e a s for s o m e 2 to 3 w e e k s a f t e r r e m o v a l of the C e l l - U - M a t . T h e s e plots a l s o c o n t a i n e d s m a l l p a t c h e s of P o a annua, which i n i t i a t e d growth e a r l i e r than the b e n t g r a s s . B y e a r l y s u m m e r , the P o a annua on t h e s e a r e a s had i n c r e a s e d , while on the P o l y f i l m plots no i n c r e a s e w a s evident, in f a c t , t h e r e a p p e a r e d to be an a c t u a l d e c r e a s e . In spite of the slow growth on the C e l l - U - M a t plots, this m a t e r i a l could be advantageous during y e a r s when e x t r e m e v a r i a t i o n s in t e m p e r a t u r e o c c u r in l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g . S o m e t h r e e w e e k s a f t e r r e m o v i n g the c o v e r i n g s , t e m p e r a t u r e s dropped to s l i g h t l y below f r e e z i n g . G r a s s on the C e l l - U - M a t and u n p r o t e c t e d plots was u n i n j u r e d , w h e r e a s tip b u r n or f r o s t b i t e did o c c u r on the P o l y f i l m plots which had not y e t b e e n mowed. On the P o l y f i l m plots which w e r e mowed i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r r e m o v i n g the c o v e r i n g s , no d a m a g e was evident. It i s a p p a r e n t that the e n v i r o n m e n t p r o d u c e d under the p o l y e t h y l e n e b l a n k e t s i s m o s t conducive to snowmold and o t h e r d i s e a s e d e v e l o p m e n t . Treatm e n t f o r snowmold p r i o r to laying down the b l a n k e t s i s an e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e ment Under the conditions of this study, d i s e a s e d e v e l o p m e n t did not o c c u r - a t t e s t i n g to the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the M i l o r g a n i t e - C a l o - C l o r t r e a t m e n t m a d e in early December. Summary A study to e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of two types of p o l y e t h y l e n e - - c l e a r 4 m i l P o l y f i l m and b l a c k 2 " i n s u l a t e d C e l l - U - M a t a s p r o t e c t a n t s a g a i n s t wint e r k i l l ( d e s i c c a t i o n ) was conducted at the T o r o R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r during the w i n t e r of 1 9 5 9 - 6 0 . A i r t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e r e c o r d e d at 3 i n c h e s and 6 f e e t . S o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e r e c o r d e d at 2, 4, and 6 i n c h depths under both m a t e r i a l s a s w e l l a s under u n p r o t e c t e d s i t e s . T r e a t m e n t f o r snowmold was m a d e p r i o r to laying down the c o v e r i n g s . Such i s c o n s i d e r e d an e s s e n t i a l requirement. B o t h t y p e s of c o v e r i n g s w e r e e f f e c t i v e in p r e v e n t i n g d e s i c c a t i o n . The i n s u l a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of the C e l l - U - M a t a r e quite a p p a r e n t . T h i s m a t e r i a l w a s m o s t e f f e c t i v e in m a i n t a i n i n g a u n i f o r m t e m p e r a t u r e to the depths studied and m a y be of p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e w h e r e e x t r e m e v a r i a t i o n s in t e m p e r a t u r e o c c u r in l a t e w i n t e r - e a r l y s p r i n g . It is c o m p l e t e l y i n e f f e c t i v e a s f a r a s s t i m u l a t i n g e a r l y growth. P o l y f i l m p r e v e n t e d d e s i c c a t i o n but was s o m e w h a t l e s s e f f e c t i v e a s an i n s u l a t o r during e x t r e m e l y cold w e a t h e r . On the o t h e r hand, this m a t e r i a l p r o d u c e d a " g r e e n h o u s e " e f f e c t a s the a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s b e g a n an upward t r e n d . The e a r l y a c c e l e r a t e d growth r e s u l t i n g would a p p e a r to be m o s t b e n e f i c i a l under many c o n d i t i o n s . The production of healthy, v i g o r o u s b e n t g r a s s , a b l e to c o m p e t e f a v o r a b l y with P o a annua s e e m s a m p l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c h o o s i n g this m a t e r i a l . Although the study has b e e n conducted f o r only one w i n t e r , the r e s u l t s s e e m to j u s t i f y p u b l i c a t i o n . The high c o s t of p e r i o d i c a l l y r e p a i r i n g and r e placing w i n t e r k i l l e d t u r f on many golf g r e e n s and a p p r o a c h e s in the n o r t h e r n l a t i t u d e s i s such that the author f e e l s the u s e - at l e a s t on a t r i a l b a s i s - of polyethylene b l a n k e t s i s worthy of c o n s i d e r a t i o n by golf c o u r s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s . B U I L T - I N H E A D A C H E S ON G O L F C O U R S E S (A P a n e l D i s c u s s i o n ) Panel Members: M r . A. V . Macan, Golf C o u r s e A r c h i t e c t , V i c t o r i a , B . C. D r . R o y G o s s , A s s i s t a n t A g r o n o m i s t and E x t e n s i o n T u r f S p e c i a l i s t , W e s t e r n Washington E x p e r i m e n t Station, Puyallup, Washington Mr Milt B a u m a n , Superintendent, O v e r l a k e Golf and C o u n t r y Club, Medina, Washington M r . D i c k H a s k e l l , D i r e c t o r of Golf, City of S e a t t l e , S e a t t l e , Washington C h a i r m a n and M o d e r a t o r : M r . Glen P r o c t e r , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of R a i n i e r Golf and C o u n t r y Club, S e a t t l e , Washington The m e e t i n g was opened by M r . P r o c t e r and conducted a s f o l l o w s : T h i s panel i s h e r e this m o r n i n g to d i s c u s s with you s o m e of the p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with golf c o u r s e m a n a g e m e n t and i s s p e c i f i c a l l y e n t i t l e d " B u i l t - i n H e a d a c h e s . fl We know that t h e r e a r e e r r o r s in c o n s t r u c t i o n and m i s t a k e s that should be brought to light so that future r e p e t i t i o n of t h e s e will not o c c u r . P e r haps by d i s c u s s i n g s o m e of t h e s e b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s i t w i l l give s o m e of you a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p r o b l e m s t h a t you have c u r r e n t l y and p e r h a p s a few s u g g e s t i o n s a s to t h e i r c o r r e c t i o n or m a n a g e m e n t which c a n be b r o u g h t to your attention. I would l i k e to point out that q u e s t i o n s c a n b e b r o u g h t up f r o m the f l o o r at any t i m e and d i r e c t e d to any one of the panel m e m b e r s . F e e l f r e e to b r i n g up anything you wish, s i n c e t h i s i s your c h a n c e to get in two b i t s ' w o r t h at s o m e of t h e s e e x p e r t s . Question, moles ? Answer: M r . Roland K o e p f : What i s a s u r e - f i r e m e t h o d of c o n t r o l l i n g Milt B a u m a n The b e s t way of getting r i d of m o l e s i s by t r a p p i n g . A n o t h e r good way, i f the s o i l s a r e heavy, i s to find a f r e s h m o l e h i l l and s t i c k a h o s e in t h e r e and f l u s h t h e m out s i n c e they do not o p e r a t e d e e p e r than the heavy c l a y l a y e r b e low. T h e y can be f l u s h e d out and k i l l e d upon e m e r g e n c e . R o y G o s s m e n t i o n e d that t h e r e i s a p u b l i c a t i o n out on m o l e s published by a g e n t l e m a n by the n a m e of M r . R . Glendenning, with the C a n a d i a n D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e . His w o r k was done at A g a s s i z , B . C . , and c o v e r e d a study of m a n y y e a r s which he m a d e of the l i f e h a b i t s of the m o l e . His c o n c l u s i o n s a f t e r m a n y y e a r s of study and e x p e r i m e n t i n g with a l l t y p e s of e r a d i c a t i o n w e r e that trapping was the only s u r e m e t h o d . Question, J i m Watson, T o r o C o m p a n y : Has anyone u s e d c h l o r d a n e for e r a d i c a tion of the m o l e , by getting r i d of the food s u p p l y ? Answer: Roy Goss I don't know if this t e c h n i q u e has b e e n t r i e d in t h i s a r e a , but it c e r t a i n l y should be e f f e c t i v e in that any m e t h o d that will e f f e c t e v e l y get r i d of the m o l e ' s food supply w i l l a l s o get r i d of the m o l e , s i n c e it w i l l not s t a y w h e r e t h e r e a r e no w o r m s . We have t r i e d m e t h y l b r o m i d e f o r f u m i g a t i o n of our s o i l s , and have found that t h e r e have b e e n no m o l e s working within a y e a r a f t e r the a p p l i c a t i o n of m e t h y l b r o m i d e . M r . Koepf a s k e d if this w a s due to r e s i d u a l a c t i o n of m e t h y l b r o m i d e in the s o i l o v e r that p e r i o d of t i m e , and the a n s w e r i s no. T h i s i s a pure and s i m p l e c a s e of c o m p l e t e e r a d i c a t i o n of the w o r m , a l l f o r m s of w o r m s that s e r v e a s a food f o r the m o l e . Question, Austin R e g e r : Can anyone give s o m e s u g g e s t i o n s on the p r o p e r p l a c e m e n t and planting of t r e e s on the golf c o u r s e ? Answer: M r . A. V . Macan I a m not an e x p e r t on t r e e planting, s i n c e m y b u s i n e s s i s d e s i g n i n g the golf c o u r s e . However, I do i n d i c a t e in m y d e s i g n s w h e r e c e r t a i n plantings should be placed, and the b a l a n c e of the t r e e s would be l e f t to the d i s c r e t i o n of the golf c o u r s e . M r . M a c a n i n d i c a t e d that the only p l a c e that the t r e e p r o b l e m h a s b e e n t a c k l e d thoroughly i s on the M c C l e a r y Golf C o u r s e in V a n c o u v e r , B 0 Co, whose s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i s M r . J e r r y C r o f t . M r . M a c a n s t a t e d that t h i s i s the only p l a c e w h e r e the f i r s t thing that should be done i s t r e e planting on a golf c o u r s e , and in this c a s e it did o c c u r f i r s t . Glen P r o c t e r : S i n c e no q u e s t i o n s have c o m e in I p r e s u m e that none of you f e l l o w s have any b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s on golf c o u r s e s , and I a m happy to know that none of you have. I g u e s s I a m the only guy that does h a v e . Question: Answer: A. V . Would you avoid wet w e a t h e r in c o n s t r u c t i o n of putting g r e e n ? Macan I a m not a s o i l e x p e r t , but t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n that when s o i l i s w o r k e d in a wet condition you a r e going to b r e a k down and r u i n the s t r u c t u r e of t h e s e s o i l s . T h i s should d e f i n i t e l y be avoided during wet w e a t h e r . We a r e prone not to do anything about t h e s e during our playing s e a s o n , b e c a u s e that i s when e v e r y o n e wants the c o u r s e . At the end of the playing s e a s o n , then, we a l w a y s want to s t a r t in on a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m , which of c o u r s e i s the wrong t i m e of the y e a r . Question: Answer: A. V . What do I do when the g r e e n i s n ' t v i s i b l e f r o m the f a i r w a y ? Macan It i s the g e n e r a l c o n c e n s u s that e v e r y t h i n g m u s t be s e e n . However, I q u e s t i o n that. I think that t h e r e m u s t be a m e t h o d of l o c a t i n g the pin, but you don't have to s e e a l l of the pin or the g r e e n . The playing i s the t e s t i n g of i t . Question: house ? What do you do when the 9th g r e e n does not r e t u r n to the club Answer: Macan A. V . T h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e a r g u m e n t that the c o u r s e should be l a i d out in at l e a s t two l o o p s . T h e a d v a n t a g e s of the t r i a n g u l a r s y s t e m a r e that e a c h f a i r way i s d i s t i n c t f r o m any o t h e r , but you w o n ' t be a b l e to m a k e a t r i a n g u l a r p a t t e r n on a c o u r s e of this n a t u r e u n l e s s you have at l e a s t 160 a c r e s . In any c a s e you m a y have to change a hole o r two, but you w i l l c e r t a i n l y e n d e a v o r to s t a r t and f i n i s h at the s a m e spot on e v e r y golf c o u r s e i f at a l l p o s s i b l e . Glen P r o c t e r : I think at this point that we have m o r e or l e s s m i s s e d the boat in t h i s panel d i s c u s s i o n on b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s . T h e r e f o r e , I would l i k e at t h i s t i m e to s t a r t a r o u n d the c i r c l e of the panel m e m b e r s and a s k e a c h of t h e m what his i d e a i s on s o m e of t h e s e b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s . P e r h a p s t h i s w i l l s t i m u l a t e q u e s t i o n s along this l i n e f r o m the f l o o r . F i r s t I would l i k e to c a l l on Milt Bauman. M i l t : I think p e r h a p s that I have a s m a n y b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s a s a n y o n e . When O v e r l a k e was built, I had b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s on m y g r e e n s b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s a s h o r t a g e of t o p s o i l , and a l l the g r e e n s and a p r o n s w e r e m a d e out of c l a y that w a s d r a g g e d out of a l a k e b e d . T h i s c l a y and s i l t when m i x e d with sand d r i e s out and m a k e s a p r e t t y f a i r g r a d e of c o n c r e t e , and in the w i n t e r it i s a l m o s t l i k e m u s h . T h e g r e e n s a r e t i l e d out b e n e a t h , but the w a t e r d o e s n ' t go a n y w h e r e . T h e t i l e s run around in a c i r c l e and w e r e not c a r r i e d away f r o m the g r e e n . If the w a t e r could get down through the c l a y to the t i l e l i n e i t s t i l l c o u l d n ' t go a n y w h e r e , and i t has c r e a t e d s o r t of a b a s i n . B e l i e v e m e , i t i s a real problem The only way that I know to m o d i f y this i s b y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . I c a l l that a b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e . Another thing that happened w a s with the w a t e r s y s t e m . B y t r y i n g to s a v e m o n e y and put in old pipe and p l a s t i c p o l y e t h e l e n e I ' v e had a p r o b l e m to fight e v e r s i n c e . T h i s p a s t s u m m e r I think that I have p a t c h e d s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 85 and 9 0 l e a k s in about 21 m o n t h s , and a c t u a l l y we a r e f i n a l l y o v e r c o m i n g t h e s e . I think the thing that g o l f c o u r s e m a n a g e m e n t f a c e s when i t f i r s t s t a r t s i s that i t j u s t d o e s n ' t have enough m o n e y to c a r r y out the c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m that it w a n t s . D i c k H a s k e l l : I don't l i k e to c a l l t h i s b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s . I l i k e the w o r d b u i l t in c h a l l e n g e s a l i t t l e b e t t e r That long walk f r o m the g r e e n to the next t e e i s one of my m a j o r c o m p l a i n t s of the b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s on the golf c o u r s e . We c a n quite often get in a s m u c h d i s t a n c e walking f r o m g r e e n to t e e a s we do f r o m tee to g r e e n , so that when you get t h r o u g h playing a g a m e of golf you have w a l k e d about twice a s f a r a s you need to. Looking at i t f r o m the c i t y or public golf c o u r s e standpoint, by s t r e t c h i n g out the d i s t a n c e f r o m the g r e e n to the t e e you slow down your t r a f f i c , and you c a n ' t put a s m a n y people a c r o s s i t in a day. In p r i v a t e c l u b s t h i s m a y not be so m u c h of a p r o b l e m . A n o t h e r thing i s t r e e s . In one c a s e we have m a p l e t r e e s planted too c l o s e to the putting g r e e n , and t h e r e a r e so many l e a v e s on i t you c o u l d n ' t putt on i t i f you wanted to. Yet they s a y the t r e e i s too p r e t t y to cut down. T h i s thing should have b e e n spotted while the p r o b l e m was developing and e l i m i n a t e d b e f o r e it got to the point w h e r e i t was going to c r e a t e too m u c h t r o u b l e to r e m o v e the b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m i s that we u s u a l l y don't m a k e the f i r s t few h o l e s e a s y ones and the b a l a n c e of the h o l e s toughened up to the point w h e r e it m a k e s the c o u r s e a d e s i r a b l e one to play. In t h i s way you don't get the people off to a good s t a r t b e f o r e they a r e l i m b e r e d up and in good shape, and you get f e w e r people off of the f i r s t t e e . O t h e r w i s e if you put t h e m on tough h o l e s in the beginning, you slow down the play to the point w h e r e you don't get enough people o v e r the c o u r s e in a day. Sloping f a i r w a y s a r e a n o t h e r p r o b l e m . However, a s M r . M a c a n s a y s , you have to w o r k with what you have, but i f t h e r e i s anything that c a n be done in the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the c o u r s e to e l i m i n a t e s o m e of t h e s e p r o b l e m s they should be done now i n s t e a d of l a t e r , when the c o n s t r u c t i o n i s m u c h more expensive. Roy, what a r e s o m e of the h e a d a c h e s you have s e e n when t r a v e l i n g around? R o y G o s s : My f i r s t c o m p l a i n t on b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s on golf c o u r s e s i s that of m i x i n g o r not putting the g r e e n t o g e t h e r r i g h t in the f i r s t p l a c e . We g e t g r a n d i o s e i d e a s about what we want to do, but we have a l i m i t e d pocketbook with w h i c h to do it c T h e r e f o r e , i f we cannot build a g r e e n r i g h t why do i t at a l l ? We m a y have to c o m e b a c k l a t e r at p e r h a p s 2 or 3 t i m e s the o r i g i n a l c o s t to r e b u i l d this g r e e n , plus the f a c t that we have s u f f e r e d with a poor g r e e n f o r m a n y y e a r s . A n o t h e r thing i s that during t h i s p e r i o d of r e c o n s t r u c t i o n we have l o s t the g r e e n for a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s during that p e r i o d of r e c o n s t r u c tion, A n o t h e r point i s "on s i t e " m i x i n g i n s t e a d of m i x i n g s o i l " o f f - s i t e 0 " T h e r e i s no e x c u s e f o r this on s i t e m i x i n g , s i n c e i t c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d v e r y e a s i l y off s i t e and without running into this l a y e r i n g p r o p o s i t i o n . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m i s that we a r e too prone to u s e too m u c h of what i s at hand 0 We a r e prone to u s e s u c h things a s peat f r o m s o m e of t h e s e l o c a l b o g s . T h i s peat i s in a highly d e c o m p o s e d s t a t e , and a f t e r m i x i n g t h i s stuff t o g e t h e r in a putting g r e e n we c o m e out with a h i g h - c l a s s gob of junk„ We have s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and s o m e s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n on the p r o p e r t e c h n i q u e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e s e a r e w e l l known and a r e a v a i l a b l e upon r e q u e s t , and t h e r e i s no e x c u s e for poor c o n s t r u c t i o n when we know s o m e of the r i g h t a n s w e r s at the p r e s e n t t i m e . H e r e in the S e a t t l e a r e a we c a n point out s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s of i m p r o p e r c o n s t r u c t i o n with the u s e of poor o r g a n i c f r a c t i o n s . Glen P r o c t e r : I think we s h a l l t e r m i n a t e the q u e s t i o n s on b u i l t - i n h e a d a c h e s at t h i s t i m e , s i n c e we a r e running a l i t t l e s h o r t of t i m e . We w i l l now c a l l on our next s p e a k e r „ ATHLETIC F I E L D MANAGEMENT Norman Goetze* The p r o b l e m s of a t h l e t i c f i e l d m a n a g e m e n t a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t than m o s t o t h e r t u r f s i t u a t i o n s and have r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n . F i r s t of all, m o s t a t h l e t i c f i e l d s have l e s s t o t a l u s e p e r unit a r e a than o t h e r t u r f . T h e y a r e u s e d only during a few m o n t h s of the y e a r , and do not r e c e i v e a s m u c h u n i f o r m m a n a g e m e n t throughout the s e a s o n . Secondly, the w e a r i s m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d during b r i e f t i m e s of the s e a s o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , a f o o t b a l l o r b a s e b a l l f i e l d i s u s e d i n t e n s i v e l y f o r two or t h r e e m o n t h s during that p a r t i c u l a r s p o r t p e r i o d . The w e a r on the t u r f i s quite heavy p e r w e e k . M o s t a t h l e t i c e v e n t s r e q u i r e a m o r e r a p i d c h a n g e of d i r e c t i o n and m o r e c o m pacting t y p e s of m o v e m e n t s by the a t h l e t e s than golf or h o m e lawn u s e . One of the m o s t s e r i o u s l y l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s in a t h l e t i c f i e l d m a n a g e m e n t i s the p e r s o n n e l u s e d in i t s m a n a g e m e n t . In m a n y public a t h l e t i c f i e l d s , and e s p e c i a l l y on s c h o o l s , i t i s s o m e t i m e s r a t h e r d i f f i c u l t to d e t e r m i n e e x a c t l y who h a s the f i n a l a u t h o r i t y in i t s o p e r a t i o n . T h e r e tends to b e a shuffling of a u t h o r i t y with no d i r e c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in m a n y c a s e s . The m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s should be fit into t h e s e above c o n d i t i o n s . T h e y m u s t be t i m e d a c c o r d i n g to the n e e d s of the f i e l d f i r s t , and a c c o r d i n g to the n e e d s of the t u r f s e c o n d . O v e r - r i d i n g t h e s e t i m i n g d e c i s i o n s i s the g e n e r a l l a c k of w e l l t r a i n e d y e a r - a r o u n d p e r s o n n e l . Fertilization The u s e of n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r m u s t be v e r y c a r e f u l l y t i m e d so a s to avoid a l l but the l i g h t e s t p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s during the t i m e of u s e of the f i e l d . W h e r e f a l l and w i n t e r u s e i s to be m a d e of turf, it i s r e c o m m e n d e d that the n i t r o g e n a p p l i c a t i o n s be m a d e j u s t at the end of the u s e s e a s o n in l a t e fall, and during the l a t e s p r i n g and s u m m e r m o n t h s , p r i o r to any f a l l u s e . Fall and spring f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r a t h l e t i c f i e l d s u s e d m o s t h e a v i l y in s u m m e r p e r i o d s . The t o t a l amount of n i t r o g e n to be u s e d during a s e a s o n should n e v e r e x c e e d 4 pounds of a c t u a l n i t r o g e n p e r 1000 s q u a r e feet, with no m o r e than 2 pounds during any one a p p l i c a t i o n . Ideally, no n i t r o g e n should be u s e d l a t e r than two w e e k s b e f o r e any u s e . P r e f e r a b l y the individual a p p l i c a t i o n s should be l i m i t e d to one pound of a c t u a l n i t r o g e n p e r s i n g l e a p p l i c a t i o n , with, of c o u r s e , the e x c e p t i o n when the u r e a - f o r m a l d a h y d e m a t e r i a l s a r e u s e d . It should be noted, h o w e v e r , that t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e not e f f e c t i v e long l a s t i n g n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r s , u n l e s s a t o t a l of 4 pounds of a c t u a l n i t r o g e n i s u s e d p e r 1000 s q u a r e f e e t per y e a r . The u s e of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s should be c o n s i d e r e d only when h e a v i e r n i t r o g e n r a t e s a r e u s e d . It has long b e e n known that p h o s p h o r u s and p o t a s h c o n t r i b u t e to good r o o t growth and to b e t t e r w e a r r e s i s t a n c e by a t h l e t i c t u r f . However, the amount of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s to be u s e d i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s than the amount F a r m Crops Extension Specialist, Oregon State College. of n i t r o g e n u s e d . A m a t e r i a l l i k e 6 - 1 0 - 4 , in m y opinion, has no p l a c e in the r o u t i n e f e r t i l i z a t i o n of an a t h l e t i c f i e l d . P h o s p h o r u s and p o t a s s i u m a r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r u s e only once during a s e a s o n , at r a t e s no h i g h e r than one pound p e r 1000 s q u a r e f e e t . P h o s p h o r u s and p o t a s s i u m a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e b e s t m a d e when the s o i l m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s a r e high, so that t h e s e m a t e r i a l s c a n m o v e into the s o i l r o o t zone f o r u s e by the plants b e f o r e they b e c o m e tied up in s o i l c o l l o i d s y s t e m s * C e r t a i n l y l i m i n g plays an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in a t h l e t i c f i e l d m a n a g e m e n t on a c i d s o i l s , p r i m a r i l y in that i t m a k e s o t h e r plant n u t r i e n t s m o r e a v a i l a b l e . The a p p l i c a t i o n of l i m e i s m o s t e f f e c t i v e when i t i s applied b e f o r e plantingo If i t m u s t be applied to old e s t a b l i s h e d turf, i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s c a n be i n c r e a s e d with a e r i f i c a t i o n . S o m e r e c e n t s u c c e s s has b e e n o b t a i n e d by the u s e of d o l o m i t i c l i m e s t o n e in c o n t r a s t to the c o n v e n t i o n a l c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e l i m e s t o n e . T h i s s u c c e s s c a n be c o n t r i b u t e d to the supply of a m i n o r e l e m e n t , m a g n e s i u m . It c a n n o t be r e c o m m e n d e d without a s o i l t e s t , w h i c h would show the need for i t . O t h e r e l e m e n t s have s o m e e f f e c t s on c e r t a i n sandy o r peat s o i l s . Howe v e r , in g e n e r a l , we think that with the p r o p e r u s e of l i m e , n i t r o g e n , phosphor u s , and p o t a s s i u m , a d e s i r a b l e t u r f c a n be c u l t u r e d on m o s t s o i l s . Mowing The mowing of a t h l e t i c t u r f i s a c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t . Many a t h l e t i c a r e a s in the P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t a r e p r e t t y m u c h n e g l e c t e d , a s f a r a s mowing i s c o n c e r n e d , e x c e p t j u s t p r i o r to the u s e p e r i o d s , Allowing the t u r f to m a k e e x c e s s i v e l y high growth and then q u i c k l y r e d u c i n g the cutting height c o n t r i b u t e s to r a t h e r shallow r o o t growth and poor r e s i s t a n c e to m e c h a n i c a l w e a r . Ideally, the t u r f should be mowed throughout the s e a s o n , a s if it w e r e b e i n g u s e d . Of c o u r s e , this c r e a t e s budget p r o b l e m s in m a n y c a s e s . The m a t t e r of mowing heights a l s o i s c o n d u s i v e to s o m e d e b a t e . In g e n e r a l , we should n e v e r r e m o v e m o r e c l i p p i n g s by height than the height of stubble that i s l e f t a f t e r mowing. If the g r a s s i s m o w e d t h r e e i n c h e s high, then i t c a n be a l l o w e d to r e a c h a height of s i x i n c h e s b e f o r e m o w i n g . On the o t h e r hand, i f the t u r f i s mowed at I2 i n c h e s , then i t should be mowed e v e r y t i m e i t m a k e s I2 i n c h e s of growth above the mowing height. Many c o a c h e s p r e f e r to have t u r f r a t h e r c l o s e l y mowed, b e c a u s e they think they a r e getting a m o r e u n i f o r m t u r f and l e s s r e s i s t a n c e to the m o v e m e n t of athletes*, T h i s i s u s u a l l y true, but it a l s o c r e a t e s o t h e r p r o b l e m s , . In o b taining a m o r e u n i f o r m t u r f by c l o s e mowing, c o n d i t i o n s which w i l l not support heavy w e a r a r e c r e a t e d . If budget p r o b l e m s p r o h i b i t r o u t i n e f r e q u e n t mowing when the f i e l d i s not in u s e , it would be b e t t e r to mow once e v e r y two or t h r e e w e e k s than to l e t the t u r f grow up into a hay f i e l d and then spend t h r e e or four mowings on it, in mowing i t s h o r t at the beginning of the s e a s o n to get i t into s h a p e . The d i s p o s a l of c l i p p i n g s s o m e t i m e s b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m . Usually, howe v e r , on m o s t a t h l e t i c turf, we don't have to r e m o v e t h o s e c l i p p i n g s i f we cut f r e q u e n t l y enough. Also, by allowing the c l i p p i n g s to r e m a i n on the turf, the r e q u i r e m e n t s for p o t a s s i u m a r e r e d u c e d through the y e a r s . Under m o s t a t h l e t i c t u r f c o n d i t i o n s , I p e r s o n a l l y p r e f e r the u s e of the r o t a r y m o w e r s , b e c a u s e they c a n b e t t e r handle w e e d s which m a y often be a s s o c i a t e d with a t h l e t i c f i e l d s . S o m e of the g r a s s e s which we u s e s o m e t i m e s have s e e d heads w h i c h c a n be m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y handled by the r o t a r y type m o w e r . Watering Throughout the P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t , w a t e r i n g p r o b l e m s on a t h l e t i c f i e l d s a r e a c u t e . I f e e l that m u c h i m p r o v e m e n t in the w a t e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s c a n be done. Many of the g r a s s e s u s e d on t h e s e f i e l d s a r e drought t o l e r a n t , and don't r e q u i r e f r e q u e n t w a t e r i n g l i k e s o m e o t h e r t u r f s . When they a r e w a t e r e d , the s o i l should be s a t u r a t e d at l e a s t to a 4 - 6 i n c h depth, p r e f e r a b l y 6 - 8 i n c h e s on s o m e s o i l s . M o s t of the s p r i n k l e r s and i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s that a r e u s e d on t h e s e f i e l d s apply w a t e r too q u i c k l y and do not apply enough w a t e r . I t ' s an e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t that i f we w i l l w a t e r t h o r o u g h l y i n s t e a d of using m a n y l i g h t f r e quent w a t e r i n g s , a d e e p e r p e n e t r a t i n g r o o t s y s t e m w i l l be d e v e l o p e d . It w i l l be m u c h m o r e r e s i s t a n t to m e c h a n i c a l w e a r . S y s t e m s which apply no m o r e than 0. 25 i n c h e s per hour a r e r e c o m m e n d e d . The m a t t e r of w a t e r i n g s c h e d u l e s a r o u n d the u s e of the f i e l d should a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d . I would p r e f e r that p r i o r to a heavy u s e period, the t u r f should be d r y to avoid s o i l c o m p a c t i o n . Then, i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r the a t h l e t i c event, the t u r f should be thoroughly w a t e r e d , so that the g r a s s c a n r e c o v e r q u i c k l y and so that it w i l l have a c h a n c e to d r y out b e f o r e the next heavy u s e . Aerification C o m p a c t i o n i s a l w a y s a p r o b l e m on a t h l e t i c f i e l d s . The c o m p a c t i o n on a t h l e t i c f i e l d s is u s u a l l y m o r e s e v e r e n e a r the s u r f a c e and u s u a l l y i s not v e r y deep. The shallow c o m p a c t l a y e r i s m o r e e a s i l y c o r r e c t e d than c o m p a c t i o n on golf g r e e n s . A v e r y p r a c t i c a l method of solving t h i s p r o b l e m i s the u s e of field model a e r i f i e r s . A e r i f i c a t i o n during the l a t e s p r i n g or s u m m e r p e r i o d s i s m o r e p r a c t i c a l than during the w e t t e r f a l l p e r i o d s . The e f f e c t s of a e r i f i c a t i o n w i l l a l s o be m o r e p e r m a n e n t when done when the s o i l i s not s a t u r a t e d . I p r e f e r a c o n s i s t e n t p r o g r a m of a e r i f y i n g at l e a s t once a y e a r a f t e r s p r i n g p r a c t i c e on f o o t b a l l f i e l d s , or b e f o r e the s t a r t of the b a s e b a l l s e a s o n on s u m m e r types of a t h l e t i c areas. Drainage One of the m o s t s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s in c o n s t r u c t i o n i s that of s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e . If s u f f i c i e n t slope c a n be put onto the field, so that w a t e r d o e s not a c c u m u l a t e in puddles during heavy r a i n s or i r r i g a t i o n s , many of the needs for r e novation c a n b e p r e v e n t e d . S l o p e s a s low a s 18 i n c h e s c r o w n on a f o o t b a l l field, or 2 p e r c e n t on o t h e r f i e l d s , a r e c e r t a i n l y s u f f i c i e n t to give good s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , if the slope i s m a d e u n i f o r m . It d o e s n ' t t a k e m u c h of a slope to r e move w a t e r , even f r o m a d e n s e turf, a s long a s puddling i s p r e v e n t e d . Most of the n e w e r c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s a l s o have s e w e r d r a i n s at the edges of the f i e l d s to c a t c h the s u r f a c e w a t e r and r e m o v e it f r o m the f i e l d b e f o r e it b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m to o t h e r a d j a c e n t a c t i v i t i e s . I n t e r n a l s o i l d r a i n a g e i s a l s o a p r o b l e m and c a n u s u a l l y a r i s e f r o m one of two p o s s i b l e c o n d i t i o n s . The f i r s t i s the l a y e r i n g of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of s o i l m a t e r i a l during c o n s t r u c t i o n . S i n c e w a t e r m o v e s f r e e l y b e t w e e n s o i l l a y e r s only when the l a y e r s a r e s a t u r a t e d , t i l e d r a i n a g e is i n e f f e c t i v e in l a y e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n . If no l a y e r s a r e p r e s e n t , the s e c o n d p r o b l e m m o s t often e n c o u n t e r ed i s that of i n s u f f i c i e n t t i l e or s u b - s o i l d r a i n a g e u n d e r n e a t h the t u r f . Routine t i l e d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s involving a d e q u a t e l a t e r a l , s u f f i c i e n t fall, and good outlets are recommended. B e f o r e e s t a b l i s h i n g new a t h l e t i c f i e l d s , a thorough u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the individual g r a s s s p e c i e s that c a n be u s e d m u s t be o b t a i n e d . F a r too often we a t t e m p t to develop a f i e l d w h i c h w i l l be appealing to the c r o w d without giving enough a t t e n t i o n to the g r a s s ' s w e a r c a p a b i l i t i e s . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r a t h l e t i c t u r f of e a c h of the m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d s p e c i e s in the P a c i f i c N o r t h west follows. Grasses The b e n t g r a s s e s develop a r a t h e r d e n s e turf, w h i c h c a n q u i c k l y r e p a i r d a m a g e d a r e a s by i t s v e g e t a t i v e growth. B e n t g r a s s i s w e l l adapted to the high a c i d i c n a t u r e of many of the w e s t e r n O r e g o n and W a s h i n g t o n c o n d i t i o n s , and r e q u i r e s r e l a t i v e l y low a m o u n t s of f e r t i l i z e r . Its g r e a t e s t w e a k n e s s i s i t s poor w e a r r e s i s t a n c e . It d o e s not stand up to e x c e s s i v e l y h e a v y t r a f f i c during any s e a s o n of the y e a r , and i s conducive to m u c h s l i p p a g e and t e a r i n g c a u s e d by r a p i d c h a n g e s of d i r e c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y when the sod i s wet or when the s o i l s a r e s a t u r a t e d . It should be d i s c o u r a g e d on a l l but the r a t h e r l i g h t l y u s e d a t h l e t i c a r e a s . In t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , A s t o r i a of Highland i s p r e f e r r e d o v e r S e a s i d e . The b l u e g r a s s e s a r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t to w e a r than b e n t g r a s s e s , and a l s o have the a b i l i t y to q u i c k l y r e p a i r d a m a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m m e c h a n i c a l w e a r by t h e i r e x t e n s i v e r h i z o m e d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e y a r e a l s o quite appealing to the n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i n g a u d i e n c e . The b l u e g r a s s e s a r e b e s t adapted to a r e a s e a s t of the C a s c a d e Mountains and south of the W i l l a m e t t e V a l l e y in O r e g o n . In n o r t h e r n P a c i f i c l o c a t i o n s , they r e q u i r e m u c h m o r e l i m i n g and m o r e f e r t i l i t y than do the b e n t g r a s s e s , and u s u a l l y do not p e r s i s t a s long a s b e n t g r a s s e s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the b l u e g r a s s e s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d only in the inland a r e a s . As to the v a r i e t i e s of b l u e g r a s s e s f o r t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s , c o m m o n K e n t u c k y b l u e g r a s s i s j u s t a s good a s any of the n e w e r v a r i e t i e s , and would r e q u i r e s l i g h t l y l e s s c a r e than a v a r i e t y l i k e M e r i o n . The f e s c u e s c a n be divided into two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s . T h o s e a r e t a l l f e s c u e , r e p r e s e n t e d by A l t a or K e n t u c k y 31, and the fine f e s c u e s , which i n clude c h e w i n g s f e s c u e or n a m e d v a r i e t i e s of c r e e p i n g r e d f e s c u e s . The fine f e s c u e s a r e e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d , develop a u s a b l e t u r f r a t h e r quickly, and a r e m o r e drought r e s i s t a n t than the b e n t g r a s s e s . R e p a i r of e x c e s s i v e m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e by the fine f e s c u e i s not a s f a s t a s e i t h e r the b e n t g r a s s e s or the b l u e g r a s s e s . Chewings f e s c u e i s s l i g h t l y m o r e drought r e s i s t a n t than the s e l e c t i o n s of c r e e p i n g r e d f e s c u e . However, this c a n s e l d o m be n o t i c e d under a t h l e t i c c o n d i t i o n s . B o t h of t h e s e f e s c u e s a r e s o m e w h a t d i f f i c u l t to mow when the g r a s s i s s u b j e c t e d to drought c o n d i t i o n s . Of the n a m e d v a r i e t i e s of c r e e p i n g r e d f e s c u e s , t h e r e a r e l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n I l l a h e e , R a i n i e r , and P e n n l a w n f o r a t h l e t i c u s e in the N o r t h w e s t . The t a l l f e s c u e s a r e e x t r e m e l y r e s i s t a n t to m e c h a n i c a l w e a r and a r e a l s o v e r y drought t o l e r a n t . T a l l f e s c u e s tend to f o r m c l u m p s when mowed a s t u r f and m u s t not be mowed s h o r t e r than 21 to 3 i n c h e s , i f they a r e to s u r v i v e . To avoid this clumping n a t u r e , seeding r a t e s of 2 0 0 to 4 0 0 pounds p e r a c r e a r e r e c o m m e n d e d . The t a l l f e s c u e s a r e r a t h e r slow to e s t a b l i s h and a r e d i f f i c u l t to mow with r e e l m o w e r s , b e c a u s e of an e x t e m e l y tough l e a f , and b e c a u s e they tend to f o r m s e e d heads which a r e d i f f i c u l t to m o w . T h e r e is no a p p r e c i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e in v a r i e t i e s of t a l l f e s c u e for t u r f u s e . The potential of r y e g r a s s e s f o r a t h l e t i c t u r f s o m e t i m e s i s o v e r l o o k e d , b e c a u s e the r y e g r a s s e s a r e s h o r t - l i v e d . The p e r e n n i a l r y e g r a s s p e r s i s t s under t u r f conditions for only two or t h r e e y e a r s , the annual r y e g r a s s l a s t s only during one s e a s o n . However, the r y e g r a s s e s a r e the m o s t e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d g r a s s e s and f o r t e m p o r a r y t u r f u s e s , a r e a d v a n t a g e o u s in t h a t they c a n be planted a f t e r the s p r i n g s e a s o n and c a n develop t u r f d e n s e enough f o r s o m e l i m i t e d u s e during the f a l l p e r i o d . T h e y c a n be u s e d in m i x t u r e s with o t h e r g r a s s e s at 25 p e r c e n t or l e s s to provide a t e m p o r a r y t u r f during the f i r s t s e a son while the m o r e d e s i r a b l e g r a s s e s a r e being d e v e l o p e d . Seeding The t i m e of seeding of a t h l e t i c t u r f f i e l d s , of c o u r s e , i s a p r o b l e m b e c a u s e of u s u a l l y high u s e d e m a n d s for t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s . If one full y e a r i s a v a i l a b l e for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t , then e a r l y f a l l planting i s p r e f e r r e d . Spring o r e a r l y s u m m e r planting of anything e x c e p t r y e g r a s s , c a n n o t b e s a f e l y u s e d during the following s u m m e r or f a l l . However, f a l l planting c a n g e n e r a l l y be u s e d during the following s u m m e r and f a l l p e r i o d . A r e c e n t l y u s e d s u c c e s s f u l m e t h o d of r e n o v a t i n g newly d a m a g e d a r e a s i s to plant the s e e d s p r i o r to the l a s t b a s e b a l l or l a s t f o o t b a l l g a m e s , so that the p l a y e r ' s c l e a t s w i l l tend to develop h o l e s into which many of the s e e d s w i l l be w a s h e d with following i r r i g a t i o n s or r a i n . B y the next s e a s o n , young g r a s s plants w i l l be found d e v e l o p ing in m o s t of t h e s e c l e a t h o l e s . T h i s r e q u i r e s , of c o u r s e , a m i n i m u m of t i l l age and the s a v i n g s in t i l l a g e c a n be u s e d f o r h i g h e r a m o u n t s of s e e d for this particular technique. A m o s t s u c c e s s f u l a t h l e t i c f i e l d i s the r e s u l t of a w e l l - t h o u g h t - o u t , y e a r around m a n a g e m e n t p r o g r a m , keeping in mind, f i r s t of all, the u s e of the a r e a , and a d j u s t i n g n e c e s s a r y m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e d u r e s to f i t t h o s e u s e p e r i o d s . Much e f f o r t c a n be s a v e d by s e t t i n g up a s e a s o n - b y - s e a s o n t i m e t a b l e to avoid l a s t minute duplicatory operations. SPECIFICATIONS FOR A METHOD OF PUTTING G R E E N CONSTRUCTION B i l l Bengeyfield"^ Golf c o u r s e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e s e n t l y e n j o y i n g i t s m o s t a c c e l e r a t e d p a c e s i n c e the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the g a m e of golf into the United S t a t e s . Not only a r e new c o u r s e s being built but old o n e s a r e being " m o d e r n i z e d . 11 The c o s t of m a i n t e n a n c e has i n f l u e n c e d s o m e c l u b s in t h e i r d e c i s i o n s to u n d e r t a k e a r e b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m . T h e r e i s a need to do away with f e a t u r e s s u c h a s s h a r p c o n t o u r s and a b r u p t t e e s l o p e s which c r e a t e m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b lems. Golf c o u r s e d e s i g n and golf c o u r s e c o n s t r u c t i o n have b e e n c o n s i d e r e d an a r t r a t h e r than a s c i e n c e . The individuality and the c h a r a c t e r of golf c o u r s e s in this c o u n t r y have r e s u l t e d f r o m the a r t i s t i c t a l e n t s of s o m e of the g r e a t a r c h i t e c t s in whose minds they w e r e c o n c e i v e d . L i k e w i s e , c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s have b e e n d e v e l o p e d a s a r e s u l t of individual e x p e r i e n c e s and individual p r e f e r e n c e s . It i s a t r i b u t e to t h o s e whose e f f o r t s have gone into golf c o u r s e building a s w e l l a s to t h o s e who m a i n t a i n t h e m that so m a n y c o u r s e s have stood up w e l l o v e r the y e a r s . The p a c e of golf a c t i v i t y and the t r a f f i c on golf c o u r s e s i s p r e s e n t l y at a peak, however, which has n e v e r b e e n e q u a l e d in our c o u n t r y . Many of the c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s that w e r e s a t i s f a c t o r y in an e a r l i e r day w i l l no l o n g e r p r o d u c e g r e e n s which will withstand the w e a r that i s now i m p o s e d upon t h e m . B e c a u s e of t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , the G r e e n S e c t i o n has for the l a s t d e c a d e i n t e r e s t e d i t s e l f in c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s and in a study of the p h y s i c a l p r o b l e m s of s o i l s u s e d in putting g r e e n s . R e s e a r c h in t h e s e m a t t e r s has b e e n s p o n s o r e d by the G r e e n S e c t i o n at B e l t s v i l l e ; at O k l a h o m a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ; at U C L A ; and during the p a s t s i x y e a r s an i n t e n s i v e p r o g r a m of study has b e e n supported at T e x a s A. & M. C o l l e g e . It has b e e n found that the p r o b l e m s of c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and m e t h ods and t h o s e of p h y s i c a l b e h a v i o r of s o i l s cannot be s e p a r a t e d . The two m a t t e r s a r e r e l a t e d and m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d t o g e t h e r i f a d e s i r e d r e s u l t i s to be produced. *—The findings of the G r e e n S e c t i o n - s p o n s o r e d r e s e a r c h a r e s u c h that a s u f f i c i e n t amount of i n f o r m a t i o n i s now a v a i l a b l e to w a r r a n t the p u b l i c a t i o n of a s u g g e s t e d m e t h o d of c o n s t r u c t i o n . The p r o c e d u r e s which a r e outlined h e r e m a y w e l l be u s e d a s the b a s i s for s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w h i c h a c l u b m a y p r e s e n t to the p r o s p e c t i v e golf c o u r s e builder„ Such s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w i l l p l a c e no l i m i t a t i o n s upon the individuality nor the a r t i s t r y of any a r c h i t e c t . They will, h o w e v e r , provide a guide for the b u i l d e r and for the club which wants to be a s s u r e d that the g r e e n s they build w i l l continue to provide good playing c o n d i t i o n s f o r m a n y y e a r s . Western Director, USGA, Garden Grove, California. The b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and m e t h o d s p r e s e n t e d a r e t h o s e of good d r a i n a g e and r e s i s t a n c e to c o m p a c t i o n . T h e s e ends c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d without s o m e c o m p r o m i s e . A highly p e r m e a b l e s o i l which d r a i n s r e a d i l y o f f e r s s o m e p r o b l e m s in the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t u r f . It i s l o o s e , and s o m e t i m e s m a y c r e a t e d i f f i c u l t y in the changing of c u p s . T h e s e a r e m i n o r p r o b l e m s , however, when weighed a g a i n s t the a d v a n t a g e s of r a p i d d r a i n a g e , good a e r a t i o n , deep rooting, p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t d i s e a s e s , p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t o v e r w a t e r i n g , p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t s a l t p r o b l e m s , a putting s u r f a c e which holds a shot without being o v e r l y wet, and one which r e s i s t s pitting by golf b a l l s . The m e t h o d s and s p e c i f i c a t i o n s outlined in the following p a g e s r e p r e s e n t the b e s t thoughts of the G r e e n S e c t i o n s t a f f and of n u m e r o u s s o i l s c i e n t i s t s who have given s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n to the p r o b l e m . It i s hoped that they w i l l r e sult in m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r y and l e s s t r o u b l e s o m e putting g r e e n s throughout the nation,, Subgrade The c o n t o u r s of the s u b g r a d e should c o n f o r m to t h o s e of the p r o p o s e d f i n i s h e d g r a d e , within a t o l e r a n c e of j h l " . T h e s u b g r a d e should be c o n s t r u c t e d at an e l e v a t i o n 14 i n c h e s below the p r o p o s e d f i n i s h e d g r a d e . T h e s u b g r a d e should be c o m p a c t e d s u f f i c i e n t l y to p r e v e n t future s e t t l i n g w h i c h m i g h t c r e a t e w a t e r - h o l d i n g d e p r e s s i o n s in the s u b g r a d e s u r f a c e and c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e p r e s s i o n s in the putting s u r f a c e . W h e r e t e r r a i n p e r m i t s , i t i s p o s s i b l e to build the s u b g r a d e into the e x i s t i n g g r a d e or to cut i t into the s u b s o i l . It i s not n e c e s s a r y to e l e v a t e or "build u p n the g r e e n u n l e s s d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d i c t a t e the d e s i r a b i l i t y of doing s o . It w i l l be noted that c o u r s e s of m a t e r i a l s above the s u b g r a d e c o n s i s t of 4 i n c h e s of g r a v e l , l j to 2 i n c h e s of c o a r s e sand, and 12 i n c h e s of t o p s o i l . Thus the t o t a l depth w i l l be 1 7 j to 18 i n c h e s . However, t h i s f i l l m a t e r i a l w i l l s e t t l e a p p r e c i a b l y , and e x p e r i e n c e i n d i c a t e s that 14 i n c h e s w i l l be the a p p r o x i m a t e depth of t h e s e c o m b i n e d m a t e r i a l s a f t e r s e t t l i n g . Drainage T i l e l i n e s of at l e a s t 4 - i n c h d i a m e t e r should be so s p a c e d that w a t e r w i l l not have to t r a v e l m o r e than 100 f e e t to r e a c h a t i l e d r a i n . Any s u i t a b l e p a t t e r n or t i l e l i n e a r r a n g e m e n t m a y be used, but the h e r r i n g b o n e or the g r i d i r o n a r r a n g e m e n t s w i l l fit m o s t s i t u a t i o n s . Cut d i t c h e s o r t r e n c h e s into the s u b g r a d e so t i l e s l o p e s u n i f o r m l y . Do not p l a c e t i l e d e e p e r than i s n e c e s s a r y to obtain the d e s i r e d amount of s l o p e . T i l e l i n e s should have a m i n i m u m f a l l of . 5 p e r c e n t . S t e e p e r g r a d e s c a n be u s e d but t h e r e w i l l s e l d o m be a need for t i l e l i n e g r a d e s s t e e p e r than 3 p e r c e n t to 4 p e r c e n t on a putting g r e e n . T i l e m a y be a g r i c u l t u r a l c l a y tile, c o n c r e t e , p l a s t i c , or p e r f o r a t e d a s p h a l t - p a p e r c o m p o s i t i o n . A g r i c u l t u r a l t i l e j o i n t s should be butted t o g e t h e r with no m o r e than 4 " of s p a c e b e t w e e n j o i n t s . T h e tops of t i l e should be c o v e r e d with a s p h a l t paper, f i b r e g l a s s c o m p o s i t i o n , or with p l a s t i c s p a c e r s and c o v e r s d e s i g n e d for this p u r p o s e e The c o v e r i n g p r e v e n t s g r a v e l f r o m f a l l i n g into the t i l e . T i l e should be l a i d on a f i r m bed of j n to 1 " of g r a v e l to r e d u c e p o s s i b l e w a s h of s u b g r a d e s o i l up into t i l e l i n e by f a s t w a t e r flow. If the s u b g r a d e c o n s i s t s of u n d i s t u r b e d soil, so that washing i s unlikely, i t i s p e r m i s s i b l e to l a y t i l e d i r e c t l y on the b o t t o m of the t r e n c h . A f t e r the t i l e i s laid, the t r e n c h e s should be b a c k f i l l e d with g r a v e l , c a r e f u l not to d i s p l a c e the c o v e r i n g o v e r the j o i n t s . being G r a v e l and Sand B a s e The e n t i r e s u b g r a d e should be c o v e r e d with a c o u r s e of c l e a n w a s h e d g r a v e l or c r u s h e d stone p l a c e d to a m i n i m u m t h i c k n e s s of 4 i n c h e s . The p r e f e r r e d m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s p u r p o s e i s w a s h e d pea g r a v e l of about 4 n d i a m e t e r p a r t i c l e s i z e . L a r g e r g r a v e l o r stone m a y be used, but it i s i m p o r t a n t that c h a n g e s in s i z e b e t w e e n this c o u r s e of m a t e r i a l and the s u c c e e d i n g one o v e r l y i n g i t not be too g r e a t . O t h e r w i s e , s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s f r o m o v e r lying m a t e r i a l will w a s h into the g r a v e l , c l o g the p o r e s or d r a i n a g e w a y s , and t h e r e b y r e d u c e the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of the g r a v e l . The m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e d i s c r e p a n c y a p p e a r s to be 5 to 7 d i a m e t e r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , i f 4 " pea g r a v e l (about 6 m m . ) i s used, then the p a r t i c l e s of the o v e r l y i n g c o u r s e of sand should not be l e s s than 1 m m . in d i a m e t e r . If stone of 1 i n c h d i a m e t e r w e r e used, it would be n e c e s s a r y to i n c l u d e a c o u r s e of pea g r a v e l to p r e v e n t the m o v e m e n t of s m a l l e r s o i l a g g r e g a t e s into the s t o n e . When the g r a v e l i s in p l a c e , a s s u m i n g that pea g r a v e l has b e e n used, a 12"" l a y e r of c o u r s e w a s h e d sand ( c o m m e r c i a l c o n c r e t e sand i s s a t i s f a c t o r y ) should be p l a c e d to a u n i f o r m t h i c k n e s s o v e r the g r a v e l . The t o l e r a n c e for e r r o r in the t h i c k n e s s of g r a v e l and sand c o u r s e s should be l i m i t e d to + . 5 i n c h . 1. A p r o f i l e of a p r o p e r l y c o n s t r u c t e d putting g r e e n i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e " R i n g i n g " the G r e e n When the c o u r s e s of g r a v e l and sand a r e in p l a c e and o u t l e t s have b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d for s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r (through t i l e l i n e s ) , the g r e e n should be " r i n g e d " with the s o i l which i s to be u s e d f o r a p r o n s and c o l l a r s . T h i s s o i l should be p l a c e d around the g r e e n and any c o n t o u r s e s t a b l i s h e d in such a way that they w i l l b l e n d into the putting s u r f a c e . The next s t e p i s to f i l l the d e p r e s s i o n , which r e p r e s e n t s the putting s u r f a c e , with the p r e p a r e d t o p s o i l m i x t u r e d e s c r i b e d in the following p a r a g r a p h s . Soil Mixture A c o v e r i n g of t o p s o i l m i x t u r e at l e a s t 12 i n c h e s in t h i c k n e s s should be p l a c e d o v e r the sand and g r a v e l l a y e r s . The s o i l m i x t u r e should m e e t c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . P e r m e a b i l i t y . A f t e r c o m p a c t i o n at a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i e l d c a p a c i t y a s d e s c r i b e d by F e r g u s o n , Howard, and B l o o d w o r t h (8), a c o r e of the s o i l m i x t u r e should p e r m i t the p a s s a g e of not l e s s than 2 i n c h of w a t e r p e r hour nor m o r e than I2 i n c h e s per hour when s u b j e c t e d to a h y d r a u l i c head of . 25 i n c h e s . P o r o s i t y . A f t e r c o m p a c t i o n , a s a m p l e of the s o i l m i x t u r e should have a m i n i m u m total p o r e s p a c e of 33 p e r c e n t . Of t h i s p o r e s p a c e , the l a r g e (nonc a p i l l a r y ) p o r e s should c o m p r i s e f r o m 12 to 18 p e r c e n t and c a p i l l a r y p o r e s p a c e f r o m 15 to 21 p e r c e n t . I n f o r m a t i o n with r e s p e c t to bulk density, m o i s t u r e r e t e n t i o n c a p a c i t y , m e c h a n i c a l a n a l y s i s , and d e g r e e of a g g r e g a t i o n in the hands of a s o i l p h y s i c i s t m a y be helpful in f u r t h e r evaluating the p o t e n t i a l b e h a v i o r of a putting g r e e n soilo F e w n a t u r a l s o i l s m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t s s t a t e d a b o v e . It w i l l be n e c e s s a r y to u s e m i x t u r e s of sand, soil, and o r g a n i c m a t t e r . B e c a u s e of the diff e r e n c e s in b e h a v i o r induced by s u c h f a c t o r s a s sand p a r t i c l e s i z e and g r a d a tion, the m i n e r a l d e r i v a t i o n and d e g r e e of a g g r e g a t i o n of the c l a y c o m p o n e n t , the d e g r e e of d e c o m p o s i t i o n of the o r g a n i c m a t t e r , and the s i l t c o n t e n t of the soil, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to m a k e s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r s o i l m i x t u r e s without a p p r o p r i a t e l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s e s . The s u c c e s s of the method of c o n s t r u c t i o n h e r e i n d e s c r i b e d i s dependent upon the p r o p e r p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s o i l and the r e l a t i o n s h i p of that s o i l to the d r a i n a g e b e d u n d e r l y i n g the g r e e n . T h e r e f o r e a p h y s i c a l a n a l y s i s of s o i l should be m a d e b e f o r e the s o i l c o m p o n e n t s a r e p r o c u r e d . When the p r o p e r p r o p o r t i o n s of the s o i l c o m p o n e n t s have b e e n d e t e r m i n e d , i t b e c o m e s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t that they be m i x e d in the p r o p o r t i o n s i n d i c a t e d . A s m a l l e r r o r in p e r c e n t a g e s in the c a s e of a p l a s t i c c l a y s o i l c a n l e a d to s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . To i n s u r e thorough m i x i n g and the a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t of the s o i l c o m p o n ents, " o f f - s i t e " mixing is advocated. Any s o i l p h y s i c s l a b o r a t o r y which i s equipped with the f a c i l i t i e s to c a r r y out the m e a s u r e m e n t d e s c r i b e d by F e r g u s o n , et a l . ( 8 ) c a n p r e s c r i b e a s o i l m i x t u r e for putting g r e e n u s e . G r e e n S e c t i o n o f f i c e s c a n provide n a m e s of l a b o r a t o r i e s so equipped upon r e q u e s t . Soil Covering, Placement, Smoothing, and F i r m i n g When s o i l h a s b e e n thoroughly m i x e d o f f - s i t e i t should be t r a n s p o r t e d to the g r e e n s i t e and dumped at the edge of the g r e e n . Padding the edge of the g r e e n with b o a r d s m a y be n e c e s s a r y to p r e v e n t d i s t u r b a n c e by w h e e l e d v e h i c l e s of the s o i l p r e v i o u s l y p l a c e d around the outside of the putting s u r f a c e . A s m a l l c r a w l e r - t y p e t r a c t o r s u i t a b l y equipped with a blade i s u s e f u l f o r pushing the s o i l m i x t u r e out onto the p r e p a r e d b a s e . If the t r a c t o r i s a l w a y s o p e r a t e d with i t s weight on the s o i l m i x t u r e that has b e e n hauled onto the s i t e , the b a s e w i l l not be d i s t u r b e d . G r a d e s t a k e s s p a c e d at f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s on the putting s u r f a c e w i l l be helpful in i n d i c a t i n g the depth of the s o i l m i x t u r e . F i n i s h i n g the g r a d e will l i k e l y r e q u i r e the u s e of a l e v e l or t r a n s i t . When the s o i l has b e e n s p r e a d u n i f o r m l y o v e r the s u r f a c e of the putting g r e e n i t should be c o m p a c t e d or f i r m e d u n i f o r m l y . A r o l l e r u s u a l l y i s not s a t i s f a c t o r y b e c a u s e it " b r i d g e s " the soft s p o t s . " F o o t i n g " or t r a m p l i n g the s u r f a c e w i l l tend to e l i m i n a t e the s o f t s p o t s . R a k i n g the s u r f a c e and r e p e a t i n g the footing o p e r a t i o n w i l l r e s u l t in having the s e e d or stolon bed u n i f o r m l y f i r m . It should be e m p h a s i z e d that the r a k i n g and footing should b e r e p e a t e d until u n i f o r m f i r m n e s s i s o b t a i n e d . W h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , c o m p l e t e s a t u r a t i o n of the s o i l by e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d . W a t e r i s u s e f u l in s e t t l i n g and f i r m i n g the s u r f a c e . T h i s p r a c t i c e w i l l a l s o r e v e a l any w a t e r - h o l d i n g d e p r e s s i o n s which m i g h t i n t e r f e r e with s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e . S t e r i l i z a t i o n of S o i l and E s t a b l i s h m e n t of T u r f T h e s e s t e p s m a y be a c c o m p l i s h e d by following w e l l - k n o w n c o n v e n t i o n a l procedures. Conclusions The f o r e g o i n g s t e p s in c o n s t r u c t i o n have b e e n u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y in m a n y g r e e n s in v a r i o u s p a r t s of the nation. It should be e m p h a s i z e d that e a c h s t e p in c o n s t r u c t i o n i s dependent upon a l l the o t h e r s . It i s i n a d v i s a b l e to u s e a b l a n k e t of g r a v e l u n l e s s the p r o p e r s o i l m i x t u r e i s u s e d a b o v e . It i s i n a d v i s a b l e to u s e the g r a v e l and the p r o p e r s o i l m i x t u r e u n l e s s the i n t e r m e d i a t e l a y e r of sand i s u s e d to s e p a r a t e t h e m . T h e c o u r s e s of g r a v e l and sand m a y r e s u l t in s a t u r a t i o n of the l o w e r p o r t i o n s of the t o p s o i l m i x t u r e u n l e s s the p r o p e r soil mixture is used. In s h o r t , do not a t t e m p t to i n c o r p o r a t e s o m e of t h e s e s t e p s into g r e e n c o n s t r u c t i o n u n l e s s they a r e a l l u s e d in e x a c t a c c o r d a n c e with t h e s e r e c o m mendations. The f o r e g o i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t e l l the club how to p r o c e e d with the j o b of building a putting g r e e n but they do not t e l l why one should follow t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s . T h e r e i s a m p l e e v i d e n c e in the body of published l i t e r a t u r e to supp o r t the m e t h o d s h e r e i n a d v o c a t e d . F o r t h o s e who a r e i n t e r e s t e d in a study of the p r i n c i p l e s which a r e involved and which a r e u s e d a s a b a s i s f o r the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s s e t f o r t , a l i s t of r e f e r e n c e s i s appended. References 1. A l d e r f e r , R . B . " C o m p a c t i o n of T u r f S o i l s - S o m e C a u s e s and E f f e c t s . " USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . IV, No. 2, J u n e 1951. 2. D a v i s , R . R . The P h y s i c a l Condition of Putting G r e e n S o i l s and Other E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g the Q u a l i t y of G r e e n s . P h . D . T h e s i s , P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y , 1950. 3. F e r g u s o n , M. " C o m p a c t i o n , D r a i n a g e and A e r a t i o n . " A s s o c i a t i o n J o u r n a l and T u r f M a n a g e m e n t , 3 ( 2 ) : 3 2 - 3 3 , United S t a t e s Golf 1950. 4C F e r g u s o n , Me H. " S o i l W a t e r and S o i l A i r : T h e i r R e l a t i o n s h i p to T u r f P r o d u c t i o n . " USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . Ill, No. 3, J u l y 1 9 5 0 . 5. F e r g u s o n , M. H. "When You B u i l d a Putting G r e e n Make S u r e the S o i l M i x t u r e i s a Good One. " USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . VIII, No. 6, N o v e m b e r 1955. 6o F e r g u s o n , Ma H. " S o i l M o d i f i c a t i o n - P r a c t i c e s With Putting G r e e n S o i l s . " P r o c e e d i n g s 1957 T u r f C o n f e r e n c e of M i d w e s t R e g i o n a l T u r f F o u n d a t i o n . 7. Ferguson, 8. F e r g u s o n , M. He , H. L . Howard, and M. E . B l o o d w o r t h . "Laboratory Methods for E v a l u a t i o n of Putting G r e e n S o i l M i x t u r e s . " USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . XIII, No. 5, S e p t e m b e r I 9 6 0 . 9. G a r m a n , W. L . " P e r m e a b i l i t y of V a r i o u s G r a d e s of Sand and P e a t and M i x t u r e s of T h e s e With S o i l and V e r m i c u l i t e . " United S t a t e s Golf A s s o c i ation J o u r n a l and T u r f M a n a g e m e n t , 5 ( l ) : 2 7 - 2 8 : 1952 M. H. "Soils." USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . XII, No. 1, A p r i l 1959. 10. Gordon, W i l l i a m F . " D e s i g n with R e s p e c t to M a i n t e n a n c e P r a c t i c e s . " USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . XII, No. 2, J u n e 1959. 11. Howard, H. L . The R e s p o n s e of S o m e Putting G r e e n S o i l M i x t u r e s to C o m p a c t i o n . M 0 S 0 T h e s i s , T e x a s A. & M. C o l l e g e . Unpublished. 1959. 12. H u m b e r t , R . P . and F . V . G r a u . " S o i l and T u r f R e l a t i o n s h i p s . " P a r t I, USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . II, No. 2, June, 1949; P a r t II, USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . II, No. 3, J u l y 1949. 13. Kunze, J . R 0 The E f f e c t of C o m p a c t i o n of D i f f e r e n t Golf G r e e n M i x t u r e s on P l a n t Growth. M. S . T h e s i s , T e x a s A. & M. C o l l e g e . Unpublished. 1956. 14. Kunze, J 9 R . , M, H. F e r g u s o n , and J . B . P a g e . p a c t i o n on Golf G r e e n M i x t u r e s . " USGA J o u r n a l , b e r 1957. 15. Lunt, Oc R . " M i n i m i z i n g C o m p a c t i o n in Putting G r e e n s . " V o l . IX, No. 5, S e p t e m b e r 1956. 16. Lunt, O. R . " S o i l T y p e s f o r Putting G r e e n s . " g r a s s C u l t u r e , V o l . 8, No. 2, A p r i l 1958. 17. Radko, A. M. " R e n o v a t i o n v s R e b u i l d i n g . " 1, A p r i l 1959. " T h e E f f e c t s of C o m V o l . X, No. 6, N o v e m USGA J o u r n a l , Southern California Turf- USGA J o u r n a l , V o l . XII, No. •a F i g u r e 1. C r o s s - s e c t i o n of a putting g r e e n p r o f i l e showing a t r e n c h and t i l e l i n e . (A) 4 - i n c h d i a m e t e r t i l e ; ( B ) s u b g r a d e of native s o i l o r f i l l m a t e r i a l ; ( C ) g r a v e l - p r e f e r a b l y pea g r a v e l of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 / 4 " d i a m e t e r . Minimum thickness 4 i n c h e s ; (D) c o a r s e sand - this sand should be of a s i z e of 1 m m . or g r e a t e r . One and o n e - h a l f to 2 i n c h e s in t h i c k n e s s ; ( E ) t o p s o i l m i x t u r e , m i n i m u m t h i c k n e s s of 12 i n c h e s . SOILS F O R HEAVILY T R A F F I C K E D T U R F AREAS Roy Goss 1 When we u s e the t e r m s o i l , we a r e being j u s t about a s g e n e r a l a s we a r e when we say people, for t h e r e a r e p e r h a p s m o r e v a r i a t i o n s in s o i l s than t h e r e a r e in p e o p l e . One i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n t h e s e c o m p a r i s o n s i s that we c a n e a s i l y c h a n g e our s o i l s , w h e r e a s the p e o p l e - - w e l l , that i s a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . The s o i l with w h i c h we have to w o r k in s p e c i a l i z e d t u r f i s p e r h a p s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , but y e t i s p r o b a b l y e x p l o r e d a s l i t t l e a s any o t h e r f a c t o r . Why i s i t that we tend to d i s r e g a r d t h i s i m p o r t a n c e in c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m s when it i s a c e r t a i n t y that t h i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t p h a s e c a n d e t e r m i n e the s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e of the o p e r a t i o n ? Many c o m m u n i t i e s vote f o r i n c r e a s e d t a x e s to build a l o v e l y , d u r a b l e s c h o o l with e x c e l l e n t u t i l i z a t i o n of f a c i l i t i e s . However, no c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s given to the ground w h e r e p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n and s p o r t s a r e j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t to h e a l t h y b o d i e s a s c h e m i s t r y , m a t h e m a t i c s , and E n g l i s h a r e to healthy m i n d s . Golf c o u r s e s w i l l pay e x t r e m e l y high p r i c e s f o r land on w h i c h to c o n s t r u c t a golf c o u r s e , and then a d o r n t h i s land with b e a u t i f u l club h o u s e s , s w i m m i n g pools, and o t h e r i t e m s f o r m e m b e r luxury, but t u r n l i t t l e thought or a t t e n t i o n to the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the b a s i c c o m m o d i t y , the golf c o u r s e . If i t w e r e not f o r the building of the golf c o u r s e , then the b e a u t i f u l c l u b house and a l l o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s p r o b a b l y would not have b e e n b u i l t in the f i r s t p l a c e , b e c a u s e club p r i v i l e g e s c a n be gotten a n y w h e r e downtown. Golf c o u r s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , s c h o o l m a i n t e n a n c e p e r s o n n e l , p a r k s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , and o t h e r s a l l have the s a m e p r o b l e m s when it c o m e s down to the b a s i c c o m m o d i t y , s o i l . We a r e so p r o n e to look at what i s above the ground that we r a r e l y stop to a n a l y z e what i s b e n e a t h the s u r f a c e . In t h i s paper, then, I s h a l l t r y to b r i n g out a few of the i m p o r t a n t points that should be c o n s i d e r e d by t u r f people, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e s e a r e a s a r e to r e ceive considerable traffic. I m p o r t a n c e of S o i l s W a t e r . A good s o i l f o r t u r f g r a s s a r e a s that m u s t w i t h s t a n d heavy t r a f f i c i s one that w i l l hold r e a s o n a b l y l a r g e a m o u n t s of w a t e r , but y e t not e x c e s s i v e a m o u n t s . T h i s s o i l both in s t r u c t u r e and t e x t u r e m u s t have s u c h q u a l i t i e s so a s to allow r a p i d p e r c o l a t i o n and e s c a p e of applied w a t e r or e x c e s s i v e r a i n f a l l . T h i s s o i l m u s t d r a i n out a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e in o r d e r to p r e v e n t puddling and c o m p a c t i o n due to t r a f f i c following the a p p l i c a t i o n of w a t e r , e i t h e r by i r r i g a t i o n o r r a i n f a l l . The p o r t i o n of the s o i l that i s c o n c e r n e d with w a t e r s t o r a g e i s c a l l e d " p o r e s p a c e . If The p o r t i o n of the p o r e s p a c e that i s c o n c e r n e d with w a t e r s t o r a g e i s c a l l e d " m i c r o p o r e s . M T h e g r e a t e r the s o i l v o l u m e i s in m i c r o p o r e s , the g r e a t e r the w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y of the s o i l . C l a y s o i l s have a v e r y high p e r c e n t a g e of the t o t a l p o r e s p a c e a s m i c r o p o r e s . A s s i s t a n t A g r o n o m i s t and E x t e n s i o n T u r f S p e c i a l i s t , ton E x p e r i m e n t Station, Puyallup, W a s h i n g t o n . Western Washing- A i r . A i r o r oxygen in the s o i l i s j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t to growing plants a s the a i r that we b r e a t h e . S o i l s without a i r a r e g e n e r a l l y t h o s e that a r e w a t e r logged or o t h e r w i s e s t a g n a n t . H e r e we w i l l find only l i m i t e d plant growth and then only s p e c i a l i z e d t y p e s of plants,, S o i l s m u s t r e a d i l y a c c e p t a i r and have c o n s i d e r a b l e s t o r a g e for t h i s i m p o r t a n t c o m m o d i t y . W a t e r and a i r a r e i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to e a c h o t h e r . That i s , a s the w a t e r d e c r e a s e s , the amount of a i r in the s o i l i n c r e a s e s , and l i k e w i s e a l l of the a i r in the s o i l c a n be c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d by w a t e r i f e x c e s s i v e a m o u n t s a r e a p p l i e d . The p o r tion of the t o t a l p o r e s p a c e c o n c e r n e d with a i r s t o r a g e i s c a l l e d the " m a c r o poreSo n T h e s e a i r s p a c e s , or voids, a r e so l a r g e that w a t e r d r a i n s f r o m t h e m r e a d i l y due to f o r c e s of g r a v i t y . Now, both the m i c r o p o r e s and m a c r o p o r e s a r e dependent upon two f a c t o r s , that i s , the t e x t u r e and s t r u c t u r e of t h e s e s o i l s . F o r e x a m p l e , a c l a y s o i l which i s c o n s i d e r e d a h e a v y - t e x t u r e d s o i l has a v e r y high p e r c e n t a g e of p o r e s p a c e . However, the g r e a t e r p o r t i o n of this i s m i c r o p o r e s and l i t t l e of it m a c r o p o r e s . Hence, the w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y of c l a y s o i l i s v e r y high, and it h a s l i t t l e a b i l i t y to a e r a t e . The t e x t u r e of this s o i l i s d e t e r m i n e d by i t s m e c h a n i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , that i s , the p e r c e n t a g e of sand, silt, c l a y and o r g a n i c m a t t e r . The s t r u c t u r e of t h i s s o i l , which i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t for the m a c r o p o r e c a p a c i t y , i s d e t e r m i n e d by the a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e s e p a r t i c l e s . If the h e a v i e r f r a c t i o n s of the s o i l a r e w e l l a g g r e g a t e d , then m a c r o p o r e s p a c e i s highly i n c r e a s e d . However, if t h e s e p a r t i c l e s a r e d i s e n t e g r a t e d , that i s , puddled or packed, t h e r e i s a r e s u l t a n t l o s s of m a c r o p o r e s and an i n c r e a s e of m i c r o p o r e s , making the s o i l s then i n creasingly wetter. Compaction,, T e x t u r e and s t r u c t u r e have a l r e a d y b e e n b r i e f l y touched upon; however, they should be m e n t i o n e d a g a i n h e r e , b e c a u s e t h e s e a r e the two f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g c o m p a c t i o n , a s s u m i n g that t h e r e a r e c o m p a c t i o n f o r c e s at play. B a s i c l y , the f i n e r the s o i l t e x t u r e , the m o r e c o m p a c t i o n one c a n e x p e c t i f m e c h a n i c a l f o r c e s a r e s e t up. C l a y s o i l s p e r h a p s c o m p a c t b e t t e r o r e a s i e r than any o t h e r s o i l b e c a u s e , b r o k e n down to t h e i r individual p a r t i c l e s , they a r e the s m a l l e s t . C o m p a c t i o n , in this s e n s e then, i s r e l a t e d to s o i l t e x t u r e . E v e n in the fine r a n g e s of the sands, which c o m p a r e d to c l a y a r e v e r y c o a r s e , we c a n a c h i e v e quite a high s t a t e of c o m p a c t i o n . Due to the a c t i o n of d e c a y i n g o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l and o r g a n i c a d h e s i v e s the f i n e r s o i l p a r t i c l e s , s u c h a s c l a y , a r e bound t o g e t h e r in what i s t e r m e d a g g r e g a t e s . Well-aggregated s o i l s have a high amount of p o r e s p a c e , and a l a r g e a m o u n t of this total p o r e s p a c e i s m a c r o p o r e s p a c e which w i l l hold a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of a i r . It p e r h a p s should be pointed out h e r e that a good s o i l w i l l have at l e a s t 50 p e r c e n t p o r e s p a c e , and at l e a s t o n e - h a l f of this t o t a l p o r e s p a c e i s m a c r o p o r e s p a c e , which w i l l not hold w a t e r a g a i n s t the f o r c e s of g r a v i t y . T h i s , then, i s the p o r e s p a c e a v a i l a b l e for a i r s t o r a g e . If s o i l s containing a g g r e g a t e s a r e worked, or packed, or o t h e r w i s e puddled in a wet condition, t h e s e a g g r e g a t e s m o s t often b r e a k down. When t h e s e a g g r e g a t e s b r e a k down, they r e t u r n to t h e i r individual f o r m s , and this i s w h e r e s e a l e d and c o m p a c t e d s u r f a c e s o r i g i n a t e . Sandy s o i l s w i l l not a g g r e g a t e to any d e g r e e , e s p e c i a l l y in the c o a r s e r r a n g e s . T h i s m e a n s that we c a n get c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p a c t i o n with sand, but due to the v e r y l a r g e p a r t i c l e s i z e the p o r e s p a c e found i s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y m a c r o p o r e s p a c e , that i s , that which w i l l hold a i r and not w a t e r . Mechanical Fractions As s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y the p e r c e n t a g e of sand, silt, c l a y , and o r g a n i c m a t t e r in a s o i l a l l go t o g e t h e r to m a k e up what i s t e r m e d t e x t u r e . How then do we d e t e r m i n e the t e x t u r e o r the m e c h a n i c a l p e r c e n t a g e of t h e s e v a r i o u s s e p a r a t e s in a s o i l ? The m o s t p r a c t i c a l m e t h o d s of d e t e r m i n i n g this a r e by s i e v i n g and by analyzing any s o i l s a m p l e that i s to be u s e d in a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m . T h e n t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n a s to w h e t h e r or not you a r e using the p r o p e r s o i l f o r the j o b . P e r s o n s with good j u d g m e n t and a m p l e e x p e r i e n c e c a n quite often c o m e f a i r l y c l o s e to d e t e r m i n i n g the t e x t u r e of the s o i l by f e e l i n g i t . T h i s method, h o w e v e r , i s only an e s t i m a t e of the s o i l f r a c t i o n in a s a m p l e and should not be r e l i e d upon when an e x p e n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m i s being a n t i c i p a t e d . A r e a s s u c h a s golf c o u r s e s and bowling g r e e n s should c o n s i d e r this p r o b l e m v e r y c a r e f u l l y b e f o r e launching on any c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m . A l s o c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m s involving p l a y f i e l d s and f o o t b a l l f i e l d s should be c o n c e r n e d with using the p r o p e r s o i l and taking the n e c e s s a r y p r e c a u t i o n s to do the j o b r i g h t in the b e g i n n i n g . Sand P e r c e n t a g e . The amount of sand in the t o t a l s o i l m i x t u r e should m a k e f r o m at l e a s t 70 p e r c e n t to 85 p e r c e n t of the t o t a l v o l u m e . As m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , the function of sand in t h i s c a s e i s to s e r v e a s the f r a m e w o r k in the s o i l m i x t u r e . Sand h a s l i t t l e or no n u t r i e n t - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y . However, i t s p o r e s p a c e s a r e c o m p o s e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y of m a c r o p o r e s w h i c h w i l l allow l a r g e a m o u n t s of a i r in the s o i l . The r o l e of sand. F r a m e w o r k and l a r g e m a c r o p o r e s or a i r s p a c e s a r e the c h i e f functions of sand. T h i s of c o u r s e w i l l p r e v e n t c o m p a c t i o n to any great degree. Properties. The p r o p e r t i e s of sand f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n should c o n f o r m a p p r o x i m a t e l y to s o m e of the following s t a n d a r d s . V e r y l i t t l e of the sand u s e d should be l a r g e r in s i z e than 0 . 4 m m . and l i k e w i s e l i t t l e should be l e s s than 0. 2 m m . T h e r e f o r e about 75 p e r c e n t of the sand should f a l l b e t w e e n the s i z e s of 0. 4 m m . and 0. 2 m m . No m o r e than 10 p e r c e n t of the sand should be l e s s than 0. 10 m m . Any p a r t i c l e s i z e s m a l l e r than 0. 10 m m . should d e f i n i t e l y be avoided. In o r d e r to c o n v e r t m i l l i m e t e r s to m e s h e s p e r inch, w h i c h i s a c o m m o n d e s i g n a t i o n f o r p u r c h a s i n g f r o m sand and g r a v e l y a r d s , we c a n s a y that the p a r t i c l e s i z e should f a l l b e t w e e n 60 m e s h and 175 m e s h , about 75 p e r c e n t should f a l l b e t w e e n 60 and 80 m e s h , and 25 p e r c e n t b e t w e e n 125 and 175 m e s h . T h i s w i l l s e e m r a t h e r c o a r s e , and c o m p a r e d to s i l t and c l a y it i s . However, we a r e a f t e r m a c r o p o r e s and r e s i s t a n c e to c o m p a c t i o n . Silt P e r c e n t a g e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y if we could avoid any p e r c e n t a g e of s i l t in a s o i l m i x t u r e f o r s o i l s being s u b j e c t e d to heavy t r a f f i c we would be b e t t e r off. S o i l s with s i l t p e r c e n t a g e s r a n g i n g h i g h e r than 3 0 p e r c e n t should be avoided in any c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m . P r o p e r t i e s . S i n c e the c o a r s e r s i l t p a r t i c l e s a r e so s i m i l a r in fine sands in r e g a r d to the amount of s u r f a c e e x p o s e d they have l i t t l e p a r t in the c h e m i c a l a c t i v i t y . The f i n e r s i l t s have s u f f i c i e n t s u r f a c e s e x p o s e d so that they do have s o m e c h e m i c a l a c t i v i t y . However, this amount i s even n e g l i g i b l e and c a n n o t be l o o k e d upon a s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of the c h e m i c a l a c t i v i t y of the s o i l . S i l t p a r t i c l e s a s s u c h have u n d e r g o n e l i t t l e w e a t h e r i n g and e x i s t in a r e l a t i v e l y r a w s t a t e s i m i l a r to the p a r e n t m a t e r i a l . Clay P e r c e n t a g e . The p e r c e n t a g e of c l a y in t h i s i d e a l s o i l m i x t u r e that we a r e r e f e r r i n g to i s f r o m 6 to 15 p e r c e n t . A m o u n t s l e s s than 6 p e r c e n t w i l l not f u r n i s h enough c h e m i c a l a c t i v i t y in the s o i l , and when we run into a m o u n t s o v e r 15 p e r c e n t we a r e running the r i s k of c a u s i n g c o m p a c t i o n , d e c r e a s i n g our m a c . r o p o r e s , and slowing down w a t e r p e r m e a t i o n . We u s u a l l y do not i n c o r p o r a t e c l a y in a s o i l m i x t u r e a s the pure c l a y m i n e r a l , but i t m o r e often e x i s t s in the f o r m of c l a y - l o a m or sandy c l a y - l o a m . E i t h e r of t h e s e two s o i l s n a m e d above c o n t a i n s v e r y high p o r t i o n s of c l a y in them 0 R o l e . The r o l e of c l a y i s to f u r n i s h or b r i n g about c h e m i c a l a c t i v i t y in the s o i l . T h e s e c l a y p a r t i c l e s s e r v e a s a s t o r e h o u s e f o r our m i n e r a l e l e m e n t s upon w h i c h the plant i s dependent. C l a y along with o t h e r o r g a n i c - c e m e n t i n g a g e n t s i s a p r i m a r y s o u r c e of s o i l a g g r e g a t e s . C l a y u s u a l l y d o e s not e x i s t a s s i n g l e p a r t i c l e s in the soil, but i s m o s t often a g g r e g a t e d and w i l l allow r e l a t i v e l y f r e e m o v e m e n t of both w a t e r and plant r o o t s t h r o u g h the s o i l . B y the a c t of b e c o m i n g a g g r e g a t e d , c l a y p a r t i c l e s tend to i n c r e a s e the m a c r o p o r e s p a c e allowing b e t t e r a e r a t i o n when this phenomenon o c c u r s . P r o p e r t i e s . As s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , c l a y i s the c h e m i c a l l y a c t i v e p o r t i o n of the soil 0 C l a y c o l l o i d s ( v e r y s m a l l p a r t i c l e s i z e s ) a r e m a d e up of v a r i o u s m i n e r a l s including s i l i c o n , a l u m i n u m and w a t e r , with o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s of i r o n , c a l c i u m , m a g n e s i u m , p o t a s s i u m , and s o d i u m . T h e s e c l a y m i n e r a l s a r e built up of l a y e r s or p l a t e s of s i l i c o n and a l u m i n u m . The c l a y m i n e r a l s a r e n e g a t i v e l y c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s and a t t r a c t s u c h p o s i t i v e l y c h a r g e d i o n s a s p o t a s s i u m , sodium, c a l c i u m , m a g n e s i u m , and so f o r t h . T h e s e p o s i t i v e l y c h a r g e d i o n s a r e held c l o s e l y to the s u r f a c e of the c l a y m i n e r a l and a r e u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d by the plant in a c o m p l e x e x c h a n g e r e a c t i o n . Organic Matter Percentage. The p e r c e n t a g e of o r g a n i c m a t t e r f o r our i d e a l s o i l should b e b e t w e e n 8 and 20 per c e n t . In no i n s t a n c e should t h i s a m o u n t of o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l be l e s s than 8, and p e r h a p s on our s a n d i e r s o i l s we m a y have n e e d f o r a m o u n t s g r e a t e r than 20 per c e n t to f a c i l i t a t e the s t o r i n g of a l a r g e r v o l u m e of n u t r i e n t s , R o l e , O r g a n i c m a t t e r functions in m u c h the s a m e way a s c l a y c It tends to bind o r a g g r e g a t e s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s into g r a n u l e s w h i c h w i l l a l l o w b e t t e r w a t e r , a i r , and food p e n e t r a t i o n into the s o i l . It tends to o v e r c o m e the puddling and packing e f f e c t . When the o r g a n i c m a t t e r e x i s t s in a r e l a t i v e l y r a w o r u n d e c o m p o s e d s t a t e s u c h a s f i b r o u s peat m o s s , i t f u r n i s h e s an e x t r e m e l y high amount of p o r e s p a c e due to the l a r g e amount of s p a c e it o c c u p i e s in r e l a t i o n to i t s d e n s i t y . The o r g a n i c m a t t e r w i l l a l s o hold l a r g e a m o u n t s of w a t e r , and this i s v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t in e x t r e m e l y sandy s o i l s . P r o p e r t i e s . O r g a n i c m a t t e r i s any f o r m of v e g e t a t i o n or a n i m a l m a t e r i a l w h i c h has not c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r g o n e d e c a y . We n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r o r g a n i c m a t t e r f o r s o i l a p p l i c a t i o n s a s being u n d e c o m p o s e d v e g e t a t i v e m a t t e r . Some of the m o r e c o m m o n t y p e s of o r g a n i c m a t t e r a r e peat m o s s , g e n e r a l l y of the sphagnum group, sawdust, s t r a w s , e t c . When o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s c o m p l e t e l y d e c o m p o s e d to i t s f i n a l p r o d u c t s , i t i s then c a l l e d h u m u s . O r g a n i c m a t t e r s e r v e s a s one of our m a j o r s t o r e h o u s e s of n u t r i e n t s and w a t e r , and t h i s o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r holding n i t r o g e n . O r g a n i c m a t t e r on a d r y weight b a s i s has a w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c i t y of s e v e r a l hundred p e r c e n t . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y of o r g a n i c m a t t e r i s that it i m p r o v e s the s o i l by the growth of m i c r o o r g a n i s m s . These microorganisms a r e the a g e n t s w h e r e b y the plant food e l e m e n t s of the s o i l a r e k e p t in c i r c u l a tion and s e r v e a s a s o u r c e of food and e n e r g y for the m a j o r i t y of t h e s e o r g a n isms. If we w i l l o b s e r v e the r u l e s a s s e t down above in our i d e a l s o i l c o n s t r u c tion f o r h e a v i l y t r a f f i c k e d t u r f a r e a s , I f e e l c e r t a i n that we w i l l not go wrong with t h i s type of m a n a g e m e n t in our c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m s . I b e l i e v e i t h a s b e e n a m p l y pointed out that the s o i l i s our m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o m m o d i t y in c o n s t r u c t i o n and t u r f m a n a g e m e n t , and that w h e r e s u m s of m o n e y which a r e r e q u i r e d in the a m o u n t s to c o n s t r u c t bowling g r e e n s and putting g r e e n s a r e being c o n s i d e r e d , we should not g u e s s at the p e r c e n t a g e s of m a t e r i a l s in t h e s e s o i l s but should have t h e m d e f i n i t e l y a n a l y z e d and a p p r o a c h t h i s in a b u s i n e s s l i k e manner. J u s t r e m e m b e r that good planning, c o n s t r u c t i o n , d o e s n ' t c o s t anything. It P a y s ! ! and m a n a g e m e n t IRRIGATION P U M P S John F. Schrunk* It i s i n d e e d a p l e a s u r e to a d d r e s s you on the s u b j e c t a s s i g n e d by y o u r c h a i r m a n , b e c a u s e we b e l i e v e i t c a n b e s t a t e d w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s of m o d e s t y t h a t t h e p u m p i s t h e h e a r t of t h e s p r i n k l i n g s y s t e m . It f o l l o w s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t w e m u s t g i v e t h e m o s t c a r e f u l t h o u g h t t o t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d c o r r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e p u m p . We s h a l l , t h e r e f o r e , e n d e a v o r t o p o i n t u p t h o s e f a c t o r s to b e c o n s i d e r e d by a l l who h a v e a n y t h i n g to do w i t h t h e p u m p ' s s e l e c t i o n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n . Centrifugal Pumps B e c a u s e of i t s s i m p l e d e s i g n , r u g g e d n e s s , t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h a d j u s t m e n t s a n d r e p a i r s c a n be m a d e , a n d i t s r e a s o n a b l e c o s t , t h e c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p i s m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d in i r r i g a t i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . A d v a n t a g e s of C e n t r i f u g a l P u m p s 1. High e f f i c i e n c y obtainable. 2. High d i s c h a r g e r a t e p o s s i b l e . 3. Simplicity and economy. 4. E a s e of i n s t a l l a t i o n . 5. A d a p t a b i l i t y to d i f f e r e n t s p e e d s c o n n e c t i o n to e l e c t r i c m o t o r s . operating speeds which allow d i r e c t - 6. No e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e w i t h v a l v e c l o s e d . 7. A l m o s t all end t h r u s t can be e l i m i n a t e d . 8. Nonoverloading with i n c r e a s e d heads. 9. Smooth flow t h r o u g h pump and u n i f o r m p r e s s u r e in d i s c h a r g e pipe. L i m i t a t i o n s of C e n t r i f u g a l P u m p s 1. Available head per stage is limited. 2. Suction lift is limited. 3. S u s c e p t i b l e to l o s i n g p r i m e . 4. May b e s o m e d a n g e r of o v e r l o a d i n g if h e a d i s d e c r e a s e d . 5. Usually r e q u i r e s m o r e space than a turbine. 6. E f f i c i e n c y w i l l d r o p if o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r g r e a t l y f r o m t h o s e for which pump was selected. ^Cornell Manufacturing Company. 70 W e a r i n g r i n g s m u s t be r e p l a c e d when w o r n . 8. W a t e r s e a l i s r e q u i r e d on s o m e b e a r i n g s to hold s u c t i o n . How they Work The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e of c e n t r i f u g a l pumps m a y be d e m o n s t r a t e d by a r o tating w h e e l or a w h i r l i n g b u c k e t . If a b u c k e t p a r t l y f i l l e d with w a t e r is w h i r l e d r a p i d l y enough, c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e w i l l hold the w a t e r a g a i n s t the b o t t o m and not a drop will be s p i l l e d . If a pipe w e r e i n s e r t e d in the b o t t o m of the b u c k e t and your a r m w e r e a pipe supplying w a t e r to the pail, a continuous s t r e a m of w a t e r would be pushed out of the pipe in the bottom* If a c a s i n g w e r e a r r a n g e d to c o l l e c t and guide the w a t e r a f t e r it s q u i r t s f r o m the hole in the b o t t o m of the pail, a s i m p l e c e n t r i f u g a l pump would be the r e s u l t with your a r m a s the s u c t i o n pipe, the pail a s i m p e l l e r , and the c a s i n g as volute. The P a r t s of a P u m p and How They Work The function of the i m p e l l e r is to t r a n s m i t e n e r g y o r v e l o c i t y head to the w a t e r , and the function of the volute c a s i n g which s u r r o u n d s the i m p e l l e r is to t r a n s f o r m this v e l o c i t y head into p r e s s u r e head Q The v o l u t e i s s p i r a l shaped, i n c r e a s i n g in s i z e and c l e a r a n c e f r o m the tip of the i m p e l l e r in the d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n of the i m p e l l e r . T h i s s p i r a l shape i s to a c c o m m o d a t e a g r e a t e r quantity of flow a s the w a t e r n e a r s the pump d i s c h a r g e and to r e d u c e g r a d u a l l y and s m o o t h l y i t s v e l o c i t y a s it e n t e r s the d i s c h a r g e l i n e . Unlike few w e a r i n g c a t e d by oil, fications for p o s i t i v e - a c t i n g types of pumps, c e n t r i f u g a l pumps have r e l a t i v e l y p a r t s . B e a r i n g s a r e u s u a l l y b r o n z e or b a b b i t and m a y be l u b r i g r e a s e , or w a t e r . It i s i m p o r t a n t that the m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' s p e c i l u b r i c a n t s be followed c l o s e l y . The c e n t r i f u g a l volute pump m a y be obtained in s i z e s v a r y i n g f r o m 25 g a l l o n s p e r minute to a l m o s t any s i z e d e s i r e d , It m a y be e i t h e r d i r e c t c o n n e c t e d or belted* T h e r e a r e two m a i n types of h o r i z o n t a l - c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p s - the side or s i n g l e suction, and the double s u c t i o n . T h r e e d i f f e r e n t types of i m p e l l e r s a r e c o m m o n l y used* They a r e open, s e m i - e n c l o s e d , and e n c l o s e d . O r d i n a r i l y the e n c l o s e d i m p e l l e r will show the h i g h e s t e f f i c i e n c y b e c a u s e of l e s s e r c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n p a r t s s e p a r a t i n g the p r e s s u r e and s u c t i o n c h a m b e r s . E f f i c i e n c y d r o p s when this c l e a r a n c e i n c r e a s e s , allowing w a t e r to s l i p by. Many pumps a r e equipped with w e a r i n g r i n g s w h i c h m a y be r e p l a c e d when the clearance becomes excessive. With w a t e r e n t e r i n g on both s i d e s of the i m p e l l e r , the d o u b l e - s u c t i o n pump i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y in h y d r a u l i c balance Q A c t u a l l y s o m e end t h r u s t m a y r e sult f r o m l a c k of s y m m e t r y of i m p e l l e r , u n b a l a n c e d flow of w a t e r in s u c t i o n l i n e , unequal w e a r of w e a r i n g r i n g s , or b l o c k a g e on one side of the i m p e l l e r . With the s i n g l e - s u c t i o n pump, p r e s s u r e builds up behind the i m p e l l e r hub and c a u s e s a t h r u s t t o w a r d the s u c t i o n side Q M a n u f a c t u r e r s u s e v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s to o v e r c o m e this, s u c h a s an e x t e r n a l b a l a n c e r or with h o l e s through the i m p e l l e r n e a r the hub of s i n g l e - s u c t i o n i m p e l l e r s . E a c h c e n t r i f u g a l pump m a n u f a c t u r e d i s d e s i g n e d f o r one ating c o n d i t i o n - - o n e c o m b i n a t i o n of head, c a p a c i t y , and s p e e d e s t e f f i c i e n c y . However the s a m e d e s i g n c a n be u s e d to c o v e r ditions with s o m e r e d u c t i o n in e f f i c i e n c y by m a k i n g one of the changes: particular operthat g i v e s higha r a n g e of c o n two following 1. The r p m at which the pump o p e r a t e s m a y be c h a n g e d . 2. The d i a m e t e r of the i m p e l l e r m a y be r e d u c e d . Affinity L a w s F r o m the equation of continuity, V=Q/A, any c h a n g e in v e l o c i t y of w a t e r through the pump w i l l c a u s e a p r o p o r t i o n a t e c h a n g e in the quantity of w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d . S i m i l a r l y , a s the s p e e d of the i m p e l l e r c h a n g e s , the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y of the w a t e r c h a n g e s in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , d i s c h a r g e m u s t v a r y d i r e c t l y with s p e e d . A l s o s i n c e H=V2/2g, the head v a r i e s a s the s q u a r e of the s p e e d . S i n c e power i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to the product of the d i s c h a r g e and head, power m u s t v a r y a s the cube of the s p e e d . Q V H V2 bhp ^ QH n ** n2 n3 S i m i l a r a n a l y s i s shows that the d i s c h a r g e w i l l v a r y d i r e c t l y a s the d i a m e t e r and width of i m p e l l e r . Of c o u r s e , t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e e x a c t only when the e f f i c i e n c y i s c o n stant, and t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n h y d r a u l i c and m e c h a n i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s beyond which the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b r e a k down. T h e y a r e m o r e n e a r l y t r u e f o r s m a l l i n c r e m e n t s r a t h e r than for l a r g e i n c r e m e n t s . Method of Changing P u m p s to F i t New Conditions If c o n d i t i o n s change a f t e r a pump has b e e n in o p e r a t i o n , o r the c o n d i t i o n s w e r e not c o r r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d in the f i r s t p l a c e , i t m a y be d e s i r a b l e to m a k e c e r t a i n c h a n g e s . A p u m p - p e r f o r m a n c e c u r v e should a l w a y s be demanded with the pump. T h i s m a y prove m o s t u s e f u l if t h e r e i s e v e r any t r o u b l e with the pump. If c a p a c i t y of w e l l or o t h e r w a t e r supply i s l e s s than c a p a c i t y of the pump, the c a p a c i t y m a y be d e c r e a s e d by: 1. Throttling 2. Reducing s p e e d 3. Turning down i m p e l l e r Changing the s p e e d is m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y on e n g i n e - d r i v e n p l a n t s . If the s o u r c e i s a well, b e f o r e a t t e m p t i n g any c h a n g e s the a c t u a l c a p a c i t y of the w e l l when o p e r a t i n g a g a i n s t the d e s i r e d head should be d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s c a n be done by p a r t i a l l y c l o s i n g the d i s c h a r g e v a l v e until the drawdown i s r e d u c e d to a c o n s t a n t , s a f e v a l u e . A f t e r the drawdown has r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t during s e v e r a l h o u r s of pumping, the d i s c h a r g e should be m e a s u r e d by f l u m e o r o t h e r means. E x a m p l e of E f f e c t of Change of Speed A c e n t r i f u g a l pump o p e r a t i n g at 1450 r p m r e q u i r e s 60 bhp to d i s c h a r g e 8 0 0 gpm a g a i n s t 2 0 0 ft. head. F i n d c a p a c i t y , head, and power r e q u i r e d at 1750 r p m at s a m e e f f i c i e n c y . Solution: S i n c e d i s c h a r g e will v a r y d i r e c t l y with c h a n g e in s p e e d gpm = 1750 X 8 0 0 1450" R = 9 6 5 gpm Head v a r i e s a s the s q u a r e of the s p e e d 2 H = X 2 0 0 = 292 ft. bhp v a r i e s a s the cube of s p e e d bhp = j-J^fg} 3 X 6 0 = 105 If the i m p e l l e r in the p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e w e r e one i n c h wide, the c a p a c i t y could be a p p r o x i m a t e l y doubled if a 2 " width w e r e s u b s t i t u t e d . L i k e w i s e , i f the i m p e l l e r d i a m e t e r i s 1 0 " and r e d u c e d to 9 " , the c a p a c i t y would be r e d u c e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y by the r a t i o 10/9. Speed m a y be i n c r e a s e d or d e c r e a s e d by changing the pulley d i a m e t e r or the s p e e d of the d r i v e r , but in the s a m e pump the d i a m e t e r of the i m p e l l e r c a n only be d e c r e a s e d . The i m p e l l e r c a n be put in a l a t h e and t u r n e d down to any d i a m e t e r d e s i r e d . E f f i c i e n c y d r o p s with l a r g e i m p e l l e r c u t s , b e c a u s e the guidance of the w a t e r in the i m p e l l e r i s i m p a i r e d and the f a v o r a b l e v e l o c i t y r a t i o s a r e a l t e r e d . I m p e l l e r c u t s r e s u l t in d e c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y and head of the pump, Utilizing the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the head, speed, d i s c h a r g e , and power of c e n t r i f u g a l pumps, i t i s p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e the c o r r e c t s p e e d for the new conditions. F o r example, A pump o p e r a t e s at 1750 r p m and d e l i v e r s 5 0 0 gpm a g a i n s t a t o t a l head of 2 0 0 f e e t . S i n c e gpm v a r i e s d i r e c t l y a s s p e e d and head v a r i e s a s the s q u a r e of speed, i f the pump w e r e slowed down to 1150 r p m the, 500 gpm X 2 0 0 ft. X = _ " 1750 U50" , and (1750)2 (1150) v X = _ " 1150 x 5 0 0 P750 200 (1150)2 (1750) „ „ = 3 3 0 _ " , g p m ' E x a m p l e of E f f e c t of Change in I m p e l l e r D i a m e t e r D i r e c t - c o n n e c t e d , m o t o r - d r i v e n units c a n b e s t be m a d e to f i t new c o n d i tions by changing the d i a m e t e r of the i m p e l l e r , b e c a u s e the s p e e d i s f i x e d . As in the above e x a m p l e , i f the unit w e r e d i r e c t - c o n n e c t e d with a 1 2 " r u n n e r and d e l i v e r s 500 gpm a g a i n s t 2 0 0 ft. head and it i s d e s i r e d to r e d u c e the o p e r a t i n g head to 175 ft. , then s i n c e gpm v a r i e s d i r e c t l y a s r u n n e r d i a m e t e r and head v a r i e s a s the s q u a r e of the r u n n e r d i a m e t e r , 1 7 5 ft. _ X ? 0 2 0 0 ft. " (12)2 11.2" i AMM — 12 = X gpm rnr? — 5 0 0 gpm x v X V ( 1 2 ) 2 x 175 / 200 = 500 x 1 1 . 2 =-= 12 ~ - = 4 6 5 gpm If the p e r f o r m a n c e c u r v e of the pump shows h e a d - c a p a c i t y c u r v e s f o r d i f f e r e n t i m p e l l e r d i a m e t e r s , the d i a m e t e r f o r any d e s i r e d gpm and head m a y be d e t e r m i n e d by i n t e r p o l a t i o n . C h a n g e s in s p e e d or i m p e l l e r d i a m e t e r w i l l a l s o c h a n g e e f f i c i e n c y and h o r s e p o w e r so that the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n head, speed, power, d i s c h a r g e , e t c . , a r e only a p p r o x i m a t i o n s but give good r e s u l t s i f the c h a n g e s r e q u i r e d are small. C o n s i d e r i n g the above a s s u f f i c i e n t to a c q u a i n t us s o m e w h a t with the p e r s o n a l i t y of the pump - - l e t ' s now c o n s i d e r i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . The c h a r t p r e s e n t e d h e r e t e l l s the s t o r y m u c h b e t t e r than w o r d s . T h e h e a d - c a p a c i t y c u r v e shows the b e h a v i o r of the pump under d i f f e r e n t h e a d s or p r e s s u r e s and c a p a c i t i e s . The i n t e r s e c t i o n of this l i n e with z e r o d e l i v e r y l i n e shows the head when the d i s c h a r g e v a l v e i s c l o s e d . A c o m m o n m i s c o n c e p t i o n about i r r i g a t i o n pumps i s that they supply des i g n e d head or p r e s s u r e at a l l t i m e s . T h i s i s not t r u e . The pump handles only what it m e e t s in the s y s t e m , and i t s p e r f o r m a n c e i s quite e l a s t i c . To the m a n who wants to do a j o b in pump s e l e c t i o n to which he c a n point with pride, a s y s t e m c u r v e i s a m u s t . T h i s c u r v e c o n s i s t s of plotting the v a r i o u s r e s i s t a n c e s that the pump m u s t o v e r c o m e . T h e s e r e s i s t a n c e s a r e n e v e r the s a m e for any two a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e y c o n s i s t of the pipeline r e s i s t a n c e , s t a t i c l i f t s , p r e s s u r e head, and v a r i a t i o n s in the w a t e r s o u r c e e l e v a t i o n s . T h e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s of the pump c a n b e s t be d e t e r m i n e d g r a p h i c a l l y by plotting the pumph e a d - c a p a c i t y c u r v e and the s y s t e m c u r v e on one s h e e t . ( S e e g r a p h . ) It i s the r u l e r a t h e r than the e x c e p t i o n that an i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m has a l m o s t an infinite n u m b e r of c a p a c i t y - h e a d r e q u i r e m e n t p o i n t s . The m i n i m u m and m a x i m u m c o n d i t i o n s a r e plotted, and a m o s t r e v e a l i n g s t o r y unfolds to the pump e n g i n e e r . F o r i n s t a n c e : The o p e r a t i n g point i s obtained by the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the two c u r v e s , i. e . , the p u m p ' s head c a p a c i t y and the s y s t e m ' s c u r v e . F o r s y s t e m s r e q u i r i n g only one pump and one pipe of c o n s t a n t d i a m e t e r , the p r o c e d u r e s a r e quite s i m p l e and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . However, the p r a c t i c a l s y s t e m c u r v e i s m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x b e c a u s e s e v e r a l pipe s i z e s and g r i d s a r e e m p l o y e d . Only a f t e r analyzing t h e s e two c u r v e s c a r e f u l l y c a n the p r o p e r pump s e l e c t i o n be m a d e . P u m p s in s e r i e s or pumps in p a r a l l e l only add to the c o m p l e x i t y of t h i s a n a l y s i s and e m p h a s i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of the g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h in solving pumpselection problems. ^jj-pnaH mojL In c o n c l u s i o n , good e n g i n e e r i n g d i c t a t e s a c a r e f u l study of c o n d i t i o n s to i n s u r e obtaining e f f i c i e n t e q u i p m e n t w h i c h w i l l a d e q u a t e l y p e r f o r m under the v a r i a b l e d e m a n d s of the t u r f i r r i g a t o r . T h e r e a r e no s y s t e m s with a c o n s t a n t c a p a c i t y demand, and the v e r y n a t u r e of a p u m p ' s p e r s o n a l i t y d i c t a t e s that i t i s the d e s i g n e n g i n e e r ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to do i t s thinking. With a p r o p e r a p p l i c a tion a p p r o a c h , m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m a c e n t r i f u g a l pump c a n be obtained. RANDOM THOUGHTS F R O M A F A R F r e d V. Grau1 C i r c u m s t a n c e s have p r e v e n t e d a c c e p t a n c e of D r . P a t t e r s o n ' s kind i n v i t a tion to p a r t i c i p a t e in your I 9 6 0 WSU T u r f g r a s s C o n f e r e n c e . In l i e u of making the t r i p , f o r which I a m not p h y s i c a l l y p r e p a r e d at p r e s e n t , I have a g r e e d to s e n d a few notes which, when published in the P R O C E E D I N G S , m a y be of i n t e r e s t to s o m e . Many of m y " R a n d o m T h o u g h t s " have b e e n g l e a n e d f r o m talking with s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s . S o m e have c o m e f r o m l e t t e r s to " G r a u ' s A n s w e r s in G o l f d o m . " E a c h r e p r e s e n t s a p h a s e of golf c o u r s e m a i n t e n a n c e with i n d i c a t e s PROGRESS. New C o n s t r u c t i o n L o w - c o s t m a c h i n e m a i n t e n a n c e to r e p l a c e e x p e n s i v e hand m e t h o d s i s the o r d e r of the day on new c o u r s e s . T h i s p r i n c i p l e d e s e r v e s to be an i n t e g r a l p a r t of e a c h new a r c h i t e c t u r a l and c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r a c t . Good d r a i n a g e i s so e s s e n t i a l to e a s y t u r f g r a s s m a i n t e n a n c e that i t c o m e s a s a rude s h o c k to r e a l i z e that m a n y new c o u r s e s a r e b u i l t and paid f o r b e f o r e the new o w n e r s r e a l i z e that they have a " b a d - d r a i n a g e l e m o n " on t h e i r hands. It i s rough on the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t who a s s u m e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r k e e p i n g the new c o u r s e in top condition, only to find that it i s not p o s s i b l e without e x t e n s i v e a l t e r a t i o n s , m o d i f i c a t i o n s , and r e b u i l d i n g . S o m e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s have b e e n f i r e d f o r d a r i n g to r e b u i l d a g r e e n that had b e e n in play l e s s than a y e a r . Thatch Control V i s i t s to c o u r s e s in the U . S . and C a n a d a c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e that the p r o b l e m of t h a t c h i s continuous and w i l l i n c r e a s e with t i m e . In o r d e r to have enough g r a s s to build a d e s i r a b l e c u s h i o n on which to play golf, we need to grow too m u c h g r a s s for i t s own good. The e x c e s s g r a s s c r e a t e s t h a t c h which d e m a n d s p e r i o d i c thinning and r e m o v a l in o r d e r to provide good a e r a t i o n and w a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n . Y e a r s ago I v i s i t e d a c o u r s e in the P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t . It w a s r a i n i n g at the t i m e , and it had b e e n r a i n i n g m o s t of the w i n t e r . T h e g r e e n s l o o k e d bad. My d i a g n o s i s w a s "the s o i l i s d r y . " You c a n w e l l i m a g i n e the i n c r e d u l i t y and l a c k of e n t h u s i a s m with which m y s t a t e m e n t was r e c e i v e d . Upon cutting a plug with a j a c k n i f e the p o w d e r - d r y s o i l was e x p o s e d one i n c h b e l o w the s u r f a c e . T h a t c h had a c t e d the s a m e a s a t h a t c h e d r o o f in S c o t l a n d or I r e l a n d - no w a t e r could e n t e r . M a c h i n e s f o r r e m o v i n g t h a t c h and a e r a t i n g the s o i l a r e e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e and should be in e v e r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s shed. T h i s o p e r a t i o n has b e c o m e s t a n d a r d on m a n y c o u r s e s . It i s of deep s i g n i f i c a n c e to g o l f e r s t h a t the playing s u r f a c e i s u n i m p a i r e d , even though the o p e r a t i o n i t s e l f g i v e s the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t the p l a c e i s being plowed. Agronomist, College Park, Maryland. T r a i n i n g Men The t u r f g r a s s p r o f e s s i o n i s in d e s p e r a t e need of c o l l e g e - t r a i n e d m e n , p r e f e r a b l y f o u r - y e a r s t u d e n t s . T h o s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s who e a r n e d t h e i r B a c h e l o r ' s o r M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e s a r e in p r i m e p o s i t i o n s with top s a l a r i e s , . But, j u s t so long a s m a n a g e m e n t shops around f o r a m a n who i s willing to a c c e p t a low s a l a r y s c a l e without f r i n g e b e n e f i t s , j u s t that m u c h l o n g e r we will have to wait f o r a d v a n c e m e n t in the p r o f e s s i o n . A f t e r all, the l e a s t c o s t l y i t e m in the budget i s a g e n e r o u s s a l a r y for a c o m p e t e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . We c a n i l l a f f o r d to e l e v a t e an u n s c h o o l e d m e c h a n i c to a m a n a g e m e n t p o s i t i o n when a s i n g l e m i s t a k e in the u s e of m o d e r n c h e m i c a l s could c o s t the club m a n y t i m e s the value of the f a l s e ' ' s a v i n g . " I n t e r f e r e n c e with P l a y As the n u m b e r of g o l f e r s i n c r e a s e s without a c o m p a r a b l e i n c r e a s e in the n u m b e r of golf h o l e s , it i s i n e v i t a b l e that c o u r s e s w i l l b e c o m e m o r e c r o w d e d . The n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e i s m o r e i n t e r f e r e n c e with play while n e c e s s a r y m a i n t e n a n c e o p e r a t i o n s a r e being c o n d u c t e d . One plan that i s being t r i e d is to do m a j o r mowing and c l e a n u p l a t e in the a f t e r n o o n and evening to m i n i m i z e i n s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e the e a r l y m o r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s . It i s a s s u m e d that, r e g a r d l e s s of dew or anything e l s e , the g r e e n s s t i l l m u s t be mowed in e a r l y m o r n i n g to p r e p a r e t h e m f o r the d a y ' s play, Labor, of c o u r s e , m u s t be willing to c o o p e r a t e i f the o t h e r w o r k i s to be done l a t e in the day. It would s e e m that the i d e a has m e r i t and d e s e r v e s a good t r i a l . Equipment A needed p i e c e of e q u i p m e n t would s e e m to be a f a s t , e f f i c i e n t v a c u u m s w e e p e r f o r f a i r w a y s . R e m o v a l of c l i p p i n g s , l e a v e s , a n d o t h e r d e b r i s has s e e m e d to m e f o r y e a r s to be a p r i m e o b j e c t i v e in s a n i t a t i o n and in providing m o r e p l e a s u r a b l e playing conditions.. Suction h a r v e s t e r s have b e e n d e s i g n e d f o r f i l b e r t s , f o r b u f f a l o g r a s s seed, and for c e r t a i n o t h e r c r o p s . T o d e s i g n one f o r u n e n c u m b e r e d f a i r w a y a r e a s should be an e n g i n e e r ' s d r e a m . D o e s anyone know of one in e x i s t e n c e . C l o s e Mowing Good golf t u r f i s p r e d i c a t e d on c l o s e mowing which a i d s in providing d e n s e f i r m playing s u r f a c e s . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t f o r t e e s and f a i r w a y s s t a r t i n g about 15 y e a r s ago has b r o u g h t about s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g c h a n g e s in the g r a s s e s that a r e being u s e d on t e e s and f a i r w a y s . O r d i n a r y b l u e g r a s s c o u l d n ' t t a k e i t . F e s c u e s f a r e d l i t t l e b e t t e r . T h e n c a m e i m p r o v e d b l u e g r a s s e s which t h r i v e d under c l o s e mowing. Now we have i m p r o v e d f e s c u e s w h i c h t o l e r a t e c l o s e c u t ting. Many r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e that t e e s a r e being c u t 1/4 i n c h to 3/8 inch; f a i r ways 1/2 inch to 3/4 i n c h . B e n t s , of c o u r s e , a l w a y s have b e e n adapted to v e r y c l o s e mowing. H e r e , too, we have i m p r o v e d v a r i e t i e s which do a b e t t e r j o b a l l around, Public Relations The f a c t that a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t c a n grow good g r a s s m a y have l i t t l e o r nothing to do with his s a l a r y s c a l e . His a b i l i t y and w i l l i n g n e s s to get along with people m a y be m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g the s i z e of his c h e c k e a c h month. Many s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t e l l m e that t h e i r c h i e f p r o b l e m i s coping with the individual q u i r k s and m o o d s of m a n a g e r s , o w n e r s , and c o m m i t t e e c h a i r m e n . The s o o n e r this p h a s e of t r a i n i n g of s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s i s r e c o g n i z e d by u n i v e r s i t i e s (and by the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ) , the s o o n e r we w i l l s e e the p r o f e s s i o n e l e v a t e d to i t s w e l l - d e s e r v e d p l a c e . Getting to Know M a t e r i a l s It would be s e n s e l e s s f o r a m e s s a g e s u c h a s t h i s to a t t e m p t to i n f l u e n c e anyone to u s e this or that m a t e r i a l . T h i s p a r a g r a p h i s an e a r n e s t p l e a f o r m o r e i n t e n s i v e study of e a c h c h e m i c a l , e a c h f e r t i l i z e r m a t e r i a l , e a c h fungic i d e - so that t h e r e i s a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how and why a m a t e r i a l w o r k s and what c a n be e x p e c t e d of i t . We have h e a r d f o o l i s h " c o n c l u s i o n s " drawn a f t e r a s i n g l e h a l f - h e a r t e d a t t e m p t to c o m p a r e one m a t e r i a l with a n o t h e r without trying to u n d e r s t a n d the p r i n c i p l e s involved. L e t u s s t r i v e f o r honest, open p e r f o r m a n c e t r i a l s o v e r a long enough span of t i m e to j u s t i f y the d r a w ing of c o n c l u s i o n s . It has b e e n disappointing to be denied the p r i v i l e g e of m e e t i n g with you. F o r now, this w r i t t e n m e s s a g e m u s t s u f f i c e . I would l i k e to l e a v e with you the thought that the t u r f g r a s s p r o f e s s i o n i s an h o n o r a b l e one and one that i s s t e a d i l y growing in s t a t u r e and i m p o r t a n c e . The s e c r e t of s u c c e s s i s c o n t i n ued study, e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , s e l f i m p r o v e m e n t , and a t t e n d a n c e at c o n f e r e n c e s w h e r e e x p e r i e n c e s c a n be s h a r e d . Conference Attendance 1960 Maintenance gardner Allen, Milton 1923 Pioneer Street Encumclaw, Washington Anderson, Frank A. County Ext. Service K 10 Blgd. Kennewick, Washington Barclay, Earl Route 1, Box 646 West Linn Oswego, Oregon Oswego C & GC Barr, H. E. 1011 Woodland Drive Vancouver, British Columbia Marine Drive G & CC Baruth, C. Wm, , Mrs. 2434 South 158th Street, Four Oaks Seattle, Washington Home Owner Bauman, Clayton 2036 9th Street, West Kirkland, Washington Glendale G & CC Bauman, Milton 235 10th Avenue, West Kirkland, Washington Overlake G & CC Beardsley, Norris Route 5 Spokane, Washington Spokane G & CC Beggs, Bert 118 - Joseph Street Victoria, British Columbia Victoria, British Columbia Bengeyfield, Wm. P. O. Box 567 Garden Grove, California U S GA Bytelaar, J. Vancouver British Columbia Fraser G C Blaskowsky, A. Box 317 Leavenworth, Washington Leavenworth G C Brink, V. C. University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia Agronomist Brinkworth, W. H. Los Altos California Toro Manufacturing Company Brown, Paul 3308 Harbor Avenue, S. W. Seattle 6, Washington Pacific Agro Carper, John 2400 Sixth Avenue South Seattle 4, Washington Ed Short Co. Clark, Dave 3365 Wallace Street Vancouver, British Columbia Point Grey G C Croft, Jerry 7506 Carnation Street Vancouver 13, British Columbia McClury G C Daniels, Jack 2437 1st Street, S. W. Seattle 66, Washington Greenup Spray Service Elliott, Art 1200 Stewart Street Seattle, Washington Washington Turf and Toro Everhart, Cliff P. O. Box 8025 Manito Station Spokane 36, Washington Manito G and CC Filer, Ted Washington State University Pullman, Washington Plant Pathologist Fluter, Ed 14015 N. Glisan Street Portland, Oregon Glendoover G C For tier, Bud Route 4, Box 548 F Albany, Oregon Springhill G & CC Fryer, Lee 3308 Harbor Avenue, S. W. Seattle 6, Washington Pacific Agro Gese, Pete Box 68 Snoqualmie, Washington Mount Si G C Gettle, Richard 1425 Pacific Highway Bellingham, Washington Bellingham G C Goddard, Murl 807 N. 3rd Street Yakima, Washington Elks G C Goetze, Norman Corvallis Oregon Oregon State College Gorley, Boyd Box 146 Pinehurst, Washington Everett G & CC Gray, Homer Corvallis Oregon Corvallis G & CC Gould, Charles, Dr. Western Wash. Experiment Station Puyallup, Washington Plant Pathology Goss, Roy, Dr. Western Wash. Experiment Station Puyallup, Washington Research Agronomist Gueho, E. M. 7 7 1 Austin Road New Westminster, British Columbia Vancouver Harrison, George 19445 Normandy Park Drive Seattle 66, Washington New Life Fertilizer Harrison, John Hayden Lake Idaho Hayden Lake G & CC Harvey, George Route 1 Warrenton, Oregon Astoria G & GC Haskell, Dick 10132 Ranier Avenue Seattle 88, Washington Seattle Park Department Hess, James 409 Filbert Road Alderwood Manor, Washington Garden of Floral Hills Hoggatt, George P. O. Box 1479 Wenatchee, Washington Wenatchee G C Holm, John Box 1196 Fairbanks, Alaska Northern Lights Nursery Hogan, Don 1910 Minor Avenue Seattle, Washington Professional Engineer Hulo, Dave 3110 Ruston Way T a c o m a , Washington — Western Plastic Corporation Imhoff, Route 2 Ellensburg, Washington Ingram, Ted 1819 East 14th Avenue Vancouver, British Columbia Seymour G C Jackson, Ed 9 0 1 Lane Street Seattle, Washington H. D. Fowler Co. , Incorporated Jangeward, Don Ellensburg Washington Central Washington College Jaslowski, John 2906 12th Avenue N. Renton, Washington Broadmore G C Johnson, Dale 15 West Yakima Avenue Yakima, Washington Penn Salt Company Junor, Harvey 6585 S. W. Scholls Ferry Road Portland, Oregon Portland G C Carsner, Henry 4502 Westwood Square East T a c o m a , Washington Specialist in Aquatic Weed Control Katlan, Marvin 7723 24th N. W. Seattle, Washington Ed, Short Company Koeph, Roland Volenteer Park Seattle, Washington Director of Horticulture Kuhn, Carl 9 0 1 Lane Street Seattle, Washington H. D. Fowler Co. , Incorporated Land, Henry, Jr. 23012 Brier Road Alderwood Manor, Washington Sandpoint G & CC Land, Henry, Sr. 9210 Winona Avenue, S. W. T a c o m a 99, Washington T a c o m a G & CC Latham, Jim Milwaukee Wisconsin Milwaukee Sewerage Latimer, Dean 11804 Woodbine Lane T a c o m a 99, Washington Fort Lewis GC Lawton, George 1919 Madison Olympia, Washington Olympia G & CC Macan, Vernon A. 1110 Beach Drive Victoria, British Columbia Golf Course Architect McKenzie, Ken 2 4 2 8 Alaskan Way Seattle, Washington Galbraith Company McKay, Gordon Chilliwack, British Columbia Chilliwack G C Marston, Art 7723 24th Avenue, S. W. Seattle 7, Washington Northwest Mower and Marine Matsumato Caldwell Idaho Caldwell G C Mihelich, Joe Route 3, Box 599 Enumclaw, Washington Enumclaw G & C C Miller, Don 520 South 53rd Street T a c o m a , Washington A - 1 Spray Service Munro, Jerry 7622 Simmonds Road Bothell, Washington Highland Point Gardens Nanto, T. K. 2903 Lakeside Drive Moses Lake, Washington Palmer, Mary, Mrs. 6th and Wall Seattle, Washington Seattle P. I. Patterson, J. K. , Dr. Washington State University Pullman, Washington Agronomy Department Pottenger, Joe 2704 Willow Yakima, Washington Yakima GC Proctor, Glen 2222 South 111th Seattle, Washington Ranier G & CC Putnam, Ken 122 9 N. 172nd Seattle 33, Washington Seattle G C Reed, Byron 43 N. E. 202nd Portland, Oregon E. P. Baltz and Son Reger, Austin Box 235 Liberty Lake G C Liberty Lake, Washington Ripley, Clarence Route 5 Spokane, Washington Wandemere G C Rogers, Ed 7723 24th N. W. Seattle, Washington Northwest Mower and Marine Co. Rowe, Chen P. O. Box 4 6 8 T a c o m a , Washington T a c o m a Seed Company Rogers, Tom 4126 Airport Way Seattle, Washington The Bentley Company Rolfson, Harold 2012 North Bethel Olympia, Washington State Parks and Recreation Comm. Schrunk, J. F„ 2323 Harvester Drive Portland 22, Oregon Cornell Pump and Irrigation Scott, Lloyd 13017 41st South Seattle, Washington West Seattle G C Small, William St. Louis Missouri Mallinchrodt Chemical Works Smith, Harold West Vancouver British Columbia Capilano G C Spaulding, Jack 11301 N. E. 95th Street Kirkland, Washington Anglewood G & CC Strahl, Bill 1246 South 130th Seattle, Washington The Bentley Company Telfer, Ray 300 Willowdale Road Prineville, Oregon Thorson, Lloyd City of Seattle Seattle, Washington Civil Service Department Venable, Marc 7723 24th N. W. Seattle, Washington Northwest Mower and Marine Co. Venison, J. C. 605 23rd Street Milwaukie, Oregon Western Golf Course Supply Co. Ward, Joe 435 East 6th Street Bend, Oregon Bend G C Warren, C. C. 2323 Harvester Drive Portland 22, Oregon Cornell Pump and Irrigation Watauabe 2434 South 158th Seattle 88, Washington Gardner Watson, Jim 300 West 82nd Street Minneapolis 20, Minnesota Toro Manufacturing Company Wallenbrink, B. 65 East 3rd Avenue Vancouver, British Columbia Pacific Lawn Sprinklers Wells, Perry 12005 N. E. 112th Kirkland, Washington Perry Wells Company Werth, Rudy 8023 27th N. W. Seattle, Washington Jackson Park G C White, Sidney Route 3, Chenowith Road The Dalles, Oregon Dalles G & CC Wieting, Carol 13504 21st N. E. Seattle 55, Washington Nursery Wyman, Harry 1125 North 4th Pasco, Washington City of Pasco Zoller, John 375 Country Club Drive Eugene, Oregon Eugene G & CC Zook, Sam 1100 S. E. Waverley Drive Portland 22, Oregon Waverlly G & CC