• 

" 

G E N ERAL  HE ADQUARTERS 

SUPR E M E   COMMANDER  FOR  T H E  -ALLIE D   POW E RS., 

NATURAL  RESOURCES SECTION 
,  REPORT NO  136 

TOKYO 

1950 

REPORT 

NUMBUl.  1.36 

November 

1950 

THE  JAPANESE  VILLAGE  IN  TRANSITION 

Arthur  F. 

per 

ConsultAnt,  NAtur!l  Resources  Section 

Ra 

end 

n, 

StArf 

Tamie  Tsuchiyama,  Herbert  Passi
Members,  Public  Opinion  end  Sociological  Research  Division 
Civil  Information 

and  David  L.  Sills 

Educa tion  Section 

end 

GENERAL  HE�DQU�RTERS 

SUPR»JIE  CCI.iM�NDER  FOR  THE  ALLIED 

Tokyo,  Jepen 
1950 

POWERS 

llliSOURCES  SEX:TION 

NATURAL 

REPCRT 

136 

November  1950 

NUMBDt 

THE 

TRANSITION 

JAPANESE  VIUlGE  IN 

PREP'ACE 

legislation 

Thie  book  ie  the  product  of  group  research.  In  April  1947,  officials 

Natural  Re. 
sources  Section,  Supreme  Commander  for  the  Allied  POllers,  wbo  were  responeib1e  for  super­
vising 
cultural  Economios,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  to  come  to 
servatione  on  the  effects  of  land  reform  and  other  agrarian  programs  upon  rural  institu­
Natural  Resources 
tions 
section  and  Civil  Information  and  Eduoation  Section,  and  the  study  wae  to  take  the  form  of 
a  rather  detailed  analysis  of  a  number 

organizations.  The  project  was  to  be  a  joint  undertaking 

Raper  of  tbs  Bursau  of  Agri­

rural  villages. 

reform  invited 

to  make  ob­

agrarian 

Arthur 

Japan 

and 

and 

Dr 

or 

of 

�. 

qf 

During  the  first  survey,  oonduotsd  in  May  and  June  of  1947,  13  villages  were  etudied 
Raper  and  Herbsrt  Passin  of  Civil  Information  and  Eduoation  Section.  At  t he  end  of 
by 
that  survey, 
Passin  and  bis  staff  analyzed 
the  materials  wbicn  bad  been  gathersd  and  prepared  a  preliminary  report.  In  October  1948 
Raper  again  oame  to  Japan,  with  the  assignment  of  surveying  the  changes  which  had  oc­

Raper  returned  to  tbe  United  States,  and 

Dr 

Dr 

Mr 

18 

months  previously.  The  same  villagee  were  stud­

Dr 
ourred  in  the  villages  6ince  hie  vie! t 
ied  except  that  Konda,  Hyogo  Prefecture,  was  replaced  by  Futomi,  Cbiba  Prefecture,  in 
order  to  include  one  farming-fishing  vlllage.  In  addition  to 
survey  party  during  the  second  period  included 
of  the  Public  Opinion  and  Sociological  Research  Division,  Civil  Information  and  Educatio� 
Section.  In  January 
Raper  returned  to  Washington,  where  he  wrote  sections  of  this  vol­
ume.  In  the  meantime,  the  authors  stationed  in  Tokyo  wrote  other  sectlons,  analyzed  the 
information  gathered  on  the  two  trips,  checked  statistical  data, 
villages  to  gather  supplementary  data.  In  lhly  1949 
time 

work  directly  with  the  other  authors  on  the 'final  ma.nu6cript. 

Raper  Came  to  Japan  for  the  third 

Tamie  Tsucbiyama  and  David  L.  Sills,  both 

revisited  ,all  of  the 

Passin,  the 

Raper  and 

and 

Dr 

Dr 

Dr 

!r!r 

Dr 

to 
Pre  Raper  and  Tsucbiyama  undertook  the  major  responsibility  tor  the  preparation  of  the 
preliminar y   versioJ'l  of  the  manl,1script.  Dr  Raper  prepared  those  chapters  dealing  \rlth  agri­
cultural  problems  and  over-all  ohanges,  and 
Dr 
the  sooial  and  community  aspects  of  village  life.  Messrs  Passin  and  Sills  rewrote  portions 
of  these  chapters  and  added  material. 
Sills  also  prepared  the  appendioes  and  analyzed 
the  data  obtained  from  the  quectionnaires  for  inclusion  in  this  volume.  The  foUr  authors 
are  jOintly  responsible  for  all  statements  of  fact 

Tsuchiyama  wrote  those  chapters  conoerning 

for  all  conclusions. 

Mr 

Grateful  thanks  are  offered  to  the  large  number  of  persons  who  aided  in  the 

and 

S

planning, 

this 

research,  and  publication  phases  of 
specialists  in  rural  problems  (employees  of  Natural  Resources  Section,  Civil  Information 
and  Education  Section,  or  the  Japanese  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry)  participated. 
Ryuicbi  Okada  served  as  a  consultant,  as 
as  a  researcher  in  matters  concerning  taxation.  Eitaro  Suzuki  was  consultant  and  researcher 
Dr 
on  the  first  survey;  Beiichi  Kitano  was  a  consultant  and  a  researcher  on  both  surveys. 
i  and  Takaehi  Koyama  were  researchers  on  both  surveys)  Katsunori  Sa�urada  and 

project.  Throughout  the  undertaking,  Japanese 

Raper's  interpreter  on  the  second  survsy, 

Keigo 
Toshimi  Takeuchi  were  researchers  on  the  second  survey.  John  C.  Pelzel,  then  ,Chief  of  the 
and  Sociological  Research  Dlvi�ion,  partioipated  in  planning  the  second  sur­
Tomoo  Ogi 

Public  Opinion 
vey 
and  in 
rret�r  �uring  part  of  the  first  survey.  Takashi  Koyama,  Hiroshi  MizUD9,  Yu 
�hinlchl  Shinna  constructed  the  samples  for  and  administered  the  attitude  questionnaire  to 
heads  of  farm  households  in  the  villages.  Misao  Watanabe,  Kaku  Uchiumi,  H1.ronobu  Hayashi, 
and 
prepared  the  maps.  Yonosuke  Yanagihara  served  as  a  translator  during  the 
f
leld  research. 
Keiji  Nobui 

served  as  Dr  Raper's  inter­
and 

the  field 

villages. 

several 

work  in 

M1kami, 

and 

ta 

ek

The  authors  ex}n"ess  their  gratitude  to  Lt  Col  Hubert 

H.  Leonard, 
Robert  S.  Hardie,  and  other  officials  of  Natural  Resources  Section  and  to  the  Japanese 
rural  SOCiologists,  Drs  SeHchi  Tobata  and  Saiioh!  Kitano,  "ho  reviewed  the  manusoript  and 
offered  numerous  valuable  suggestions.  The  pbotographs  were  taken  by  Signal  Corps  photog­
raphers 
publication  by  other 
manuscript  was  done  by  Mrs  Lorena  Treadw87J  tile  book  was  prepared 
personnel  of  Bditorial  and  Production  Division,  Natural  Resources  Section,  under  the  super­
vision  of 

supplied  from  the  collections  of  Mr  Passin  and  others.  Final  editing  of  the 

Lola  M.  Zook.  Mise  Grace  Lutz 

in  charge  of  drafting. 

Schenck, 

Dr  W. 

for 

G. 

or 

was 

Mrs 

THE 

IT

JAPANESE  VILLAGE  IN  TRANS

ION 

TABLE 

OF 

CONTENTS 

Page 

The  authors  further  wish  to  express  appreciation  to  the  prefectural  officials  who  co­

operated  with  the  research  team  in  its  visits  to  the  villages,  and  to  the  thousands  of 
villagers,  "ithout  whose  cooperation  the  field  work  could  not  have  been  done. 

Introduction  • 

• 

• 

• 

•  •  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

.  . 

.  .  . 

. 

.  .  .  .  . 

. 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

12 

. 

Part  I 

Rural  Japan  Today •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.  .  .  . 

.  .  .  . 

.  .  . 

. 

.  .  .  . 

. 

. 

Part  II 

13 

Recent  Changes  in 

Village 

Life  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

.  .  . 

.  .  .  . 

. 

.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

5 3  

Part  III 

Brief  Description  of  Each 

the  13  Villages  • 

.  .  .  . 

. 

. 

.  . 

.  .  .  . 

.  . 

A 

of 

Part 

IV 

Special  Phases  of 

iJlage  Life  • 

Analysis 

of 

V

2. 

Chapter  1.  Agrarian  Reform.  •  • 
Chapter 
Problems 
Chapter  3.  Village  and  Community  Organization  •
Chapter  4.  Leadership  and  Political  Participation  • 
Chapter  5.  The  Changing  Family. 
Chapter  6.  Religion 
-
Chapter  7.  Education

the  Farmers •

of 

- •
. 

a

••

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

. 

. 

. 

• 

. 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

'

M;di

. 

.  .  . 

. 

. 

.  .  . 

. 

. 

. 

.  .  .  . 

. 

.  . 

. 

. 

103 

159 

161 182 
192 
200 
209 
221 
229 

PostlUde 

. 

. 

.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

. 

.  .  . 

.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

. 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

.  .  .  . 

.  .  . 

237 

. 

 
 
 
 
ILLDSTRATIONS  AND  STATISTICS 

Page 

244 246 
246 

247 
249 
251 
253 
254 
256 
257 
258 
259 
261 

Appen 

d1 

0 

oes 
A.  Detinitlo
B.  Quest10nna  re  on 
Introduction 
SectiODl 

� 

f  Japanese 

Farmers'  Attitudes  Toward  Rural  Problema 

Terms.  •  •  •  •  •  .•  •  • 

•  •  •  •  •  •  • 
Reform  Program. 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  • 

1. 
• 
2.  Landlord-Tenant  Relations. 
•

Land 
Commissions 
V1lladA  Agricultural  Coopera  ves. 
• 

etl""'" 
•  •  • 
Use  of  Appeal 
General  Economic  Problems. 

• 
Procedures 

3.  Local  Land 
4. 
5.  Taxes.. 
6 
• 
7

•  • 
.

•  • 

•

• 

• 

•  •  • 
•  •  • 
 'ti  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  •  •  •  • 
,
' 
•  •  •  •  •  •  •  b

411 ,  9  Decem  er 

. 

• 

Rur�  Land  Reform'  SCAP  Directive 
C 
D.  Japanese  Land  Reform 
E.  Agricultural  cooperative  Program  n 

Pr am 
gr 

o

•

•

 i  ·Japan 
•
•
• •

•

•
•
•
.  .  . 

•

• 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•
•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 
• • •  •  • 
•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 
•  •  •  • 
•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 
 •  • 
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F if�e;ame  and 

ooa

:  : 

: 

on  of  the  13  Villages 

•  •  •  •  : 

• 
•  •  •  •  • 
•  •  •  • 
•  •  •  •  • 

• 

op

ti
ation  in  the  13  V

L

ll ages. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

• 

• 

, 

• 

p

ns

F 

i

old

• 
•  • 
• 
•

LaItd  •  •  •  •  • 

•  • 
•  • • •
•  • 
• 
• •

2 
•  BirthB  and  DeathS  in  1945. 
3. 
4.  Reg 
Farm,  0  a 
N 
5 
ull  Ti 
me
• 
6. 
-pl 
F 
m  oye 
7.  U
8.  Land  Acquired  a 
8rs
9.  Percentage  of  Farm
La

•  •  • 
ul
•  • 
•  •  • 
ular  and  New-Type  Residents  • 
rm  and  UnemplQyed  House
h
s 
and  Part-Time  Armer 
s 
nf 
•  • 
•  •  •  •  • 
d  Households  and  Those  Receiving  Relief 
nd  Households  Purchasing 
in  Five  Farm  Tenure  GroupS 

April 
a�t�

10  OWnership  of  Farm 

• 
19 47  and  Pecember  1 948 
n, 
Size  of  Opsrating  Units 
;
i�:  ie.�s.1nY Pro3 eot s�
b 
r
:
tecl
t  �f C�P8  Needed  to  Meet  Quotas . 
1 3.  Pra-ctioe  ASBOOia
�:
1 5.  OffiC� 
14.  Estimatsd�r
Market  Prices  in  Karako 
essions  Iudic$ted  by  Value  of  Rioe  Crop 
• • •  • 
Animals  and  Fowls  on  Farms 
•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 
. 
I  ternal  Combuetion  Engines 
n
•

�:�vio;  Gr�u;s:  :  : 

16.  Farm  D 
pr 
umber  of
1 7. 
1 8.  Electrio  Motore  a
ea
•  •  • 
19. 
ec
•  •  •  • 
D
s
•  •  •  •  • •  • 
20.  Reports 
1 1  nt 
New  Lower  Secondary  School!nro 
• • •
me 
21 . 
New  Uppe�  Secondary  School  Enrollment 
•
•
22. 
• 
N e

• •
• 
• 
•  •  •  • 
• •
•
•  •  •  •  •  • 
: 
:  : 
p e

nd 
e  in  Deaths 
r  meso 
d  C  i 

23.  ��U8�h�ds 

•  • 
•  •  •  •
•

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pa
w
•  •  •  • 
•  •  •  • 
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:  :  :  : 

•  • 

• 

•

•  • 

25. 
24. 
26. 

29 
' 
3
3

e  Affiliation. 
Having 

• 
• 
Radios  and  Takin
g 
Distribution  of  Ballots  by  Parties 
Ebetsu-Machi,  Hokka1do  • 
•  • 
MiZU1'lake-Mura,  Iwate  Prefeoture 
•
��:  Yokogoshf-Mura,  Niigata  Prefeoture 
Nobuta-Mura,  Nagano  Prefeoture 
Karako-Mura,  Sa1tama  Prefeoture 
� ' 
Futomi-Mur8o,  Ch.1ba  Prefecture.  • 
•  Kawashiro-Mura,  Sh1zuoka  Prefeoture.  • 
��.  Nikaido-Mura,  Nara  Prefeoture. 
' 
Yoshida-Mura, 
' 
Obie-
' 
Aioi-Mura,  Kagawa  Prefeoture 
,  Oc.ayalDIl 
' 
Honami-.Mura,  Fukuoka  Prefecture. 
' 
suye-Mura,  Kumamoto  Prefecture . 

•  •  •  • 
• 
•  • 

Prefeoture. 

Sh.1mana 

ura

M

• 

• 

• 

:  Typical  FaI'1Jlhouse  Site,  F
Typical  Farmhouse  Site, 
41:  Distribution  of  Cultivated 

u
i

A

mi 

to
0 
i

.

Land 

34
35
36
37
38
39
40 

•  •  • 

•  • 
Prer�ture  •  •  •  •  •  • 
•
• 

• 

• 

• 

•

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•  •  •  •  • 
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•  •  •  • 
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•  • 
in  Japan 
•

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,

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:  : 

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138 
142 
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1 50 
1 54 
1513 
158 
162 

Figures  (Cont'd) 

42.  Relationship  Between  Ownership  of  Arable  Land  and  Fores.t  Land  in  Yoshida, 

Dec ember  1 q48 

• 

• 

• 

. 
43.  Land'  Owned  and  Land  Cultivated  by  37  Farm  Households  in  Yoshida,  in  April 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  • 

• 

•  • 

1947  and  in  Decemb er  1948 

• 

• 

• 

Land  Owned  and  Land  Cultivated  by  34  Farm  Households  in  Nikaido,  in  April 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  •  •  • 

•  • 

• 

44. 
45.  Land  Owned  and  Land  Cultivated  by  1 8  Farm  Households  in  Suy�in  April  19 47 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

1947  and  in  Dece

•  •  •  •  •  • 

ber  19 48 

lll

• 

and  in  December  1948 eo 

• 

•  •  • 
46.  Changes  in  Ownership  of  Tracts  of  Land  in  a  Loca11 ty  in  Nikaido,  April 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  •  •  •  • 

•  • 

•
47.  Changes  in  OWnership  of  Tr�cts  of  Land  in  a  Locality  in  Obie,  April  1947-

• • •

• •  

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

J947-December  1948 
•

December  1948 

48.  Number  and  Location  of  70  Plots  Operated  by  Seven  Farmers  in  S�ye, 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  • 

• 

December  1948  ..  .. 

..  ..  .. 

..  ..  .. 

..  "  ..  ..  ..  ..  .. 

..  ..  .. 

.. 

• 

.. 

49.  Number  and  Location  of  35  Plots  Operated  by  Seven  Farmers  in  Yokogoshi, 
.. 

.. 
" 
Location  of  19  Flots  Operated  by  One  Farmer  in  Karako,  December  1948 
•

December  1948  ..  ..  .. 

' 
'
..  "  .. 
9 4

..  ..  .. 

..  .. 

•  1

..  " 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

•

.. 

" 

.. 

" 

50. 

Text  Tables 

A.  Percent  Increase  in  Major  Types  of  Taxes  from  1946  Fiscal  Year  to  1947 
..  ..  .. 

..  "  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  .. 

Fiscal  Year  ..  .. 

..  ..  ..  .. 

"  ..  ..  .. 

.. 

" 

.. 

.. 

B.  Some  Changes  in  Crops  Produced  During  Survey  Period 
C.  Farm  Tenure  status  of 

•
Farmers  in  Three  Localities  in  Three  Villages, 

•  • 

• •

•

• 

April  1947  and  December  1948. 

89 
D.  Changes  in  Farm  Ownership  and  Size  of  Operation  for 
.. 

December  1948  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  .. 

..  ..  ..  .. 

•  •  • 

•  • 

•  • 

..  .. 

• 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 
Farmers,  April  1947-
89 
..  ..  .. 
.. 
.. 

..  .. 

..  .. 

.. 

E.  Number  of  Resident  and  Absentee  Landowners  from  Whom  Land  Was  Purchased, 

April  1947-December  1948 

•
•
F.  Capital  Investment  in  Cooperatives  and  Federations,  December  1948 
•
G.  Average  Size  of  Farms  and  Percentage  of  Farms  Smaller  than  One -Half  Cho, 

• • •

• •

• •

•
•

•
•

•
•

d 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•
•

December  1 948  .. 

" 

" 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

" 

" 

.. 

.. 

..  • 

" 

" 

.. 

.. 

H.  Population  Density  per  Square  Mile,  December  1948 
I.  Members  of  Village  Assemblies  by  Land  Tenure  Status 

•  •  •  • 

• 

" 

. 

Appended  Tables 

1.  Population 

in 
During  Survey  Period" 

the  1 3  Villages  in  December  1948  and  Percentage  of  Change 
..  ..  " 

..  "  ..  ..  ..  "  ..  ..  "  " 

..  ..  ..  ..  "  " 

..  .. 

"  .. 

" 

2. 
3. 
4. 

Births,  Deaths,  and  Natural  Population  Increase  During  1948  Calendar  Year 
Regular  and  New-Type  Residents  in  December  1948 
Percentage  of  Change  in  Number  of  Regular  and  New-Type  Residents  During 

•

•

• • • • •  

Survey  Period  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  .. 

.. 
5.  Number  of  Farm,  Nonfarm,  and  Unemployed  Households  in  December  1948  and 

..  .. 

..  .. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

. 

. 

•
..  .. 

•
•
..  ..  .. 

• •
.. 

•
•
..  ..  .. 

Percentage  of  Change  During  Survey  Period 

6. 

• 
Farm,  Nonfarm,  and  Unemployed  Households  in  December  1948 

Percentage 
'�umber  of  Full-Time  an�  Part-Time  Farmers  in  December  1948. 
Percentage  of  Cl')EI.nge 
Survey  Period  .. 

•  •  •  •  •  •  • 
Number  of  Full-Ttme  and  Part-Time  Farmers  During 
..  ..  ..  .. 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

:i.n 
..  ..  ..  .. 

..  ..  ..  "  " 

..  ..  ..  ..  .. 

"  .. 

•  • 

of 

• 

.. 

.. 

" 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

7. 
8. 
9.  Unemployed  Households  and 

.. 

eholds  Receiving  Relief  in  December  1948  and 

ou

Percentage  of  Change  During  Survey  Period 

ff

s

10.  Number  of  Farm  Households  Who  Purchased  or  Leased  Land  Through  LQcal  Agri-

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  • 
cultural  Land  CommiSSions,  as  of  December  1948. 

• 

Ao

ui red  Throulth  Local 

icul tural  Land  Commissions  and  Disposition, 

•  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•

• • 

•

•

Land 

as  of  December  1948 

q

Agr

•  Percentage  of  Farmers  in  Each  of  Five  Farm  Tenur e  Groups  1n  June  1947 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  • 
•  •  • 
Farmers  in  Each  Farm  Tenure  Group  During 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

Percentage  of  Change  in  Number 

•  • 

Survey  Per10d 
p 
ercentage  of  Land  Owned  by  Landlords  and  Owner-Cultivators,  April  1947 
•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 
and  Deoember  19 48  • 
Farm  Households  Owni

•  •  •  •  •  •  • 
no  Land  or  Home  Site  and  Percentage  of  Change, 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

of 

April  1947-December  1948. 

ng 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

•  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

1 
1. 

12 
13. 

14 
• 

15. 

' 

• 

5

Page 

168 

'171 

1 72 

1 73 

1 74 

174 

1 86 

1 87 
1 88 

73 
87 

1 75 

1 75 

176 
1 79 

1 85 
1 89 
193 

264 
264 
264 

264 

265 
265 
265 

266 

266 

266 

266 
267 

267 

267 

267 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
•

•

•

0 

Appended  Tables  (Cont'd) 

16.  P�rcentage 
•
17.  Percentage  of  Change  in  Number  of  Farms,  by  S�ze  of  Operating  Units, 

Farms  by  Size  of  Operating  Unite,  April  1947 
•

or 

•

•

•

•

April  1947-Pecember  1948 
•

December  1948 

• 

•
• 
18.  Land  in  Projected  Reclamation  Projects  and  Expected  New  Settler  Households, 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

. 
"

• 

•  • 
.  •  •  • 
19.  Agricultural  Practice  Associations  in  June  1947  and  Informal  Service 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

. 

. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•  • 

Groupings 

December  1948 
•

20.  Estimated  Percentage  of  S�ple  Crops  Needed  to  Meet  Delivery  Quotas, 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

ir. 

December  1948  • 

• 

•  • 
OffiCial  and  Black-Market 

• 

• 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

. 

• 

• 

. 

• 

ces  for  Farm  Products  and  Consumer  Goods  in 

• 

. 

. 

• 

• 

• 

.'  . 

. 

. 

. 

21. 
• 
22.  Number  of  Animals  and  Fowls  on  Farms  in  December  �948  and  Percentage  of 

Karako,  Pecember  1947  and  December  1948 

•  •  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Pri

Change  During  ,Survey  P eriod 

• 
• 
23.  Farm  Households  Vl1thout  Animals  and  Without  Fowls  in  December  1948  and 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Percentage  of  Change  During  Survey  Period 

• 

• 

24.  Number 

• 
Animals  by  Type  in  Deoember  1948  and  Peroentage  of  Change  During 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

or 
Survey  Period 

• 

• 

•  • 
25.  Electric  Motors  and  Internal  Combustion  Engines  Used  on  Farms  in  December 

•  •  •  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

. 

. 

•  • 

1948 

Percentage  of  ChA.nge  During  Survey  Period 
•

•
26.  Motors  and  Engines  Used  on  Farms  in  December  1948  and  Percentage  of  Change 

and 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

During  S-urvey  Period.  • 

• 

. 

. 

. 

• 

• 

. 

• 

. 
• 
27.  Percentage  Decrease  in  Deaths  from  All  Causes,  November  1945-November  1948. 
?8 .  Deaths  Caused  by  Contagious  Diseases,  Peroentage  of  All  Deaths  and  Per­

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

. 

. 

• 

centage  of  Deorease,  November  1945-November  1948. 

• 

•  • 
29.  Crimes  Reported  16  May  1947-15  November  1948  and  Peroentage  of  Change  from 

•  •  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

16  November  1945-15  May  1947 
•

•
30.  Percentage  of  Change  in  New  Lower  Seoondary  Sohool  Enrollment  During 

• • •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

SUI"Vey  Period 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 
31.  Percentage  of  Change  in  New  Upper  Seoondary  School  Enrollment  During 

•  •  •  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Survey  Periexi  • 

.  • 

• 

.  • 

'

Percentage  of  All  Households  in  Which  One  or  More  Members  Are  Affiliated 

• 

. 

• 

. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

.

. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

. 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

32. 
• 
33.  Percentage  of  Households  Raving  Radios  and  Percentage  Taking  Newspapers  in 

with  Religious  Groups,  December  1948. 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

June  1947  and  in  December  1948. 

• 

• 

• 
• 
34.  Percentage  of  Pe�sons  of  Voting.  Age  who  Voted  in  House  of  Representatives 

•  •  • 

•  • 

•  • 

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Eleotions  in  April  1947  and  January  1949. 

•
35.  Percentage  Distribution  of  Ballots  by  Parties  in  April  1947  and  January 

•  •  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

•

•

•

1949 
.

.

.

•
•
Use,  December  1948 

36. 
•  •  • 
• 
37.  Percentage  of  Arable 
by  Ownership,  June  1947  and  December  1948 
38.  Membership  i�  General  Purpose  Agricultural  Cooperative  Associations 

Land 

LanJi 

 �  .
• 
• 

.
• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

•

.

•

•

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

•

•

.

•

.

• 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

, 

List  of  Natural  Resouroes  Section  Reports  and  Preliminary  Studies 
Distribution 

Page 

267 

267 

268 

268 

268 

268 

268 

268 

269 

269 

269 
270 

270 

270 

270 

271 

271 

2'71 
271 

272 
272 
272 
272 

THE  JAPANESE  VILLAGE  IN  TRANSITION 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INl'RODOCTION 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Oc:cupfltion,  General  Headquarters  of  the  Supreln8  C

nder 
for  the  Allied  POIfers  expressed  interest  in  a  cOmpl'eheneive  agrarian  reform  progrrun  ca1-
oulated  to  replace  traditional  agrarian  feudalism  with  a  democratic  way  of  life.  Accord": 
ingly,  in  keeping  with  the  provisions  of  the  Potsdam  Declaration,  a  memorandum  directing 
the  Imperial  Japanese  Government  to  undertake  certain  agrarian  reforms  was  issued  in  De_ 
celllber  1945.  The  memorandum  pointed 
the  need  to  increue  the  extent  of  land  QlfDerehip 
so  that  IItbose  \1ho  till  the  soil  of  Japan  shall  have  a  more  equal  opportunity  to  (Injoy  the 
fruits  of  their  laborll•  It  directed  that  farm  credit  at  reasonable  rates  be  instituted, 
that  farmers  be  given  the  opportunity  to  eetablish  autonomous  agricultural  cooperatives, 
and  that  other  necessary  meatrurea  be  enacted  to  protect  the  righte  of  the  n8'll'  OWIIer-cu1ti­
vators. 

omrra

out 

An 

and 

year. 

ll8ated.  in  December  ot  that 

Japan,  1'188  enacted  after  the  Surrender. 

A  directive  was  issued  in  Deoember  1945, 
dissetrdne.tion  of  militaristic  snd  ultranationalistio  ide­

other  legislation  affecting  the  liveD  of  people  in  rural  villages,  as  well  as  in  ur­
entirel;r  new  constitution  was  adopted  in 
ban 
May  1947,  and  a  revised  civil  code  which  provided  Wiv1duale  with  additional.  democratic 
rights  was  prollll
prohibiting  "all  propagation 
ology  in  Shinto  doctrine,  praotices,  rites,  ceremonies,  or  observances • . • •  n,  and  steps 
were  taken  to  insure  freedom  of  religion.  Action  waa  taken  in  January  1946  to 
public  office 
industry  all  peraons  who  had  been  active  in  the  policy  of  ultranationalism  and  1II111tar1em 
durina  the  war  years.  A  new  flchool  SYStelll.W811  inaugurated  in  li.&roh  1947.  Educational  re· 
forms  of  this  period  include  sn  increase  hOIl!  six  to  nine  in  the  number  of  yeus 
pulsory  educaUon,  the  eotnblisbment  of  now  10ll1er  seoondary  sohools  on  the  junior  high 
achoo1  level, 
volume  thus  was  done  at  a 
put  into  effeot. 

bar 
from  positiOns  of  reaponeibil1ty  in  ths  nation's  sohoole,  bu&inea·

the  fortlO.tion  of  parent-teacher  associaUoDB.  The  field  work  for  'this 

when  an  unprecedented  legislative  reform  program  was  being 

time 

com· 

frOlll 

and 

and 

or 

This  book  tella  the  story  of  hO'll' 

villages  have  been  affeoted 

these  agrioultural 

sooial  rsforms.  The  v1llB.gss  were  not  seleoted  to  constitute  a  technically  accurste 
and 
cross  section  of  rural  Japan;  suoh  a  selection  would  havs  been  impossible.  Rather,  they 
varisty  of  types  that  could  feasibly  be  studied  with­
wers  chosen  to  represent  the 
in  the  llmits  of  available  time  and  resources.  Thus,  the,.  inoluded  one  villags  hOll  eaoh 
lII8.jor  geographical  region 

one  or  more  hom  eaoh  major  agrioultural  type. 

maximum 

by 

13 

and 

a,  and 

PART  r 

RURAL  JAPAN  TODAY 

The  statistios  presented  in  this  report  Tlere  obtained 

lages  at  the  time  of  the  field  studies. 
stat1etics  in  JaptLD,  some  inaccuraoy  and  lack  of  Wliforuty  can  be  expeoted.  The  authors 
are  aware,  howsver, 
pretations  offered  here. 

no  1.netanoe  in  which  minor  diaorepencie8  or  errors  alter  the 

ths  oos18 

of 

On 

or 

inter­

the  authors  in  the 
general  experience  with  local 

by 

13 

vil­

Part  I  of  this  book  gives  the  reader  bacqround  intorlll8tion  essential  for  an  under­

• 

atanding  of  the  basic  conditions 
changes  which  took  place  in  the 
s\Ulll
tail  the  chan8ss  that  have  ocourred  as  a  result  of  poat-Surrender  oond.! tiona 

ll8.rizes  the  distinotive  featurelll 

villages  during  June  1947 

nn-al  Japan  today.  Part  II  desoribes  the  major 

eaoh  of  the  villB.ges.  Part  IV  analyzes  in  some  de­

December  1948.  Part  III 

13 

to 

ot 

or 

Surrender  1ejitls18t1on. 

post­

am 

.  , 

r 

The  first  part  of  this  report  is  a 

short  pictorial  and  descriptive  study  of 
rural  Japan  today,  with  a  quick  look  at 
the  countryside  and  some  over-all  facts 
about  the  land,  growing  crops,  people  at 
work,  rural  dwellings,  the  fami�  at  home, 

. village  life,  sehoolhouses,  shrines 
and 
temples,  and  a  note  on  recent  changes. 

• 

G8 rdenlike  Fields,  Wooded  Mounta ins,  a nd   the  Sea 

Wherever  you  turn  in  rurql  Japen  you  se e  well-kept  fields,  wooded 

s e

Sag. 

From  the 

-the  Pacific  Ocea n,  the  Japan  See ,  the 

mountains,  and  ofte n  the  se
l.8nd 
porti ons  of  Ja pan 
port.  Fish 
nd  seAweed  oome  from  the  sea;  timber ,  fue l ,   'lnd  compost 
from  the  forests;  a nd  rioe  a nd  tea ,  whea t  a nd  bBrley,  vegeta ble s  a nd 
.  fruIts,  just 
8 
upla nd  a nd  low1.8nd  fields • 

little  mea t ,   �nd  mulberry  leaves  for  silkworms 

the  fore st s ,   and  the  fie lds  oome  the  major 

s  food,  shelter,  a nd  clothing-""8nd  s ome  things  for  eX"" 

from 

S9t1S, 

In­

the 

8 

I 

\I 

• 

15 

FII!rm  Land  Is  Limited 

Farms  �re  Small 

A 

f  the  totql  land  are�  is  in  fll!rms, 
little  less  than  one-sixt� 0 
even  though  praotioally  �ll  of  t 
put  into  crops  is 
land  that  can 
ts  of  human  labor  h8ve  gone  into  the 
now  being  cultiv8ted.  Great  amoun
tain  slopes  to  fashion  new 
ces  on  s  :�Pt���ui1ding. of  farm  rOetds  and· 
t 
construction  of  high  terra
fields;  muoh  labor  too,  has  gone  in 
?
irrigAtion  systems  to  service  t�
hillside  fields.  The  work  goes  on 
��e  fields,  rOAds,  and  d itches  on  the 
slopes  and  in  the 
without  interruption,  ss 
11  imperUed  by  the  heavy  runofj' 
Ythe  oontinuous  and  effeotive 
of  �ter  from  the  mountains.  Exoep 
tion  would  be  much  smaller 
effort  of  the  fArmers,  the  srea  in �U1  iV�  more  than  19  percent  of  the 
than  it  is.. 
land  area  can  be  fArmed. 

��or
At  the  very  most,  per  ps  no 

v�lleys  are  con 

many  0 

be 

ti 

t 

� 

\ 

t 

-

16 

smaller. 

Farms  aver�ge  a  'little  less  thsn  2  1/2  scres,  and  nearly  one-third 
of them  are  one  Acre 
e  average  size  of  the  farms  in  the 
or 
Th
more  recen tly  settled  island  of  Hokksido  is 
is1gnd  of  Honshu  a  little  more  than  2  acres,  in  Kyushu  2  acres,  Ilnd  in 
Shikoku  a  little  more  than  1  1/2  acres.  The  farms  are  smallest  in  the 
a�e�e  where  settlement  is  oldest,  arable  land  is  most  limited ,  speciali­
zation  is  greatest,  and  where  fqrm  incomes  can  most  eAsily 
mented  by  off-farm  work.  So  great  is  the  pressure  for  land  that  cucum­
bers often  a
e  tied  up  on  poles,  and  pumpkin  vines  may  be  planted  at  the 
foot 

10  acres,  in  the  major 

a  trellis  leading  to  the  roof  of  a  f�rm  building. 

supple­

about 

� 

r

of 

v 

17 

Field.  Are  Tiny  end  Scattered 

The 

nd  110.  Been  Cheri.hed 

10 

, 

cultlvl;lted  lend,  which  means 

An  avenge  ra�  consists  of  about  16  individugl  fields  or  plots  of 
tbnt  '"  field  or  patch  averages  about  one­
sixth  of  en  acre.  The  fields  are  moet  numerous  and  scattered  1n  the 
areas  that  have  been  farmed  longest  and  where  rice  cultivation  1e  most 
intensive;  fields  are  leAst  numerous  and  least  scattered  1n  the  more 
in  Hokkaido  and  northern  Honshu.  The  little  neld. 
fermer  often  do  not  11e  next  to  e�ch  other,  but  rather 
are  BC8ttered  ebout--one  bere,  two  or  three  there,  another  off  over 
on.  This  involves  more  work  than  if  they  were  ell  to-
Pest  and  flood  damages, 
there,  end  80 
gether.  However,  there  are  compensAtions I 
which  of ten  are  localized,  .eldom  arrect  all  of  the  fields.  The  femily 
of  theBe  sCAttered  tractS. 

newly  .ettled  are •• 
cultlvl;lted  by  B 

• 

farm  1s  made 

.. 

V 

18 

up 

• 

19 

Farm  Houses  �re  Close  Together 

Irrigation  I s   Widespread 

e 

c� n

farm  rOAds  near 

In  most  of  Japan  farm  houees

lustered  together  in  hamlets 
nt  movement  of  the  farm  peo­
st
T�:
t tle  fields  has  resulted  in  a  network 
rather  than  dispersed  on  farms. 
g
out'tan� be-
ple  to  and  from  their  outl{�ng��let  t hen  trails  farther 
of  n
have  lived  together  for  gener-
yon 
d  jointly  main-
contact  among  the  pe  p. 
.  Everybody  knows  ever 
ations  S1Iap  work  with  one  ano 
ca
tain  th eir  farm  roads,  shr���  is  little  room  for  strangers  not  v 
about  everybody  else,  and 
for  by  local  households. 

path  to  each  and  every  fl.e
! 
w  0 
ther  on  many  oc
8nd  temple
s

Ie  Families 

ons  an 
i

mu c h  fgce-

arro� 
d  them 

There  i

qce 

ld 

s .

0-

a 

e 

s

0 

. 

ytqit:g 
ouohed 

. 

I 

20 

Numerous  streams,  large  and  small,  coming  down  from  the  mountains, 

are  ch�nnel1ed  into  the  paddy  fields  throu g

�ndmade  waterways  and  dikes. 

work  of 
all·the  cultivated  land  in  HokkRido 

h  a  vast  and  intricate  net­
A  little  more  than  one-fifth  of 
irrigAted;  in 
three  longer­
Even  in  a

e-fifth

e 

the 
's . 

the  proportion  is  t
l

1s 

settled  southern. ial-gnds, 
f
of  excessively  high  r
g
the  �ddy  e�ch  year  from  the  time  the  land 
sprouts 
a 

readied  for  the  young  rice 
h 
the  spring  to  the  ripening  of  the  rice  in  the  f�l1.  There  1e 
sign  of  low 
ge
or 

in  the  stream  or  pond--whether  from  summer  drought,  or  le

much  additional  w�ter  is  needed  to  flood 

s  feet  are  never  dry. 

Japen  th�t  the 

saying  in 

rmer

Any 

a in

hre

is 

in 

fA

l 

'

rea

Wqter 
r-eediDess  of 
�dy'S  business; 
�  ze  and 
��aii

n 

o

ong  been 

other  fermere--ie 

ca
it  is  old,  And  ins titutionalized. 

IITiWltion  is  every-
It  determines  the 
it y  are  smal1--and  the 
shape  of 
of  fqrmsteads,  and  even  human  relations,  because  paddy  farming 
th  the 

arrangements  that  f it  in  w

ost  of  which  of  n e ces

use  for  alarm. 

socia

lde

fi

e

m

-

s

-

charActerized 
cti

p

b� 
.  " 
es  and 

l 

aka

, 

f 

arm  rna 

nagement 

ra

c

of  rice  f

a

i

rmers

household  industries 

. 

21 

Crop Yields 

Are 

High 

Where POSSible,  Two or More Crops Usuall.Y Are Produced Each Year 

and  fertilizer  results in high 
The great input  of labor snd  ski 
every 
at  the right  time 
yields.  Literelly  every  seed is  Pl��t��
The  result  1s t�t JepAn's 
e 
lg
growing plant  oultlvqted At  the
hl hest"in the world.  Traditional 
g 
t�
e 
rice  yields per  acre ere among 
rom  one generation to the next; 
�� !aster  farmers have msde important 
ways  of  doing things are pasBed
l
experiment stAtions as weLl 
��  be  t vArieties and in  determining  the 
contributions in  developing 
�  1  �ertillzers sod  compost. 
most effective uses of commerc  8 

Bnd 

11 

90 

percent 1s double-cropped.  In 

Two crops  ere produced each  ye�r in  moat  of  southern  Japan;  this 
pr,eti08 1s extended 89  fer north as  possible.  Roughly one-third of ell 
r�rm land 1s double-cropped;  in some of the southern pre�eotureB,  88 
parts of centr�l JSp!n, 
much 88 
rice  aeedllnF,B are  tr�nsplsnted  to the padqy  800n  8fter winter wheat and 
'cIIIrls.r ere harvested;  in some  low-lying Pflddy  areJ1s,  winter  cere'Jls  CJ!n 
grown only  by  strip  ridging  the l�nd  to get the ridges higb enough 
above the WAter level to  produce these �ins.  On muoh of  the upland in 
C:ntl'olll snd  southern JSP8n, a  summer crop such as  the sweet potatoes 
bB 
here 1s  1nterplanted with wheet  and barley  before the latter ere 
I!!Irvssted. 
OWn 

me:ny 

be 

, . 

23 

Great  Care  Is  Given  to  Details 

Fertilizer  for  the  LAnd  Is 

U1I81" 

Prized 

Even  the  smallest  details  are  attended  to,  for  food  is  short  and 
manpower  is  plentiful.  Twigs  for  fire  are  bundled  to  be  stored  under 
the  MVes;  rice- stI'8'i1  is  kept  stI"lir)1t  so  it  can  be  made  into  rope, 
s�ckB,  or  sandals;  and  the  small  children  Be�rch  every  foot  of  R  rice, 
"heqt,  or  barley  field  for  the  few  heads  that  were  dropped  in  harvest­
ing.  To  get  just  the  right  amount  of  fruit  on  8  tree,  s  farmer  and  his 
f�mlly  mAy  do  band  thinning,  snd  to  keep  hArmful  insects  a.aY  from  the 
maturing  fruit,  the  far mer  usually  ties  A  small  peper  beg  over  each  peqr 
or  apple,  peach  or  loquat.  The  applicAtion  of  labor  often  goes  beyond 
the  point  of  diminishing  returns,  that  is,  labor  'Will  be  applied  SO 
long  ae  there  is  hope  for  any  additional  returns. 

� 

:�

Fertllizers  of  all  kinda 
le.IJves  and  gress  for  compost 
e 
distance  from  the  fields.  Rice  w
::

op  residUes  not  required  for  �the�
n  w�Bte  is  colleoted  regularl  tr 
rrled  to  the  fields.  commercial 
t�ge  quantities.  When  com merci�
.Ylel:

se  �u

rlng  and  after  World  War 
n  are  oompe�led  to  collect  mo;e 
e  green  manure  such 

mo�

�

I 

grow 

1 

needed.  Most  fenn  fAmilies  collect 

o
mountain  sides  at  .9  considerable 
a  ,  and  borley  strAW,  And  any  other 

� 

pur poses  are  used  for  compost. 
om  village  and  urbio,ln  dwellings  and 

l  �e�iiizer  1s  purchased  and  used  in 

suppUes  are  short,  ss  was 

z
e  armers  f�ce  B  declin e   in 
compost  from  the  forests  and  to 

�I 

th

� 

e

Hu­

as  egumes,  to  p.lt  b8:ck  into  the  land. 

Everythlnr.  Is Seved 

Used 

end 

Sp!lce  Is  Found  for  FlO'lfers,  Shrubs,  and  Trees 
• 

�---.. 

•  " 

tV/i  s  night  soil--ever 
StrR"',  dry  lea�:��  is �o' cholce  but to  gr
ossible.  Th� pr�
is to  the agricul ura., 
1  d with  the  qSpirAti,ons  0 
i ol And  humfln  resources. 
�eBt  that  the  m

everything use�ittie  �s 
And  to  buy  AS 
it 
land--relAted 
tr.o:lde  aitltl:ltion--cou
the  full  use  of  phys  c
food r�sources  is so 
dif
diet 

cult mAtter. 

8S 

g 

p

� 

much 

ything  is sRved,  And 
ossible 
s 
the  popu1.Jltion  on  the 
O\'1 o�
ss��uAtriAl,  end  foreil�  1n 
the  people,  resu  B 
s�  the  sCArcity  of 
n A  minimum  AdequAte 
�
ainteOl'l.Oce  0 

r 
v
E 

I'IS  p

is 

fi

Hthough  the  fBrmer  seldom  ms  sPIce  for  a  lawn  of  any  kind,  and 
the  farm  1�rd  itself  is  quite  sm�ll,  somewhere  around  the  house  there 
18 usually  an  azale�  bush  or  two  Rnd  a  clump  or  so  of  chrysanthemums. 
Flowers  are  liked  for  their  beauty  and  are  needed  ss  offerings  before 
the  household  altar.  Even  a  small  formal  ggrden .. "'With  a  stone  lantern, 
..  little  pool,  a  tWisted  pine ...  and  oolorful  shrubs--may 
ar1'8nged  in  a 
Coroar  of  the  yard. 
lide  of  the  house  olose  to  a  little  field;  a  peJ:lr  tree  may  stll1nd  1n  the 
on  the 
�nd  of 
,� fields  at  different  levels  8  few  apple  or  persimmon  trees  m8y 

Itn  irrlgHtlon  ditoh;  and  on  a.  steep  slope  that  sepu'ltas  two 

',high  hedge,  thin  and  tr immed,  may 
be 

grow 

• 

.... 

P 

ate\! 

u� 

be 

26 

27 

There Is  Little Livestock 

Farm Machinery Is Scarce 

There  is one d�ft cow  (or  ox)  to About every third  f�rmJ  And 8 
draft horse  to  about  every fifth f�rm.  Some families without  �  draft 
qniml3l  exch�nge  their  own lJlbor  for the use  of  sn animal;  the rqte of 
exchange  ia usually I;Ibout t'/to dsys of man lRbor for one  of ",nimsl lAbor. 
On  the Average,  there  is  one dairy milk  cOW  to  every 42  r�rms.  Except 
for  the high slender  hedges And bamboo pAlings immediately �round the 
dwellinFs,  there are practicAlly no  fences.  Chickens are few  in  number, 
And most fAmilies ",ith  chickens have four  or  less.  Other thAn fish, 
little meat is e",ten.  The general shortAge of food ml;lkes it neceSSAry 
for the  people to  consume  grAin  directly.  NAturAlly enough,  there are 
relAtively fen birds;  wild animals are �re;  and at  most d\�ellingS 
is no  C"It,  seldom  8  dog. 

thert 

buotl 

::ras  have  relatively  few motors' 
'  most  of these  motors Are electric 
greAt  m�Jorlty  are  of  thr 
t
ee  orsepOI'Ier or lese 
. 
n  ernAl com-
on enpines ar 
I  t 
8een h:!:ost  everywhere,  And  electric  ou� �ew.  Electric  current 
s for amAll m."Ichinery 
i
n�h:i��;-
bftn
�:.;

IDd 
Je ��ll�ble 
World 
..,  be 
��!l��l��eC���!�����l;�':�dO�;:� �h:n

e  even less numerous �nd  seld 
and  thore bet ..... een  the little  f1 �d 
o  the time. 

i�nsuf�lc��nt��

on,  it is  too  weak  for 

.IIIT  II  81 

h

ef-

29 

Human 

b

r 

La

o

Is  Abundant 

Farm  To

ls  �re  Simple 
o

As  noted  already,  the  rural  economy  is  based  on  a  superabundance  ot 

ed  is  sown  in  a 

a

-d

ba

ma n

tte r . 

Then  come  the  te

y s  an  acre  el!ch  year.  The  se

human  labor.  The  production  of  rice,  the  main  agricultural  enterprise, 
Z'equires  more  than  SO 
bed,  and  the  young  sprouts  are  transplanted  to  the 
peddy  for  the  young  plants,  farmers  work  the  soil  into  the  con s ist
of  pancake 
narrow  rows,  the  maintenance  of  water  at  the  right  level,  and  the 
trol  of  diseases  and  pe st s .  Later  come  the  hand-sickle  cuttin
of 
matured  rice,  the  drying  of  it  in  th e  strAW  on  poles  erected  on  or 
the  f ields,  and  finally  t he  threshing,  hulling,  and  polishin g  of  the 
grain.  All  of  the  pl
Most  of  t he  threshing  is  done  by  power-driven 
but  some  is  still  done  by  h
such  farm  en terprises  as  the  growing  of  silk  worms,  the  production 
tea,  and  the  culti

lfork. 
foot  pedal  machineS, 
.  Even  more  hand  labor  is  required  for 

nting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting  i s  hand 

en
ious  cUltivation  and  weeding  of 

COD­
the 
n84t 

To  ready 

})!lddy. 

the 
cy 

and 

tio

and

of 

g 

d

a

vq

n  of  fruit. 

t  f�rmera  Use 
10 

-

n

a
h 

and 

mportance  -sre 
i 

d  tools.  Most  common  is 

s  mple,  old-fashioned 
1 
sbort-hAndled  h 
her  eqURlly  simple  tool 
rice  grains  from  th 

t��  Mos
IIa  "ku"a"  a 
' 
ng-b�qded, 
the  siokle
v: 'e))trlJting  tbe  lfh  ow.  Ot
'  ax,  and  pI 
o 
e�t 
�ff,  �nd  for 
pee  lng  and  shredding  fOods 
put  �ll
lmers  �n 
the  f�rm  tools  they  own  i 
DId la  lire  Simple ' 
n
ther  Rre  handl
m�
y  of  them  hAve  rem
ed 
'ttter  ye'lr  b
Skillfully.  The 
J 
o  br�:sclle8  '1ttun:���a 
g  t  down 
ber:round  10  th�  a  here 
ady  the i:!�gf mUch  pulling  an d
boe  ju� r
Under  the  Burf 

oe.  Next  i 
d 
tS 
s  raw,  for  raking  up 
The  greAt  maj ority  of 
n  a  smqll  hqnd  cqrt.  Farm 
hoe  th  � changed 
o;\�se�  d
f ft  it 
;u:�f� -

for  centuries' 
after  day: 
1uman  arm,  with 
way 

dee�  digging  to 
here 
s�riking 
�nd  c 
are  u  sklmming  of  the 
s 
.  ay  rom  the  young 
w 
a

w
is  monotony 
or  the  ne
ace  to  clear  th 

t�lmos't  .Iln  elong�tio� 

up  and  the  best 

e  easiest 

usually 

�re  use

y 
and 
a

to  1 
q
v 

e  wee

break 

crop, 

aine

and 

gfRn

.8 

e 

y 

T 

n 

d 

f 

w 

a

e

d

. 

l 

• 

• 

, 

pI  t 
.  an 

�08t  F�rm  Incomes  �re 

• 

Supplemented 

Some  Farm  Products  Are  Processed  at Home 

�  ,:,,::,� __ 

. L 

On 

th  income  of  fBnn  households  111 
an  �ver9ge,  about  one-t��r�
�nd1-
p����:�  (wooden  010gs),  J�pe�e�:;8��m��  �nd bl 
t�e
obt�ined from the
y 
cr�rts  such �s  po 
r ,  
:A�� piece-price rates for we�:���nO�s  small, 
bqsketry,  from  Off:f���
i�emu�ellttle more InCOme 
mone y earned i� ��d 
b y a suppl y merchant.  The
S
materials  furn  S
i t  of the low-income fam 
the Btand��i�ional income at all. 
but,  from 
is better than  no  a 

work  done  by  members  0 
y, 

:u1tur81  products'
l

O;grl
f

irem 

pe

tran 

aadllMp  are  made  from  rice  strllw,  thick  floor  II18ts  are  made 

Processing  of  ftgrioultur�l  produots  in  farm  homes  1s  ommon.  Rope 
straw 
"1"  rush,  and  cretes,  baskets,  fence  splints,  fIlnd  numer­

the  ever-present  bamboo.  Sliced  sweet  potatoes 

tlld  bc.e-grOWD 
..  other  th1ags 
.. ad  per.1amoDs  are  dried,  hdaikonn  (giant  white  radish)  end  Chinese  O!b­
.�  piokled,  end  sOybeAns  are  preserved.  Rice  often  is  polished 
home,  and  there  IDay  be  some  weaving  of  silk  febrics.  SI'B911  power­
ta" 
d  the 
tar.l·en  aotors  speed  the  work  in  a  few  householde,  and  foot  pedal  machines 
",.,:.rae  loc81itiee  a re  fairly  common,  but  the great  portion  of  the  hOl'll9 
"be:·�1 s.:t  t 
dwelling  80  thAt  they  will  not  be  chilled  on  cold 
""'re �r .  night;  air  conditioning  has  often  been  approximated,  tar 
wet.  da,. 
1\J'  az-.  k�  �Ilbg  besn  .ware  tbrtt  the  worms  do  best  when  beet  end  humid-

.. rm  product.s  i8  done  by  Mnd. 
the 
t 

Silkworms  genenlly  Are 

fran 

tArm 

DI  • 

-r 

eirly  constant. 

33 

Men  And  Women  "-like  Do  Heavy  Work 

Neerly  One -llRlf  of  the  People  Live  by  Farming  end  Forestry 

Men  And  women  often  work  aide  by  side  on  the  f"rms,  in  the 
And  in  fishing  o�r9tions  �lonr  the  shore,  but  rArely  out  �t  SeA . 
incoming  bride  in  A  f�rm  home  by  tr�dition  helps  with  the  housework , 
she  U8u911y  is  counted  as 
�nd  footPAths  in  level  end  mount9inous  AreAs,  men  Bnd  women  carry 
products,  compost,  fuel,  Bnd  building  materiAl.  Some  use  A  CArrying 
frAme,  but  more  of  them  let  the  weight  of  their  lOAds  reet  directly  00 
�t  the  sawmill  �nd  the  charooal  pit , 
their  shoulders  And  b90ks. 
wom�n  lifts  one  end  of  the  green  log  and  the  mBn  the  other,  �nd  by 
se�  the  men  and  women  in  rope  hArness  together  dra g  the  boata  end 
up  on  the  besoh . 

full-fledged  laborer.  �long  the 

fArm  ro�d. 
rArm 

the 
net. 

the 

The 

B 

40  000  000 

'host 
,  people,  ne9rly  one  hAlf 
o� the  tot91  popUlqti on 
r.oelv.  the  m  j 
IZoept  tor  th: ��o�ortlonB  of  their  liViD;  from
e.se  s1noe  the  end  of  World  W arming  end  forestry.  ' 
; ...  hous.holds  he 
B  remA ined  ilJbout  the  8 
t���e 
==- into  Donf8r!0��lition  increase  duri�:e
decJ!des ,  .q t   about 
eCB  es  hAS  regul,qrly 
d
O��U��l���stry,  mAnufacturing 
oyment.  Hter  rqr  1 

�r  II,  the  number  of 
m�ny 

e  next  most  ImportAnt

al:lllmarca  ere  th  P 

,500,000 . 

The 

m

- , 

Fishing  Is  Important  Too 

JaPAn  Is  8  Country  of  Villeges 

85 

Fish  is  the  source  of 

percent  of  all  animal  protein  oonsumed 
Japan.  A.bout  1,300,000  employed  persons  are  engB ged  all  or  ps,rt  of 
year  in  the  production  of  fish  and  other  aquatio  produots;  numerous 
households  along  the  extensive  seQC08st  supplement  their  iiving 
ine:  and  gathering  sMueed .  Fishing  opel"ltions  vary  from  hard  co.u"'" 
of  shellfish  along  the  C08st  to  well-equlpped  whaling  fleets  toot 
on  the  high  seqS  for  months  at  a  time .  All  together,  big  and 
about  450,000  vessels  are  eng,ged  in  fishing.  Japan  is  the  leqdiDS 
producing  nation  in  the  world. 

li1otl .•• 

Vl1�ge  orgs  1  t 

where  th 
oiti
e

:

.

11,.., 
to.ae  and 
l.r,..t 

s

cities  sre 

D  the  viU.!I 

�"r011t.n d 1.trl!�
=1OUOU8 S.ttle!:�t 
the  name of  th
t.",,"� ��ly  the  do"n�o:����-1
.. pt
two-atorle:"B 

8Cqttered  her 

" 

O 

n  Zg  10n  and  way  of  11fe 
majOrity  of  the  people  1

1::e  not  limited  to  the  vil-
msny  respect.  clusters  o;n:��r:re.s .  even  the 
Except  for  the  downtown  b�s 
of  ;� Are.  e_nded  '::ti�e 

They  also  pervade  the 

came  into  being  ."he 

t

ges .   Many  of  the 
hOPUI.tlon  of  the  Mm-
ere  Was  more  or  less 
usu.lly  1n-
ves .  Ex­
re  still  small 
�
�hout  th 
e  extended  one-

e�le�1 

e

e  horne  addres s  of 

1ke  locSl1ty\�1;h1��

a  ness  districts  there 

dwellings  snd  B� qnd  there  throU

ops  of  the  citie s .  

and 

The  Fire  Alarm  Tower  Is  a  Symbol  of  Village  Lite 

Agricultural  Co:operatives  Are  Numerous 

In  ell  perts  of  the  country,  fire  sl9rm  towers  are  numerous-·!n 
lsols.ted  areaS  and  at  regular  intervAls  throughout  the  cities.  Some 
towers  are  rustic ,   Borne  ornate .  Most  have  a  single  bell ;  few  have 
trio  sireDs .  PractiCAlly  every  household  is  within  hearing  distanoe 
8  fire  alarm.  In  village�  end  towns,  the  younger  DIeD  are  organized  81 
cities ,   professional  firemen  do  the 
Thatched  roofs ,  wooden  structures ,  and  paper-covered  sliding  doore 
volunteers  to  fight  fires ; 
fire  8  constant  hszard  in  Japan  where  dwellings  are  close  together. 
houses  hove  one  or  more  fire  prevention  posters.  Accord1og  to  • 
Japsne.e  proverb.  there  sre  four  terrors'  earthquake .  thunder.  firO. 

in 

�\oD.Y 
fathers .  

1 

,1: 

90

ft_ 

'iN 

locel 

10  .1aP!ln 

...  aoet 

maQ3' 
Ge 

'l'bere  are  Dearly  thre 

agr1oultur,1 

.  oad  "dot 

agrioultural  ooopers" 

ftS  t 
tJDport  t 
to  m��e 

percent  of  the  farm 
su  H

e  times  ss 
here  are  villages 
���l
products • • eU  form 

e  type .   The;  pro���:  ��:C:����  cooperat1ves  are 
=tiee 
.
�poo. 
oad 
r.  in  obtaining  techn�ce
rate  common  fa0111-
ts
i8�� reach  o��E'  ;1llagss  ho�e O�!��;"�� 0  vlllags  basi:. ��= 
wa� 
CIdJJr:) . 
II  •  wn� 
::'-U". 

ng  and  lending 
;  they  a l.o  proce •• 
8SS  8  nee.  Thea 

e  SC9riCUl turd 
:aku  subdivision 

rs  hes  usually  serve  s  b 
marketing,  poultry  r  i 
e  Village,  a  pre!  t

on 
•  wber ...  fruit 
Ber'V'e  an  enth 

f 
ooope��
the 

I)rmers.  The  other  coo 

r  and  Vary 
l'eela.mati 

greatly  1n  size  of 

ee  ure,  or  an  even  larger 

a B   g,  and  dairy  co­

e  so  8S  to  put 

ves  ususlly ar 

perativea  are 

area  served 

them 
81'001811--· 
� 

.�ge) 

eoope  t 

.cae  ot 

�··  °

pe
i

ers

Th 

.

to.  may-

Every  Vil la ge  Ha s 

a 

S chool 

S choolrooms  �re  C ongested 

i 
V

of 

grou nds  i n  front 
groundS  often  . re  edge d 
dir t  must  be 
a  pedestalled  statue  of 

S choolhouses  �re  ce ntrally  locAted ,  � nd  they  � re  very  much  alike 
throu�hou t   the  cou ntry .   Everywhere  in  J_ pa n ,   s chools  h_ve  leve l   pl.y­
the  bui ld i ngs ,  eve n  i n   mount. in  villa ges  where 
m oved  to  moke  even '  smA ll  leve l   pla yground .   The  s chool 
. nd  l.- rninr ,  a nd  wno  by  h is  wr lt ings  a nd  couns e lll ng  ne lpe d  t o   impro's 
the  formers '  �os it i on  in  the  f enero l  e conaoY ·  The  s chool  childre n  enj 01 
in  the  fsll  of  the  ye.r  end  the  excurs i on' 
�tte na. nce  is- . lmost 
the  elementA ry  a n d   the  new 
the  reful• r 
t o   s ce niC  e nd  histor ic  s pots  in  the 
Children  se ld om  mis s  school  unles s   the y  Are 

h  cherry  trees ,   e nd  n ot  i nfre que ntly 
fe. ture 
o
rk 
preaohed  w
farm01'  saint 

in  the  c ompulsory  s chool  o ge --i 

i
Ninom:!ya ,  the 

. thletic  meet i ngs 

100 

uch 

who 

g . 

�, 

sp

m

t

r

n

w

i

perce n
lowe r 

s ic k . 

t 
se ccnd�ry 

s chools . 

0 

10 

ildren  must  spend  t ·  

add! tion to stud  i 
ohildreo, J8penes8 '  h  .  Y 

Jl8sterina th 
e  compli  t  d 
d
ruction  i 
r  i  t 
The .obool buildi 
eD
sbortage in 
of �rs  of 
c 
compulsory schooling 
8  h  1 
00 
,  an  extensive  bullding '

ng  the  usua l   s ub j e cts  f 
e  ideogrqphs  of  th' 
n 8  p  bet ic  writing  hil s   i n  
ng program  We s  reta rded  d  �
buildings ,  c oupled' w ith  t� 
rog; 

aDd 
th  Surr  --
amool 
• 
lalto " 
"'bo Dt 
r 
its. 

a.  However 

e;l rning  t 

0 
e  written 

cr
am 

s  under 

1  be 

JJIl9 

� 

'
p

OB' 

C8 

1 

e

. 

!] m�li8 r  to  Western 

us e  the  aba cus 

ngu. ge .  8mce 

1a 

. 
re. sed  in  the 
ng  the 

r ;  

-

e  i ncre � s e   in  the 

•• 

re

OWded  t he  exist i ng  fA c i l­
i

wa y .  

1-1- 1 

Festivals  Are  Observed  Regularly 

Village  Organi za t i on  Genera lly  I s   Uniform 

Every  village  ha s   its  festiva ls --s ome  s omber ,  s ome  gay .   There  a re 

for  good  weather,  for  dedications  of  new  crops  to  the  loca l 

in 

to 

spirits . 

In  s ome  a rea s ,  

festivals 
gods ,  for  celebrat ion  of  the  new  harvest ,   a nd  for  the  a nnual  return  of 
order  to  gui de  the  returning 
the  a ncestr.,d 
in 
spirits 
the  right  household ,  a  fire  is  built  at  evening  before  ea ch 
boys '  a nd 
Dolls 
a ll  of  their  finery  a re  displayed  i n  
festivals .  To  celebrate  Buddha ' s   birthda y  the  pe ople  gather  a t  

entra nce . 
girls ' 
the  temple  t o   a ccept  sweetened  gre en  tea  from  the  priest .  On  New  Year' s  
Day,  the  greatest  celebration  of  a ll ,   pine  a nd  bamboo  ornaments  a re  dis­
played  in  front  of  many  of  the  houses ,  � nd 
vis it  their  ne ighbors 
a nd 
vered,  and  s ca ry.  to  the  uninitiated ,  a re  used  on  a lmost  a ny  festive  oc­
cas i on .   Village  festivals  a re  in  fact  a  combina t ion  of  re ligi ous  rite s 
a Dd 
lore  alive  a nd  to  a llow  the  rura l  people --who 

celebrations .  They  a fford  a mple  opportunity  to  keep  folk­

no  regular  weekly  deY 
rest  from  the  boredom  of  a  generally  monoton ous  life --to  enj oy  agreed­

excha nge  greetings .  C ostumes  a nd  ma s ks ,   old  a nd  re ­

relatives  to 

holiday 

people 

have 

the 

of 
upon  holidays 

scattered  throughout  the  ye�r . 

villa ge  is  a n   independent  municipA lity,  a nd  ha s   a  villa ge  ha ll 

Each 

where  re cord s  a re  kept  a nd  village  bus ine s s   is  tr"l ns",cted .  Officers 
elected  by  the  pe ople  include  the  headma n ,   or  ma yor,  a nd  a ssemblrmen • 

ha s   46  prefe ctures ,  2.34  independent  cities ,  a nd  613  gun  ( c ountie s ), 
which  contain  1 , 850  t owns  a nd  8 , 386  villa ges .   In  rur::t l  a re� s ,   most  pub­
Japan 
lic  a ctivities  a re  a dministered  on  the  village  level--taxation,  educa ­
tion,  relief ,  police ,  crop  deliveries ,  A nd  s o   on.  To  obta in  food  for 
the  urbl n   dwellers ,  the  government  colle cts  ea ch  yeRr  a t   government­
fixed  prices  a  cons iderable  volume  of  a ll  sta ple  crops  (rice ,  wheat , 
barley,  Sweet  potat oes ,  a nd  white  potatoe s ) .  The se  crop  delivery  quota s, 
which  amount  to  about  one -ha lf  of  the  t ot� l  crop,  a re  a dministered  on  a 
government  cer­
Villa ge  ba SiS ,  as  a re  a ls o   the  incentive  payments ,  ! 
tifica tes  which  enable  the  farmer  to  buy  stipulsted  supplie s  at  fixed 
prices  if  he  meets  or  surpa sses  his  delivery  quot!! . 

! ,  

42 

43 

Shri nes  a nd  Temples  Are  Everywhere 

Many,  Many   Statuettes  Are  Seen 

hinto  shr ines  a nd  Buddhist  temples , 

Most  of  the  people  support  the 

S

A

ces  i n   g ll   vi lla

The 
wh i ch ,  like  the  schools ,  occupy  pr om inent  pl
shrines  and  the  temples  a re  often  in  the  midst  of  pa rk-like  g res s ,   usu­
a lly  quite  sma l l ,   under  t ow er in
trees  pla nted 
a  century  or  more  a go .   Flowering  cherries  a nd  other  ornamenta l  tre es 
a nd  shrubs  are  c ommon  i n   the  extens ive  grounds  of  the  largest  temples 
i ous  orge ni ze t ions  w ith  their 
a nd  shrine s .  His t oricg lly ,  these  reli
pri es ts  s erved  the  genera l  nee ds  of  the  vill
ges .   Out  of  these  reli­
gi ous  orga niza t i ons  have  come  the  speoialized  a otivities  now  carr ied 
by  the  villa ge  hall ,  the  o our�s ,   the  post  off ice ,  the  publio  s ohools , 
the  heA lth  olinics,  a nd  the  welfare  a genc ies. 

cryptomeri�  a nd  cypres

es

g 

g

g

e 

a

. 

on 

ooden ,  stone ,  or  meta l  fi gures  of  religi ous  and  historica l 
persona ges  and  obj ects  a ppear  in  a ll  s orts  of  p!a oes - -by  the  roa ds  a nd 

Sme ll  w

r
a

t
t ields ,  1n 
the 

ils ,  upon  i rriga ti on  di toh  banks ,  along  the  s treams ,  b

tw een  th e 

the  orevioes  of  rock  ledge s

deep  in  the  coa l   mines

e

,  nea r  
at  the   temples ' 
long 
cou ntry  roa ds  a nd  in  the  hamlets,  towns ,  a nd  o ities ,   are  nu­

sawmills ,  by  the  seaside,  o n   schoolhouse  grounds
�nd  shrines ,  and  in  and  around  the  homes  of  the  � ople . 
open
merous  marke
r

s  8 n�  monument s . 

Als o ,  

e 

a

-

, 

, 

44 

, 

45 

Dwell1ngs _re  Highly  Functi onsl 

Family 

ving  Is  Simple 

L1 

� 

With  a  min imum  of  house hold  e quipment ,  the  people  e� t ,   sleep,  Rnd 

t  c� n  be  roll ed  up  anc  put  on  a  s helf . 

entertq i n   their  friends : 
for  s itting,  sma ll  movable  cushi ons  on  the 
fl oor ;  f or  e�ting, 
tray  on  the  floor  or  low  table ,  with  la cquer  or 
porcelR i n   dishes  a nd  chops ti cks ;  f or  sleepi ng,  a  p� llet  on  the  floor 
t�9
� fter  the  other,  often  take  plR ce  i n   the  same  room .  Recessed  i n   one 
w�ll  of  such  an  a U -purpose  room  may  be  the 
a nd  Va s e   of  flowers ;  A ga inst  a nother  wa ll  of  this  Same  room  may 
a 
Buddhi st  � lta r ,   c onta i ni ng  relipi ous  ob ject s   a nd  other  remin ders  of 
be 
dep<l rte d  I'! n ce st ors ,  Rnd  a  S hint o  shrine  where  channs  from  fRmous  shri nes 
a re  pla ced . 
the  rq fters  in  the  kitche n .  

�  sma ll  shrine  t o   K o j in ,  the  firepla ce  god ,  ma y  hang  from 

� ll  of  these  R ctivi ties ,  one 

71tok onom", "  with  its  s cr oll 

. 

The  smoke  comes  out  under  the  eaves  and  up near  tbe 

root,  for · most  farm  dwellings  have  no  chimneys .  Cooking  is  done  over 
open  tw ig  or  charc oa l  fire ,  a nd  the  hands  are  warmed  from  glowing 
hiba

ID 
.'obex-cosl  in  movable  urns ,   ca lled 

In  colder  area s ,   heat  of­

"
is  provided  by  an  open  hearth . 

.&.nother  common  heating  device  1s 
ress ion  in  the  floor  in  which  a  charcoa l   fire  is 

tell 
the  "kotatsu"  a  de
plac
e
themselves  w ith  a  thick  quilt

d .  Fsmtiy  members  s it  with  their  legs  in  the  "kotatsu"  a nd  cover 
The  water  in  the  hot  bath  may  be  he�ted 
immed iately  under  the  tub .  Most  foods  are  preserve d  by  drying 
b,  tire 
or  pickling;  and  fue l ,   tools ,  and  livestock--as  well  a s   food- -are  kept 

ch

" .  

p

i

. 

peak 

of  the 

the  dwelling  house  roof,  or  nearby.  Babies  are  ca rried  on  the 
under 
�!cks  of  their  mothers  older  s isters  and  brothers ,  or  grandparents 
8S 
they  go  about  their  re�r  a ctivitie s ,  whether  w ork  or  play .   The 
floor  is  a lways  clea n,  as  footwear  is  removed  before  family  members  en­
ter 

the  straw -matted  portions  of  the  dwelling

. 

46 

47 , 

Nea rly  All  Farm 

e

Dw

ll

i

s  Have  Eleotricity 

ng

Family  Orga niza t ion  Is  Tra dit ion a l  

a ll  

Mos t  households  have  tw o  or  three  drop  bulbs  of  low  WAttage ;   more 
rura l  households  have  radios .  Most  of  the  current 

tha n  one -ba lf  of 
is  generated  from  hydroele ctric  p� nts  'which  are  numerous  a nd  sca t ­
tered ,  loC!ted  8 S   they  are  on  the  many  re
stee p   riv­
ers  that  flow  out  of  the  extens ive  w oode d   mounta in  a rea s .  ElectriC! l 
current  is  off  for  h euTS  a t   a  time ,  a s   ment i one d   ea
r
ina de qua te  water  s upply  f or  the  generation  of  power 
in  �ri ods  of  low 
ra int'! l1 ,   and  from  the  la ck  of  a  s ufficient  supply  of  c Q! l   for  therl1l81 
genera tors . 

li er  be caus e   of 

y  short  a nd  

ti

el

la

v

48 

8ame 
il1 

gro
�i�ge8 
ith 

rura l  families  have  

the  same   place 

i n   muoh 

M�ny 
way  for  10  or  1 5   genera tions  or  more .  The  ma intena nce  of  the  fam­
up  has  taken  precedence  over  the  rights  of  the  individua l .   Ma r­
usua lly  have  been  arra nged  by  the  parents  of  the  bride  and  groom , 

lived  a t  

and 

the 

the  a s s i sta nce  of  a  go-between .  The  role  of  the  go-between  is  to 

the  interest s  of  e a ch  of  the  fa m ilies  a nd  t o   minim i ze  embA rrA s s ­

10ifed 

pnotect 
aent  between  the m .  The  pra ctice  of  prim ogeniture 

often  been  fol-
to  convey  rea l  property  inta ct  from  one  generat ion  to  the  next . 
with  da ughters  a nd  w ithout  a  s on ,   a  "yoshi "  ma rr i "l ge  ha s 
n  way  of  perpetuqt ing  the  fA mily  line ;  in  s uc�  a  mA rrig ge
w  husba nd  i s   lega lly  a dopted  into  the  bride l s   fami ly  And  tAke s 

ha s  

omm

o

t  en  8  c

�r f�mi lles 
hebe  ne

fami ly 

r 

name . 

. 

, 

49 

Cl� ss  Di stinctions  �re  Deep-Rooted  But  �re  Cha nging 

S ome  Segregation  Has  Continue d  

have 

tended 

l and owners 

to  remain  at  the  b ottom  of  the  rural  s ocial 

Differences  in  st� tus ,  bas ed  upon  the  tra diti onA l  lR nd  te nure  sys ­
tem ,  hRve  long  played  an  important  part  in  Ja pa nese  villa ge  life .  Gen­
era tion  � fter  genera tion,  the  landlords  have  tended  to  rema in  in  their 
privileged  ec onomic  e nd  s ocia l   pos ition ,  And  the  farm  tena nts  a nd 
est 
s tructure .  The  owner- cultiv� t or  group,  which  hA s  been  la rge  in  ma ny 
a rea s ,   has  oc cupi ed  a n   intermediate  pos iti on .  The  s ta tus  differences 
between  lqnd owners --la rge  and  smal l - -a nd  tenants  have  been  buttres sed 
the  distinctively  Ja pa nese  hea d - a nd  bra nch-family  system ,   by  devotion 
to  a nces tors ,  and  by  feuda l  t ies  which  idea lly  involve  lea dership,  pq ­
protect i on  o n   the  one  han d ,   a nd  loya lty  a n d   deference  on 
tron� ge , 
the  yeq rs ,  many  pe ople  from  va ri ous  elements  of  the 
t he  other . 
p opulq tiQn  hAve  been  rest ive  under  th is  restri ctive  s ystem ,  And  s ome 
chq nges  have  occurred  both  in  loca l  pr"lctices  and  i n   legis la tion  a ffect­
i n?  rura l  a rea s .   But  generally  spea ki ng ,   rura l  Japa n  was  still 
c ontrolled  by  the  la ndowning  households  up  through  the  end  of  World 

small­

Over 

A n d  

by 

hosti lities .  Since  then,  the  very  foundat i ons  of  the  tra ditiona l 
. 

II 
feuda l  system  ha ve  been  shake n .  

IArf,ely 
Wef 

t

�

in 

people  who  l ead 

a 
more  out  of  every  80  families 

In  numerous  villa ges  of  centr� 1l  and  s outhern  JaP1n  live  the  Eta 
somewha t  s egregated  exis ten ce.  There  a re  a t   leas t  
�,OOO,OOO  of  them  i n   JaP1 n ,   about  one -ha lf  of  them  i n   rura l  area s ;   one 
rural  J,g J:8 n   is  a n   Eta  family .  The 
t  most  of  them  live  in  segregate d  buraku  ha s   given  rise  to  the 
or 
OCllmonly  used  circumlocution.  the  "special  bur�ku  pe ople " .   Ma �y  of  them 
flot 
continue  to  perform  their  traditional  menial  occupations ,  such  a s   anima l 
llaughtering ,   leather-working,  basket  weaving ,  a nd  clog  and  S A ndal  mak­
ing .  More  likely  than  not  they  a re  the  poore s t   people  in  the  villa ge s ,  
�lthough  they  were  le ­
a Dd 
g� l1y  ema nCipa ted  in  1871  by  Imperia l  decree ,  the ir  low  e conomic  s t� tus 
e ­
It nd 
stricti ons ,  parti cularly  i n   pers ona l  re la tions  a nd  re li gious  part icipe -
r 
_ 
Even  Where  Eta  have  a chieved  a  high  degrae  of  e conomic  a nd  polit 
tion . 

the  farms  they  cultivate  are  the  sma llest. 
the i
specia l   occupations  continue  t o  

t�l acceptance ,  which  ha s  occurred  more  commonly  in  the  rece nt 'pAst 

Ver  be fore ,  marria ge  for  them  int o   the  ma jority  group  ha s   rema ined 

a ccompa nied  by  s ocia l 

be 

r

e

rl 

n 
gidly 

tabooed .  

50 

. 

51 

' lmost  Everything  In  Japen  Is  Sma ll  'nd  Numerous ,  Except 

•

•

• 

PA RT  I I  

RECENT  CHA NGES  I N  VILL A GE  L IFE 

the  lone  Mt  Fuj i .   The  bea uty  of  this  peek ,   of  the 

•

•

•

' Ips ,  a nd  of  other  hi gh  mountains  th�t  tower  ma j estica lly  over 
countrys ide  of  small  pe ople ,  on  sma ll  farms , 
sma ll  stre�ms ,  makes  it  understa ndable  t ha t   the se  mountains  arB  he ld 
reverence . 

sme ll  villA geS ,  by 

1n 

8 

in 

J9 pe nese 
rur!l 

5 2  

 
 
The  remainder  o£  this  report  centers  around 

current  conditions  and  recent  chang es  in 

care­

13 

selected  villages  in  which  observations 

fully 

were  made  in  May  and  June 

and  again  in  No-

1947 

vember  and  December  1948.  Except 

subo. 

far  one 

stitution, 

the  same  villages  were  restud

ed .  

i

In  the  pages  that  £ollow,  the  more  signifi-

c ant  of  the  chang es  which  occurred  are  summa-

riz ed,  More  detailed 

desoriptions  of  these 

changes  are  given  in  Part  IV. 

ME  A N D  LOCATI O N   OF  THE 
NA 
I 
N 

I N   MAY  A N D   J UN E  

WH I OH  OBSERVAT I ON S   WERE  MADE 

1 3  

VI L L AGES 

I N   N OVE M BE R   A N D  DEOEMBER 

1947 

1948 

E B E T S U - M AC H I  
H O PC K A I D O  

AN D 

.... 

L E G E N D  

V I S I TE D  O N LY  I N  J U N E  

1 9 4 7  
V I SI TE D   O N LY  I N   D EC E M B ER 

V I S I T E D 

IN  BOTH  PE R I O D S  

1 948 

® 

o 

• 

I)() 

M I ZUWAKE - M U R A  

I W A T E   P R E F E C T U R E  

o· 

YOKOGOSH I - M U RA 

N I I G ATA  P R E F E C T U R E  

N O B U TA - M  URA 

p 

J 

O B I E - M URA 

H O N S H U  

KARA K O - M U RA 

SA I T AMA  P R E F E C T U R E  

� 

� 

<v 

�G' 

3�' 

32' 

30' 

F U TO M I - M UR A  

G H l a A   PAE'[CfU RC: 

" 

N I KA I DO - M U RA 

N A R A   P R E F E C T U R E  

KAWA 5 H I RO  - M U RA 

S H I Z U O K A  

P R E F E C T U R E  

\J 

C) 

G 

, -

S C A L E 

f 

0 

50 

1 00 

200 

300 

M I L E S  

., 

10' 

K U M AMOTO  P R E F ECTU R E  

: :0 � 

P 

A 

C 

RESOURCES  SECTION 

1 

Figure 

How  the  13  Villages  Were  Selected 

Popula ti on  Increa sed 

P O P U LA T I O N  

I N   T H E  

1 3   V I LLA G E S  

Because  of  the  tremendous  variety  of  conditions  of  rural  lite  � 
Japan,  no  c ombination  of  13  villages  can  represent  completely  all  th 
possible  types 
o
d  among  the  nearly  8, 500  villages 
Japan.  The�: 
un
fore ,  an  effort  was  made  to  select 
villages  which  would  represent  t 
idest  possible  range  of  types.  The  principal  criteria  of  selection  � 
w
were :  type  of  farming,  population  characteristics ,  degrees  of 
, influence , 
t  of  off-farm  employment ,  extent 
un
presence  or 
absence 
geographi c  location. 

urban 
feudal  surviVals, 
of  handicraft s ,   characteristics  of  the  terrain , 

in 

of 

13 

am

f

o

and 

except  that 

The  same  villages  were  visited 
December  1948  :F\ttomi-

December  1948 
80  miles  southeast  of  Tokyo  on  the  Pacific  coast,  was  substituted  for 
onda- m
K
ur
This  change  was 
made 
lage  in  which  fishing  is  important . 

a  fishing  and  farming  Villa� 
to  improve  representation  by  including  a  rural  Vil .. 
1947 

highland  vilJ:age  in  Hyogo  Prefecture ,  visited 

-
June  1947  and 

in 
1DUI'8., 

June 

,  a 

in 

in 

in 

a

changes  occurred  in  these  villages 

Many 

June  1947  and  December  1948.  These  changes  are  presented  in  the 

in 

18 

that  follow. 

the 

months  between 

pages 

G E   A N D  
A
Ecru R E 

... 

VI I 

L-

0 

10 

N U M BER,  DEC  48 
(THOUSAND) 
30 
20 

40 

50 
125 960 

PERCENT  CHANGE, JUN 47 - DEC 4B 
DECREASE 
14
2
1 
0 

INCREASE 
4

0

8

6

2

1/1 

L- LAG ES 

� 

� L- 1 3 
R LJ R 
LJ R B  

A L  VI  LLA G E S  
V I LL A G E S  
A N  

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I I 
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o M I   C H I BA 

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N I KA I DO ,  
YOSH I DA , 5 H I M A N E 

N A R A  

O K AYA M A  

O B I E , 
A I O I ,   K A G AW A  
tlO N A M l ,   F U K U O KA 
S U Y E ,  KU M A M OTO 

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tia 

IrA rll�L  RESOURCES  SECTION 

Figure 

:2 

DATA  FR O M   TABL E 

Eleven  of  the  villages  l  a r

e 
encompa s s   good-s i ze d   urba n

/ 

villa ges  i nc rea sed  5 . 3   pe
r

t  increases  occurred  i n   t he  tw o  m

e ntire 

1 
c�nters 
j 

y 

b 

cent  e  w e en  une 
t 

r

1 
�  t o� l 

nd  t

o  Ebetsu  a nd 

w
o

p�la

t i on  of 

the 

1947  a nd  December 
p

u

us  vi lla ge s .  de ­
t  1  J  pan  ' a nd 

a 

, 

10

1948 . 

of  the  rura l  vi lla ges  in  cen  ra 

os

0 

p 

p 

in 

occurred  in  fo
southern  Ja pg n  

ur 

• 

HODam! , 
1) 
The 

r

orea ses 
one  i n 

la

ge s

56 

• 

Jj  Fo�  the  u 

oses  of  this  report  "villa ge "   mea ns  the  sma 11  loca 1  geo­

gl'8 Phicai  �d  dmi n istrat ive  units  that  vlere  s tudie d : ,  12  mura  a nd 
tra n s la ted  a s   " villa ge " ,   "me chi 11  a s 

ma chi . 

IIM�ra ll 

one 
"tow n " .  See  Appendix 

i s   normall

A 

f or  a  glos sary  of  J a pa ne se  w ord s -

y 

57 

Natural  Increa se  Wa s  Marked 

B I R T H S   A N D  D E A T H S  

I N  

1 9 4 8  

V I L L A G E 

U M 8 E

N

R 

B IR T H S 

D E A T H S   0 

T O T A L   1 3   V I  LLAG E S  

4 , 9 3 8  

1 , 7 8 6  

P E R C E N T   N A T U R A L  

1 94 8   CA L E N D A R   Y E A R  

I N C R EAS E 

2 

3 

4 

I I   R U R A L   V I  LLAGES 

2, 4 8 4  

2  U R BA N   V I L L A G E S  

2 , 4 5 4  

E B E T S U  

M I Z U WA K E  

Y O K O G O S H I 

N O B U T A  

K A R A K O  

F U T O M I  

K A WA S H I R O 

N I K A I D O 

Y O S H I D A 

O B  I E  

A I O I  

H O N A M I  

S U Y E  

9 9 0  

7 9 6  

3 1 5  

70 

1 9 2 

5 6  

9 2  

4 3  

1 0 3 

1 9 5 

6 3  

5 9  

8 2  

1 , 037 

1

1 3 

6 24 

1 4 1 

2 27 

1 3 2 

2 8 0  

'3 7 7  

1 1 7 

1 5 5 

2 1 2  

1 , 4 1 7  

1 06 

4 6 1  

3 5  

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

Figure 

.3 

DATA  FROM  rABLI!  t 

In  the  13  villa ges  there  were  3 , 152  more  births  th8 n  deaths  in  the 
1948  c� lendar  yeA r ,   resulting  in  a  nqtural  increase  in  total  population 
of  2 . 5  percent . 
ra nging  from  3 . 3   percent  in  Suye  to  1 • 
percent  in  Mizuwake .  Ge�erail, 
speaking,  the  rate  of  n� tura1  increa se  wa s  greater  i n   the  rura l  villa �1 
tha n  in  the  urban .   Japa nese  popula tion  experts  report  tMt  the  rate 
ot 
increase  of  births  over  deaths  for  the  country  a s   a  whole  ha s  been  unu· 
sng 11y  high  s ince  the  end  of  World 

natural  increase  occurred  in  each  of  the  villa ges 

hostilities .  2/ 

.3 

A 

Ifa r   II 

For  recent  P?pulBtion  data  on  Japan  as  a  whole ,  see  "Public  Hea ltll 
a nd  Welfa re 
�n  Ja pa
end 
Welfare  Se ction,  Genera l  Hea dquarters ,  Supreme  Commander  for  the 
lied  Powers ,  Tokyo , 

published  August  1948  by  Public  Hea lth 

See  R ls o   IIJa p�nese  Economic  Sta tisticS "1 
�l­

" ,  

n

monthly  publicati on  of  Economic  a nd  Sc ientific  Section ,  GHQ. 

Ja pR n .  

A 

Percent  of  New-Type  Res i dents  Wa s  Greater 
R EG U L A R  A N D   N E W - T Y P E   R ES I D E N TS 

PERCENT  OF  NEW-TYPE 
RESIDENTS,  DEC 48 

10 

20 

30  70 

0 

III 
18 

P 
� 

PERCENT  CHANGE,  JUN  47- DEC 48 
DECREASE 
60  50  40  30  20 

INCREASE 
1 0   20 
0 

10 

37� 

� 

.. 
"--

• 
\z1 
.. 

.. 

� 
t< )ill 
III 

.. 

� � 
[rzzzz ,. 

V I LLA G E  

fOfAL 

�G E S 
L  V I L L AG ES 
I I   R U::N  V I LLAG ES 

U R 

2 

EsETSU 
M IZLJ WAK E 
'l'OKOG0S H 1  
NO B  UTA 
t<ARA KO 
fUTO M I  
t<AWASH I RO 
N I t<AI DO 
vosH I DA 

aBl E 

A I OI 

HONA M I  

SUYE 

HOTE : 

REMAINING  P E RCENTAGE  OF  1948  POPULATION  IS  REGU LAR  R ESI'DENTS . 
Figure  4 

""rURAl  RESOURCES  SEcrIDN 

DATA  FRO-AI  TA S l ES  .3  A fI(O  4 

rllZ2I  N EW-TYPE  _  REGULAR 

�� 

The  inore�se  in  the  number  of  regulAr  res idents  .a s  due  ma inly  to 
of  births  over  deaths  in  a ll   villa ges  except  Honami ;  there  the 
increS S8  in  regular  res idents  wa s  due  t o   a n   influx  of  miners  a ttr'l cted 
the  �dn 

special  inducements  offered  to  them . 

New -type 

military  repatriates--made  up 

in 

13 

res idents--that  is ,  eva cuees  from  the  cit ies  a nd  civille n 
percent  of  the  t otal  populJJt ion  of 
December  1948 .  The  proporti on  of  these  new  re side nts 
villages 
tota l  'P�ulat ion  ranged  from  les s   tha n  0 . 5  percent  in  Yoshida  to 
in  Aioi .  The  percentage  of  new  residents  was  highest  i n   one 
most  populous  villa ges ,  in  villa ges  near  a  city ,  a nd  in  villages 
h  many  inhabitants  had  left  for  the  colonies  or  military  serv­
returned  a fter  the  war .   In  the  18-month  period  under  study , 
of  civ ilian  repatriates  increased  22 . 5   percent ,  a nd  m ilitary 
6 . 1   percent ,  wharea s   eva cuee s   decreased  21.6  percent .  The 
decrease  of  evacuees  occurred  in  the  more  is olated  rura�  vil-

b1  the 

and 
the  13 
in the 
27  percent 
�t the 
irem  whic
t�e  And 
e  number 
rep� tri�tes 
rreatest 
�ges
. 

. 

59 

Nonfarm  In crea se

M Ol'e 

n  Fa rm  Households 

d 

The 

FA R M ,   N O N FA R M ,  A N D   U N E M P LOYED  H O U S E H O LD S 

V IL L A G E  

TOTAL 

V I LL A G E S  

1 3  

"  R U RA L   V I L L A G E S  

2  U R B A N   V I LLAG E S  

E B ETS U 

M I Z U WA K E  

YO KO G O S H I 

N O B U TA 

K A R A K O  

F U TO M I  

K AW A S H I R O 

N I KA I D O 

YOS H I D A 

O B I E  

A I O I  

H O N A M I 

S U Y E  

FA R M  

N O N  FA R M   _  U N EM P LO Y E D  

� 

EZ2Ll 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

Figure  5 

OATA  FROM 

The  proportion  of  farm  househ olds  to  a ll  house holds  range d   from 

percent  in  the  mounta in  v illage  of  Nobuta  to  nine  perce nt 
lous  mini ng  villa ge  of  Honami . 

13 

The  numbe r  of  farm  house holds  in  the 

villa ges  i ncrea sed  one 
c en t ;   the  number  of  nonfa rm  households  i ncrea sed  a lmost  s ix  percent . 
ti ons  of  indus
fact ,  a ll  the  nonfarm  occup
�
tation ,   libera l  profe s s i ons ,  a nd  f ishing  increa se d   re l
a
the  grea test  num erica l  ga i n   in 
farm  households .  H
e
v
holds  wa s  in  Honami ,  in  which  the  "all  other
c reased  831 ;   and  the  sec ond  gre a test  n onferm  numerical  ga in  wa s  i n 
s econd  most  populous  villa ge ,  Ebetsu .   Together ,  these  tw o  vi llA ge s  
se  of  1 3  
s howed  an 
p
i ncr
whe rea s   in  the  11  rura l  v
illa g
four  percent . 

,  commerce ,  and  �ra nspor ­
y  more  thaD 
t ive l
housr 
o
group  (mostly  miners )   in­
n

the 
rm  households , 
se  of 

ercent  i n   the  number  of  n

w hole ,  there  wa s  a  dec

a s   a 

re�

e s  

a r

nf

er

nf

ow

y

r

m 

e

t

o

a

a

" 

, 

Time  FR rmers 

me  M ore  Nuroer ouS 
f U LL- T I M E  J' N D   PA R T- T I M E   FA R M E R S  

Ful  -
1 

ca

B

e

PERC ENT  C H A N G E ,  J U N   47 - DEC  48 
1 5  

I N C R EASE 
10 
5 

D E C R EASE 
1 0  

0 

5 

20 

100 1 5  

� 

1 3 

V I LLA G E S 
'f01A 
L 
V I L LAG E S  
I I   � U �A�  VI LLA G E5 

U R S A 

2 

E8E1S U 
". I Z U WA I< E 
'{OI< O G O SH I 
N O B U TA 

I<A RA I< O 
F u10 M I 
KAW AS H I R O 
N I K A I D O 
S

A 

H I D

O

Y
081 E 

P E R C ENT,  D EC  48 
2 0  

40 

60 

80 

0 

'77/

/ 

77/ 
77/, 
'/ 

'/ 

'// 

'/ 

'//  '/. 

'// 

' /. 

,/ 
'///  '///  ,/ 

� 
-r;J 

12 
I 
r;l 

-
-'/// 

• 

rz1 
E:. 

• 

I� 

'/// .... L'l 

DArA  FROM  TABLES  7  A N D   8 

A I O I  
HONA M I 
SU Y E  

I"'" 

'7/// 

E7L2l 

F U LL- T I M E  

PART- T I M E  

_ 

Figure 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

. 

i

t

v

n 

ges  • 

Three 

lla ge s ,  Ebets u ,   YOkOgOSh� '
terlllers ,  a nd  tw o ,   Futomi  e nd  Suye , 
he 
a ll 
aade  up  the  largest  proport i on  of
r
The  percenta ge  0  par 

6 
and  Nika ido ,   ba d   more  tha n  1 , 000 
es s 
l 
fermers 
household;  espe cially  in  the 
���ime f� rmers  ;a s   higher  in  the 
populous  vi lla ge s  a nd  in  t he  i�sh�n�h: 
13  �llq ge s , 
The  grea test  incre a se  in 
fe rmers  i nc re R s e d   in  but  t� o  of  th��;  expa nding  industr ial  emplo
farms  PArt-time .  The 
ve 
s  to  h
emfull_ttme 

rurA l  villA 
.ore 
o f   full -time 
pert-time  f a rmers  WAS  in  Ebet s u ,   where 
�&me 

pers ons  who  a ls o   w orked  on 
ted 
e  t o   full-t ime  f ermers 
ime  f �rmers  involunta r i ly  bec om  ng 
pa
f

lted  pertly 
farmers  through 
resu

mers  increa se d  i n  

ment  I'l tt
e c
shift  fr om 

num
part-

300  Full

of  Fut omi

mg ny 
t im

The 
s 

i ila 

mpl o

e nt

rt-

ber 

. 
he

me 

rm 

y-

-t

Ar

s
i

ha

w

r

0 

e

a

a

i

e

r

f

from  pa rt -t
of  o f f  
los s 
-

a

e

ym

. 

60 

61 

Unemployment  a nd  Relief  De crea sed 

A grarian  Reforms  Were  Under  Way 

Many 

TOTAL 

VI L L A G E S  

13 

I I   R U RA L   V I LLAG E S  

U R BA N   VI L LA G ES 

2 

E B E TS U  

M I Z U WA K E  

Y O K O G O S H  I 

N O B U TA 

KAR A KO 

F U TO M I 

K A WA S H I R O 

N I K A I D O 

Y O S H  I D A  

O B I E  

A I O I  

H O N A M I  

S UY E  

NATURA L  R ESO URCES  SEC TION 

Fi gure  7 

- R E C E I V I N G  R E LI E F  

Agricultural  c ooperative  associations  empl oy  many  offic e  workers . 

The  proport ion  of  unemploye d  households  in  De cemper  1948  rA nged 

from  s even  perce nt  in  Obie  to  less  tha n  0. 5  percent  in  both  of  the 
villa ges  and  i n   two  rura l  villa ge s ,  Yokogoshi  a nd  Kawa s hir o .   In 
vi 11e ges  as  a  wh ole ,  the  number  of  unemployed  households  de crea sed  31 
percent  in  the  18  months  under  study.  Decreas es  occurred  in  a ll 
Fut omi  a nd  Yoshida ,  and  in  those  tw o  the  number  remained  the  same .  

but 

the 

13 

because 

some  employe d  house holds  did  not  earn  enough  to  care  

The  number  of  households  receiving ,relief  in  the  13  villA

es  a s  a 
g
whole  was  greater  in  De cember  194B  than  the  number  of  unemployed 
house­
holds , 
the  minimum  needs  of  the  family,  and  be cause  unemployment  in  rura l  �i1-
r� 
l� ges  is  often  relat ively  invis ible  a nd  therefore  under-reported .  The 
of  the  villa ge s ,  a  36  percent 
numbe r  of  relief  ca ses  decrea sed  in 
decrea se  for  the  13  a s   a  whole .  This  decline  wa s  due  to  the  de crea se 
in  unemployment ,  the  return  of  adult  ma le  repa triates  to  their  families, 
a nd  the  current  governme nt  policy  of  thinning  the  re lief  rolls . 

811 

62 

arable  lands  owne d  by  a bsentee  lend10rds  a nd  by  temples  and 

well  as  the  lands  of  res ident  owners  who  ha d  more  than  the ir 

The 
Ibrine s ,  
as 
lelll l  rete ntion  limits ,  ha d   been  bought  by  the  government  through  the 
a gricultura l  land  commiss i ons  during  the  18-month  period  under 
Pra ctic't lly  a ll  of  this  land  ha d   alrea dy  bee n   resold  to  the  fam ­
tena nted  it .  The  government-controlled  a gricultural  a s s oc ia -

'tlu,. ge 
ltud,. 

organize d   in  all  of  "the  villa ge s .  othe r  a gra rian  reforms  in-

land  rec�mBtion  s nd  the  new  a gricultura l  extens i on  progra m .  

��es who 
01: were 

,  r 

63 

Le nd  Reform 

� ctivities  Were  Exte n s ive 

L A N D   AC Q U I R E D   A N D   HOUSEHOLDS  P U RC H A S I N G 

V I L L A G E  

TOTA L 

V I L L A G E S  

1 3 

  R U R A L   V I L L A G E S  

I

I

U R B A N   VI LLAG ES 

LAN D  ACQ U I R E D   AND  SO L D  

1 0   20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90 

( P E R C E N T )  

Number  of  Owner-Cul�ivatorB  Increased 
O F  FA R M  E R S   I N   F I V E   FA R M   T E N U R E   G R O U PS 

I I   R U R A L   V I L L A G ES 

U R B A N   V lLLAGES 

2 

2 
E B E T S U  

M IZ U W A K E  

Y O K O G O S H I  

N O B U TA 

K A R A K O  

F U T O M I  

K A W A S H I R O  

N I K A I D O 

Y O S H I D A 

O B I E  

A I O I  

H  O N A M I  

S U Y E  

L A N D   AC Q U I R E D ,   PERCENT 
OF ALL  ARABLE  LAND 

LAND  SOLD,  PERCENT  OF 
ALL  LAND  ACQU I RED 

PE R C E N T  OF  ALL 
FAR M  H O U S E HOLDS 

� 
� 

-

NA TURAL  RESOURCES  SEC TION 

Figure  8 

DATA  FROM 

the se 

villa ge s--had  be e n   a cquired  by 

A  t ota l  of  5 , 858  cho  of  ls nd  ( one  cho  e qua ls  2.451  a cres ) --or  41 
percent  of  the  snble  la nd  in 
the 
government  through  the  loca l   s griculturs l  la nd  commis sions .  Of  this 
ta l ,   90  percent  had  been  B old  t o   5 , 895  operat ing  part -owners  and   ten­
a nts ,  or  67  percent  of  s ll  farm  households  in  the se  villa ge s .   Of  the 
6 09  cho  still  held  by  the  loca l  commis s i on s ,  a rrs ngement s  had  a lready 
been  me de  t o   sell  77  cho  to  tenants  eerly  in  1949. 
by  the  lend  commis si ons  in  s i�  villeges  were  be in
285  farm  opera tors  too  small  to  qua lify  to  purchase  lsnd  under  the  pro· 
gram .  The  rema ining  510  cho  still  he ld  by  the 
were  m ostly  in  Ebetsu,  where  more  lAnd  had  been  bought  tha n   in  the  other 
12  villa ge s   combined  snd  where  the  program  was  furthest  from  completion. 
The se  510  cho  were  being  operated  temporarily  by  former  ow ners ,  pending 
a rr8 ngements  for  s a le 

tempora rily  leased 

land  commis sions 

cho  held 

�nother 

loca l 

22 

g 

eligible  purcha sers .  J/ 

to 

o  L A N D LO R D S  
�  OWNER - C U LT I V AT O R S  

- T E N A N T S  
III  O W N E
R
�  T E N A N T - OW N ER S  

t5:@@  T E N A N T S 

IIArUIfAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

F igure  9 

DA TA  FROM  TABLES 

12  A N])  13 

La ndlords  and  owner-cultivat ors  made  up  36  perce nt  of  a ll  farm 
in  these  villa ges  in  June  1947  a nd  56  percent  in  December 

nts  a ccounted  f or  26  percent  of  e ll  farmers  in  June  1947 

households 
1\948.  Pure  t
!l1id  eight 

e
percent 

na

in 

December  1948. 

The  number  of 

i ncrea sed  112  percent  in  the  18 
pure  tena nts  decrea sed  70  percent .  lfl ndlorde  disappeared 
ing  the  period  of  observation  except  i n   one  vill a ge . 
bar-tena nts  increased  in  number  in  most  villa ges ,  wherea s  tensnt­

lti

t or

va

ow

s 

r

-

n

e

c

u

and 

oatba ,  
�atpletely  d
OIDVa  decreA sed • .  For  d

ur

tiona  of  these  tenure  groups  se e  Table  12 . 
! 

f i n

e

For  further  deta ils  about  the  la nd  re form ,   see  dis cus sions  of  la nd  
reform  in  C

pter  1 ,   Pa rt  IV. 

ha

6 5  

Land  Ownersh ip  Cha nged  Hands 

S i ze  of  Farms  Cha n ge d   Slightly 

O W N E R S H I P  OF  FA R M   LA N D, 

V I L L A G E  

TO TAL 

V I L L A G E S  

1 3  

2 

U R BAN  VI L LAGElS���fl2Zttz'2{27Z2l 

E BE T S U  

M I Z U W A K E  

Y O K O G O S H I  

N O B U TA 

K A R A K O  

F U T O M I 

K A W A S H I  R O  

N I K A I D O  

V O S  H  I  D A  

O B I E  

A I O I 

H O N A  M 

S U V E  

I 

� 
�. 

Al  VI LLA GE S 
VI LLA G E S  

"  !lUR 
U!l8A 

fOfA l 

III 

2 
E B E T S U 
", . Z U WA K E 
VO K O G O S H I 
N O B U f A 
K A R A K O 
F U TO M I 
K A W A S H I R O 
N I K A I D O 
V O S H I D A  
O B I E  
A I O I  
H O N A M I  
S U Y E  

FA R M S  B Y  

S I Z E   O F  O P E R A T I  N G   U N I T S  
PERC E N TAGE  OF  ALL  FA R M S,  APR  47 

1 0  

2 0  

30 

40 

5 0  

60 

70 

6 0  

9 0  

100 

• 

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L 

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.. �,':' 7r 

" 

.. .. 
., 
:I�j .� .... 

,'. (fJ.:f'; -·" 
� 

.

0')' ......

. 

> 

,� 

." 

" 

""" 

, �� .. '-� 

.

. 

'

. 1 . . 

. 

, •

.  ... 1  • 

.. .. 

•  if.' 

. 
•
; 

' 

.�, 

.'  h ." � 

,  .

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.. 

... 

• 

�!,:. 

.• 

'  .. � . 
,. 
'.;, 

I ." 

;0;'1,..;" ..... "';'  :,.� 

'!,� 

.�.�.

OR  LESS 

_  2- 5 

" 

OR  L E SS

I N C L U D E S  

TAN 

I!ZI  5  TAN 

I'  CHO 

E2l] 

FA R M   H O U S E H O L D S   T HAT  D I D   N O

IIOTE 

SUCH  AS  HO U S EH OLD S  R A I S I N G   S I L K WOR MS  OR  KEEPI NG  CH I C K E N S .  
' 2  TAN 

39 

-r: 

�. 

.

;co,

, 

,)I,." 

!'!'" 

I  2  C H O  

d��-I'';,''-.¢"' ,":t' 

:;

" ��.�.:iM.! 'i<i' 

:

2  C H O   OR  M O R E  

-

O PE RATE  A N Y   LA N D, 

A P R I L 

1 9 4 7   - D E C  M B E R 

1 9 4 8  

m  2  TAN 

NArtlRAL  R�SOURCES  SECI/ON 

Figure  10 

DA TA  FROM 

/lArllRAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

Figure  l� 

ABLE  'f 

6 

The  effe ct  of  lan d   reform  on  the  pattern  of  ownership  of  �grlcul­
tura l.  land  is  best  i llustr�ted  by ' th�  percent� geB  of  land  under  tenanel 
a nd  under  owner - ope rqti on  � t   the  beginn i ng  and  the  e nd  of  the 
pe riod . 
In  �pril  1947 ,  �  la nd l ords  owned  46  percent  of  the 
in  the  13  villa ges ,  in  De cember  1945  only  seven  percent . 
la nd 
in  �pril  1947,  only  51  percent  of  the  land  wa s  cu1tiv�ted  by 
owned  it ;  by  December  1948,  tenant  purc�ses  of  land  formerly 
la nd lords  ha d  increa s e d   th is  percentage  to  88. 

Sf 
�he  men 

owned  by 

lS-month 

� 

extent  of  change  va ried  from  vill � ge  t o   vill� ge ,  but  the 

The 

tern  of  the  shift 
Honl3m i ,   50  percent  or  m ore 

WA S 

the  Same  i n  

a ll .  
the  I'lgricul tur.g l  land  wa s  19 ndlord-own
April  1947 ;  i n   December  1948  thi s  percent�ge  ha d  been  re duced  to 

in 
Ebets u ,   3  in  Yokogoshi ,  12  in  Obie ,   R nd  23  in  Honami . 
90  percent  or  m ore  of  the  cultiva ted  le nd  c�me  into  pos s e s s i on  of 
a c tuq l  c ult ivq tors ;  in  none  of  the  villa ges  wa s  th is  percenta ge  le sS 
7 5 .   Many  households  wh ich  previous ly  hA d  owned  no  la nd  became 
owners  during  this  period  (T�b1e  15) . 

1R nd ­

of 

In  s even  vi�e-

111 
6�� 

the� 

In  Ebetsu ,   Yokogoshi , 

pat-d 
Obi e ,  aD 
ed 

In 
o
ne 

fRrms  w ere  between  five  t8n 
'pril  1947 ,  nearly  one -third  of 
cho  in  s i ze ,   a  little  more  tha n  one -third  were  larger  th8n  this , 
In� 
little  more  than .  one-third  were  sma ller .  The  opera ting  units  were 
ail  8 
a  general  smaller  in  centre l  and  s outhern  J� � n   than  in  northern  Japan. 

a ll 

a�er8 ge 

size  of  fa rms  for  the  13  vi lla ges  wa s  1.6  cho . 

In  Ebet su 
a�ere ged  5 . 6   ch o ;   in  the  other  12  villa ge s   the  � vera ge  fRrm  wa s 

nw 

0. 9  oho  1n 

si ze .  21 

The  sl ight  changes  in  the  s i ze  of  farm  operating  units  from  'pr i l  
to  December  1948  m a y   b e   of  s ome  s i gnificance .  Sma ll  de cre l.3 s e s   oc­
1947 
OQrred 
the  number  of  sma ll  unite  (les s  tha n   two  ta n )   and  in  the  num ­
i n 
la rger  units  (more  tha n  one  cho ) ;  incre a s es  oc curred  i n   the 
btl'  of  the 
:�ber  of  fq rms  from  tw o  ta n  to  one  ch o .   That  is ,  the  number  of  me dium-
t  led r�rms  increa s e d   where a s   the  number  of  the  sma llest  and  la rge s t  
"'l'III8 

,  ecreR sed  (Table  17) . 
d 

' 

The  first  purcha s e   of  hnd  by  the  government  Was  on  31  March 

It.! 
66 

V  �or fUrther  deta ils ,  see  dis cus sion  of  s i ze  of  farms  in  Chapter  2 ,  

art  IV . 

1947• 

67 

Farmers  Were  � ctive  in  New  Cooperatives 

Bulletin  boards  keep  farmers 
well  informed . 

Directors  of  the  village 
cultural  cooperative  associa­
ti on  meet  in  Aioi . 

Most  Villages  Had  Rec lamation 

Plans 

-

L A N D I N   P R O J E C T E D  
R EC L AM AT I O N   P R O J E C TS 

V I L L A G E  

LAND  IN  PROJECTS, DEC 

1 0   20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90 

48(CHOI 

5.IHZ 

• 

1 81!! 

5,0.00 

5,000 

TOTAL 

V I LL A G E S  

13 

I 

I I  R U RAL V I LLAGES 

2 U R BA N  V I LLAG E S  

E BE T S U  

M IZ U W A K E  

Y OK O G OS H I 

N O B U TA 

K A R A K O  

F U T O M I 

K A WA S H I R O  

N I  K A I D O 

Y O S H I D A 

O B I E  

A I O I  

H O N A M  I 

S U Y E 

NO  LAND  , AVA I LA B LE 

• •  • 

NO  LAND  AVA I LA B LE 

P±-!JD Lt Ll alE 

� 

fZI 

TO  BE  USED   BY  RE S I D E NT  FARM  HOUSEHOLDS 
NEW  S ETTLER  H OU S E HOLDS 
TO  BE  U SED 

'/ 

BY 

I2ZZJ 
_ 

ie  being  cu1tivated � 

NATURA L  RESOURCES  SECTION 

Figure 

new  land 

DATA  FROM  TABLE  18 

1 2  

Under  the  new  a gricultural  coonerat ive  a ss oci� t i on  system , 
A re  be ginn ing  to  take  a  more  a ctive  p�rt  i n   the  cooperative  buying 
the ir  supplies  a nd  selling  of  their  farm  products .   Only  fRrmers  can M 
a ct ive  members  of  coopera t ives ,  a nd   the  farmers  on  the  boa rds  of 
tors  sha pe  the  poli cy  of  the  orga ni zati ons .  Farmers  a re  increa s i ngly 
inclined  to  turn  to  the  new  orga ni zation  for  a s sistance  a nd  guidance . 
�s 
re sult ,  many  of  the  villa ge  cooperat ives  a re  beginning  t o   t
rea l  interest  i n   villa ge  prospects  and  problems . 

farmer. 
of 

direc· 

e  8 

k

R 

a

In  June  1947 ,  the  nati on-w ide  system  of  c ompuls ory  a gricultural 
s oc ia t ions  was  still  in  operation .  Vi lla gers  looked  upon  the  villa ge  
a s s ociat ions  primarily  a s   the  loca l  units  of  a  na tional  orga n i zat ion .  
I n   November  1947 ,  when  the  A.gricultura l  C ooperative  � s s ocia tion  Law  Vf8�1 
enacted ,  compa nion  legi s la t i on  diss olved  the  compuls ory  a s s ocia t i ons .  9f 

",S" 

21  For  further  deta ils ,  Bee  d is cussion  of  a gr icultural  cooperat ive S  

Chapter  1 ,   Part  IV. 

68 

in 

Ten  of  the 
v

ilable  for  rec

1.3 

villages  had  plans  for 

proj:cts .  N? 
tion  in  the  other  three ,  Yokogoshi ,  Futonu., 

land  rec lamation 

ot

DDd  was  a
a
Rikaido.  A  t
About  5,000  cho  of  this 
bien 
December  19M� ,  but  about  40  new  households  were  already 
lltabl1shed  in  four  re latively  new  re� lamation  proj ects .  Of  the  270  cho 

l  of  5 , 'Z70  cho  was  involved  in  planned  proj ects . 
in  Ebetsu.  Effective  work  there  had  not 

started  in 

lama

was 

a.

the  reclamation  proj ects  of  the  other  villages ,   88  were 

remainder  were  intended  to  accommodate  an  esti

intended  to 
ultivated  land  of  present  reside�t  farm  households ,  and 
99  new  settler 

1a 
laol'ease  the  c
� 
bouaeholda ,  nearly  one-half  of  them  already  located  on  the  land . 
1 t wa
IbetBU 
•• 
were  arranged .  11 

d 
In 
settler  hous eholds  c ou�d 
aj or  ditching  and  dra.��

tab11shed  in  the  extensive  peat  bogs ,  if 
new 

s  estimated  that  about  500 

be 
age 

te

ma

m

. 

t�ther  details ,  see  discussion  of  Ian  rec 

d 

. 

2J  Fo  f

t  r 
er  1 ,  

' 
Part  IV . 

1 

ti 

a�  on  n 

i 

C hap 
-

69 

lA nd  " A.meliorRt ion"  C onti nued 

New  Leadership  Developed 

Ditches  and  roads  are  straightened  through  land 

The  farm  pe opl e   are  taking  a  more  active  i nterest  in  politic s . 

\ 

The  term  u. nd  nl!m�li orA t l on "   is  used  to  des ignate  the  layi ng 

X strlll i ght  bound.a ries ,  d itche s ,   and  roa ds  in  farming  a r�  AAving 

a nd  soattered  irregulA rly  shaped  sma ll  h old ings .  Work  of  this  type 
being  oarried  on  in  only  one  of  the  13  vil18 ges ,  Yokogoshl . 
the  proj ect  in  which  Yokogosh i  PArticipates  are  prorated  A S   f ollows l 
61  percent  by  the  nat i onal  governme nt ,  19  peroent  by  the  prefectUT8 1 
government ,  A nd  20  percent  by  the  farmers .  The  farmers  in  Yokogoahi 
do 
not  believe  they  can  a ff ord  s uch  8  proj e ot ,   particularly  i f   a n   a grioul­
tur9 1  depres s i on  oomes . 

�lthough  they  fea r  the  cost ,  they  des ir

is 
for 

u

o

t 

Costs 

e  the 
benefits  of  the  a ddlti on91  bnd  a nd  the  i ncrea sed  producti on  which Wi� 
the 11\. 
rcent  through  ma king  a  little  more  lsnd  aVBi 
t o  d 
dr� ine 

result .  Vill� ge  lea de rs  esti�ted  thgt  the  work  is  incr
of  the  � re8  by  about  10 
A ble  for'  cr ops  s nd  through  increa se  in  yields .  Most  farmers  seem 
pre fer  the  lArger ,  regularly  s haped  fields  be ca use  they  oan  be 
�nd  flooded  more  ea sily .  

ng 

pe

e a

s i

M� ny  m
D  December 
bien  br
�r.ricultura l  

o

e  fa rmers  in  the se  villages  occupied  lea dership  pos it ions 
r
1948  than  18  m onths  earlie r .   This  cha nge  se ems  t o  

o

ought  about  prima rily  by  the  succes sful  op�rRt ion 

the  loca l 
nd  commis s i ons ,  the  launching  of  new  a gricultura l  coop­
ent  of  l

a s s
�tive 
pm
with  the  land  reclRma tion  and  l'! nd  "Rmelioration"  proj ects . 
Deotlon 
t
Ul  ot 
he
operation 

la
ciati ons ,  and  t
activit ies  provided  a  ra ther  ree li s t ic  fr�mework  f or  the 
a ge s  seemed  t o   be  tA king  po1i -

F�rmers  i n   the  m� j ority  of  the  vil
l

vl lLi ge  a ffa ire  genera lly  m ore  serious ly  �t  the  e nd  of  the 

e  a dult  eduoatiODA l  pro

e  deve lo
h

l  lea ders hip 

m .  y 

s
e 
of 

con­

gra

of 

in 

t 

r

l

o

g

a 

c

a

a

1�C8 a nd 
t:ners �

o  -month  pe

e

be 

ri o

than  they 

re  expres s in g  themse lves  m ore  i n  

had 

d 

l hc re� s i ngly  Aware  of  the ir 

.' ..... / 
a t   the  be ginn i ng  of  it .  S ome  of  t he  new  I"" 

ubli c  g� therings  a nd  A ppe�red 

. 

s p

on

re

p
s ib il

i

t ies  a s   taxpayers . 

ha ve   X 

7 0  

II  F�l'  further  det

o  the  a p;riEl r i� w   reforms  i n   Ch8. pter  1,  P$irt  IV . 

R i

ls ,  see  d is cuss i on  of  the  adult  educati ona l  phA se 

7 1  

Informa l  S ervice  Groups  Were  Strengthened 

Taxe S  Became  Outstanding  Problems 

P RACT I CE  ASSO C I AT I O N S   A N D   I N FO R M A L   S E R V I C E 

V I L L A G E  

N U M BE R   ASSOCIATIONS,  J U N  41,  A N D   SERVICE  G R O U PS,  D Ec  48 

10 

20 

30 

40 

00 

6Q 

a 

R U R A L   V I LLAGES �:::=::�e:=�'�IiiitiiiIiiliiiii'1iiiiii1iiitiii1iiiliiiii1Iii1iiiiiiiiii�'_ 

I  U R BA N   V I L LAGE  � 

N O   DATA  AVA I L A B L E  

EBETSU 

M IZ UW A K E  

YOKOGO S H I 

' N O B UTA 

K A R A KO 

F U TO M I  

K AWAS H I RO 

N I K A I D O  

YOS H I D A  

O B I E  

A I O I  

H O N A M I  

S U Y E  

N O   DATA  AVAILABLE 

N O   DATA  AVA" ."., 

NO  DATA 

'"'Y. " '- "' '' '- t  

I7.ZLl  LOCAL AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE ASSOC IATIONS _ LOCAL INFORMAL AGRiCULTURAL SERVICE 

NA TURAL  RfSOURCfS  SECTION 

'Figure  13 

The  hi ghly  cohes ive  �oca lity  groups ,  prominent  in  a ll  of  the  �il­
lR ges ,  s eemed  to  hAve  been  strengthened  by  the  formation  of  the  coop­
er� t ive s . 
The  informa l 
1948  R re  sma ller  � nd  m ore 
groupings  of  the  pe ople 

up  in 
w ith  the  natura l  locality 
ce 

ha d  been  the  loca l  a gricultural  pra ct

l  service  groups  which  spra ng 

a gri cultur

a
closely  ident ified 
law  in  la te  1947 . 

than 

i

s s

c i

A

o

9

t i on s ,  

diss olved  by 

.. 

T he  present  informa l 

s
i ngs  a s   determi ned  by  the  b
p q rt i cip� t ion  i. n   reli gi ous  r i tes  a nd  festiva ls ,  w ork  excha nge  pr
a
9 nd  the  lO-fami ly  R nd  five
-
m i ll ,  R n other  operated 

ce  groups  tend  t o   pa ra llel  loca l  p:roup" 
yi ng  a nd  trA d in g   h � b i ts  of  the  pe ople ,  their. 
ceS

ly  froups .  One  cooper ati ve 

ti
ope rated 

i
daikon

pi ckle 

e rv

u

i

m

f

c

, 

,

a
a  "
sma ll 

" 

fR 
(rush  m

utatl3mi u 

ct ory  and  a  bamboO 
t)  fa ctory.  :11 

a

a 
handi­

a  third 

A 

"l nd 

S I'! I' 
c ra ft  s hop , 

IN 

MAJOR 

EASE 

INCR 

TYPES  OF  TAXES  FROM  1946 

YEAR 

1947 

FISCAL 

TO 

FISCAL YEAR 

Imposts 

Income 

hi 

Natione1 

Special  Public 
Imposts  £I 

cENt 

� 
� 

305 

1 

V-
� 
� 13 
JJ ror-1 
I .,.,-.. 
I�,' 
�bl 
-:: 
� 
�iro 
�do 
itIbS� 
GIIi' 
� 
ISo! 

259 
351 

360 
143 
7S1 
497 
554 
350 

668 
532 

60 
227 
319 
349 
488 

L8I[a11.  Levied  Taxes 

Nat  0 

i  nal 

Frefectural 

Village 

Public 

310 

2 51 
370 

468 
119 
1 ,028 
1 ,469 
533 
498 

1 ,375 
939 
54 
213 
570 
356 
491 

453 

395 
494 

422 
367 
405 
478 
614 
351 

455 
327 
2 5 6  
420 
318 
544 
427 

428 

385 
458 

433 
331 
313 
292 
596 
369 

271 
444 
498 
577 
374 
476 
408 

217 

249 
180 

131 
165 
405 
139 

608 
233 

169 
173 
207 
210 
175 
215 
497 

y 

Tax 

42 5  

622 
355 

412 
549 
622 
418 
1 ,428 
456 

1 ,186 
617 
265 
504 
458 
347 

489 

579 

1 ,369 
199 

265 
645 
4 ,212 
1 , 140 
173 , 300 2/ 
1 , 660 

1 ,120 
343 
233 
1 ,1 63 
674 
162 
3 , 344 

"". 
� 
III.  lid'olWl1  tax 
"  !Id8  oategorY w 

ee 

.. ,..... 
� 

tI 
*  ,.rc,Dt  I»T88S8 

n  lDOl S -

national  levied  taxes 

collected  tor  oberi�y,  education,  bealth ,  religiouB  activities ,  etc . 
ithi
withi  pIlbl1c  imp08ta  is  iteudiled  a aparately  because  of  the  high  percentage  of  increas e. 
figure  for  1947-48  waS 

oa�go�p08tantor  education ,  bealth ,  and  youth  and  women  activities . 
1s  hSgh  becaus8  ot  tbe  ell1a11  fi gure  (n ,ooo)  1n  1946-47 . 

B epsrataIy  because  of  th e  high  perc enta�e  of 

18  itemi zed 

n 

• 

The 

Tabl e  A 

13  villages  as  a  whole  the  t

es  (in  yen)  for  the  1?47 

ax

the 
fldjlcd  year  lQ/  were 

•  During 

percent  higher  than  those  of  the  194�  f�scal 
fiscal  year ,  the  yen  value  had  deprec�ated  by 

300 

o-thlrds ,   as  measured  by  the  official  yen  price  of  rice  in  March  1948. 

the  1947 

increase  in  taxes  as  a  whole  was  perhaps  about 

�eal 
The  gr
and  in  local  public  imposts  for  education  and 

e

atest  increases ,  yen-wise ,  occurred  in  the  national  income 

imposts  for  education  and  other  public  services  probably  wi ll  be 
higher  in  the  next  few  years ,  because  of  the  widespread  erection 
lower  secondary  s chool  bui ldi ngs  and  the  additi onal  local  sup­

� 
�al 
"n 
of  new 
�rt given  to  other  c ommunity  activities . 
oned  only  as  one  of  the  farmers '  c oncerns ;  in  December  1948 ,  taxes 
,.�  most  frequently  mentioned  as  the  outstanding  problem. 

health  activities .  

In  June  1947 ,  taxes  were  men­

rcent . 

25-30  pe

11 ,7)4,000. 

For 

For  further  det

i ls , 
ons  in  Cha pte r   1 ,   Part 

see 

a

d i s cus sion  on  a gricultura l  c ooperati ve 

R S· 

I V .  

oc il'l t

s

i

72 

otherwise  stated ,  this  applie s  to  the  Japanese  f
i

47-31  Mar  48 . 

Unless 
1 
Apr 

scal  year , 

73 

,  f 

Delivery  Quota s  Were  Heavier 

Appea l  Procedures  Were  Utilized 

E S T I M AT E D   PE R C E N T   OF  CR OP S  N E E D ED  TO 

V I  L L A G E  

TOTAL 

VILLAGES 

1 3  

P E R C ENTAGE  O F  CROPS 

10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80 

I I   RURAL  VILLAG ES  �==:==�r.1 

U R BAN  VI LLAGES  � 

2 

E B  E T S U  

M I Z U W A K E  

I 

Y O K O G O S  H 

N O B U T A  

K A R A K O 

F U T O M I  

K A W A S H I R O 

N I K A I D O  

Y O S H I D A 

O B I  E 

A I O I  

H O N A M  
I 

S U Y E  

R I C E  

� 

_ 

W H EAT  AND  BARLEY 

SWEET  POTATOES 

W H I TE  POTATOES 

Ii!'Zii 

I!liil!I 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SEC T I ON 

Figure  14 

DATA  FROM  TABLE 

rs 

oompare  their  tax  assessments  and  their  crop  quota  allocations . 

Increa ses  of  staple  crop  quotas  for  delivery  to  the  government 

cr ops 

needed  to  meet  village  delivery  quotas  in  1948  were : 

officia l  prices  betwe en  1947  and  1948 were  reported  generally.  Crops 
at 
were  re latively  better  during  the  latter  year ,  a nd   quotas  were  more 
easily  met .  Loca l  estimates  of  the  proportion  of  the  five  individual 
staple 
rice ,  from  68  percent  in  Obie  to  f ive  percent  in  the  fishi ng  farming 
r­
vi lla ge  of  Futomi ;  for  wheat  end  ba rley,  from  74  percent  in  Obie 
to  10 
percent  in Obie  to  1, 
percent  in  Yoshida ;  for  sweet  pota toes ,  from 
perce nt  in  Futomi ;  white  potatoes ,  from  76  percent  in  Yokogoshi  to  31 
few  crops ,  such  a s 
percent  in Futomi .  The  entire 
bacco and  hemp,  which  are  government  monopolies ,   W a S   delivered  to 
to· 
government �  Objection  to  the  size  of  crop  delivery  quotas  is  genal'S! 
the 
throughout  the  villa ge s .  

production 

of 

63 

a 

The 

of  8uoh 

Avq il�billty  of  appeal  procedures  was  genere lly  known  by  the 
j or1ty  (,)f  the  villa gers ,  and  in  the  more  rece nt  months  the  utiliz�tion 
procedures  ha d  increased .  Some  of  the  better-informed  f1'l rmers 
thAt  Rpooale  could be  carried  up through  villAge  or  county  to  the . 
prefecture  and  even  to the  nat ional  government;  a  fe"  said  thAt  if they 
GOUld  not get what  they thought  was  right  a nd  j ust ,  they w ould  appeal 
directly  to  General Mac4.rthur .  others  knew  only  enough  of  the  procedure 
the  matter  w ith  the  village  or  d istrict  office ,  and 
'laX-teoBnts  indicated  thRt  they  still  sought  a dvice  from  their  former 
to  ts ke  up 
r
s. 
l
d
o
�early  one-third  of  the  1 , 217  heads  of  households  who  filled 
�e8tlollhaire  ( �ppendix B) ,  and who  had  been  assessed  for  a n  income  tax, 
thAt  they  had  a ppealed  their  income  tax  assessment  one..  qr  more 
t�orted 
25  percent  of  1,195  respondents  who  had  grain  quotas  to  meet 
time  or  a nother  appeAled  the ir  gra in  quotas .   Villa ge  lee ders 
tutd 
� nd 
.1u� 
.tu�ed  that  more  of  these  appeqls  hAd  occurred  in  the  18  months  under 
lit  one 
more  appea ls  occurred  in 
1Orrt./ tha n  in  a ny  other  18-month  period . 
�illAges  than  in  others  for  a  variety  of  l OCAl  reasons . 

in  the 

a  falf 

MlIl ny 

6s , 

nd

74 

75 

This  farmer  saY8  he  rather  likes  the  pre-planting  quota . 

Cotton  textiles  and  rubber  boots  are  popular  incentive  items. 

To  enc ourage  farmars  to  increaae  production,  delivery  quotas  for 

1948  were  announced  prior  to  planting  dates.  In  the  villages  where 
Yields  are  dependable,  the  farmers  liked  this  method,  because  they 
thought  it  afforded  them  an  opportunity  to  benefit  by  exceeding  their 
quota s .   The  farmers  1n  FUtomi,  where  yields  have  been  uncerta in  ,_,.,� 
of  recurring  typhoons ,  disliked  pre-planting  quota s ,   because  in  �d 
years  they  would  have  to  buy  rice  for  their  own  use. 

Certificates  for  purchasing  consumer  goods  at  fixed  prices  were  of­
the  farmers  a8  Bn  incentive  to  deliver  crops  in  Amounts  to  meet 

�d 
I"  to  exceed  their  collection  quotas.  Incentive  goods  to  farmers  gen­
eral11 1ncressed  as  manufactured  articles  became  more  readily  available 
81!!  the  government  mede  a  determined  effort  to  collect  larger  amounts 
lad 
.,  I!!taple  foods .  The  most  popular  incentive  goods  were  cotton  textiles 
IDd  rubber-soled  shoes. 
"Sake"  (Japanese  wine) ,  beer,  end  tpbecco  a s  
banry  items ,  used  generally  by  men  only,  also  were  w idely  purchased ; 
village  leaders  expressed  preference  for  luxury  items  that  the 
• 
family  could  enjoy,  such  as  sugar. 

eew 
Wb� 

76 

7? 

Cost  of  Supplie s  IncreA sed 

O F F I C I A L  

A N D  

B LA C K - M A R K E T   P R I C E S 

I T E M  

P E R C E N T  

I N C R E A S E ,   DEC 47 - DE C 4 8  

I N   KA RA KO 

FA R M   PRODUCTS 

20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  110 

Ferme rs  Fea r   An  Agrioultural  Depre ssion  • 

•

•

I N D  I C AT E D   BY  V A LU E  OF  R I C E  CRO P 
(  1 9 3 4 - 36 

=  1 00 ) 

EPRE S S I O N S 

D

� 

� , ,0 

)(---
V I--I---
� 
� ./ 

1:1"" 

,0  f-

,00 

/ 

",. 

/ r-..... 

r.... 

"""" � 

� 
V  I"... 

r--. � 

" 

� 

�  V 
� 

V 

.--

R I C E  

S OY B EA N S  

W H E AT 

S W E E T   POTA T O E S  

W H I T E   P O T A TO E S  

C O N S U M E R   G O O D S  

C O T TO N   T E X I L E S  

R U B B ER - SOLED  S H O E S  

C O M M E R CI A L  

FERT I LI Z ER 

H A N D   SCY T H E  

OF F I C I A L  

B L AC K - M A R K E T  

40 

,0 

,0  r-

G R O SS  V A L U E   W A S   O B TA I N ED  BY  M U LT I P LY I N G   P R O D U C T I O N  D A T A   BY  AV  E RA G E  

N O T E :  P R  I C E   A N D   A D J U S T I N G   F O R  C H A N G E S 
W E R E   O B T A I N E D   F RO M   THE  M I N I S T R Y  
PR I C E   D A TA ,  W H I C
O B TA I N E D   F R O M  H Y P OT H  E C   BA N K.  G E N E R A L  

OF 

H 

R E PR E S E N T  AV E R A G E   R I C E   E X C H A N G E   P R I C E S ,  W E R E  

I N D E X   O F   W H O L E S A L E   P R I C E S  

IN  P R I C E  L E V EL.  P R O D U C T I O N  D A T A  

A G R I C U LT U R E   AND  FO R E ST R Y .  R I C E  

A D J U S T   T H E   S E R I E S  F O R   C HA N G E S 

I N   T O K Y O ,   U S E D  
P R E PA R E D   B Y   T H E   B A N K   O F   J A P A N.  A  T H R E E - Y E A R   M O V I N G  A V E R A G E   OF  T H E  
AD J U S T E D   VA L U E   O F  T H E   R I CE  C R O P   I S   U S E D   TO  S M O O T H   O U T   AN N U A L  
F ROM  THE  G E N E R AL  T R E N D .  

VA R I AT I O N S  

I N   PR I C E   LEV E L ,   WA S 

TO 

1922 

1 9 24 

1926 

1 9 2 8  

1 930 

1932 

1934 

1 936 

1938 

1 9 4 0  

N O T E : 

KAR A K O  
I S   R E L AT 
V E LY  C LO S E   TO  T O K Y O .  M A K I N G   B L A C K  - M A R K E  
I 
P R O D U C T S   H I G H E R   T H A N  

I N   M O R E   R E M OTE  A R E A S .  

T 

_ 

� 

NA TURA L  RESOVRCE$  SECTION 

Figure  15 

P R I  C E S   F O R  

FAR M  

DATA  FROM  TABLI 

0
"20 

.. 
.. ruRAL  RfSOURCES  SECTION. 

Figure 

16 

ra

F�rmers  everywhere  compla ined  of  mounting  c osts  of  supplies . 

prices  of  things  they  purchA sed .  This  s itua tion 
had 
d  by  the  fa ct  tha t   a lthough  th ey  still  ha d  to  buy  ma ny  of 

contended  that  the  amount  they  rece ived  for 
kept  pa ce  w ith  th
a g
s uppl�es  on  the  bla ck  ma �ket ,  the ir  sa le  of  farm  products  to  the 
ma rket  h
p orted  a  shrinka ge  in  the  d ifference  between  bla ck  market  and 
pr i ce s  for  f8 rm  products . 

d  de clined  sharply .  Furtherm ore ,  farmers  in  a ll  villq ges 

farm  pr o

their 

ucts 

bl�ck 
re­
offic�l 

e 

�

g

d

a

t

e

�

The  fa rmers 

bla ck  ma rket  hA d  declined  f or  severa l  reR SODS .  More 

t 

f ood  ha d  be oome  ava i lable  t o   urba n  dwellers  at  officia l  pri ces 
0 ;  
by 

the  �a rger  a nd  ea rlier  f ood  deliveries  of  the  f8rmers ,  brou ght 
he 
t
van 
gi 
for  f
the  h l gh  leve l  of  food  imports  a nd 
b la c k   m  rketeers . 
s h owed 

becau� 
a bOut 
s upplies  of  commercia l  fert i l i zer  the  � dded  publicit1 
i ncent ve� 

]  ncreased 
r
t o   e1:!
l
rmerB  t o   meet  or  exceed  the i r   delivery  quot'3 s .   Other 

fectors 
of 
Tokyo ,  eva i Ui ble  i nforme
s eve n  t

the'  bll'l ck-ma rket  price  of 

more  eriens i ve  prose cution 

the 
I n   KBra k o ,   which  i s  

gO�ds  used  a s  

y  collecti on::> ,  a 

the  i n cre :;t se  of 

a bou

Uo 
II 

nea r  

nd 

VIe 

�

tha t 
off i c i� l 
h� gh .  The 
� l gb t  
78 

price  in  December 

ma l"�et 

t i mes  to 

black 

pri
5  1/2  t imes  as  high 

m
i n   December  1948 ,  it  was  foul" 
1947 ; 
ce  for  c otton  textile  goods  dropped 

r i ce  wa s 

t 

i

eS  the  Jill 
time� 
from 

� s   the 

off i c ia l  p

r

i ce

. 

Farmers  in  a ll  villages  seemed  t o  

i n   la te  1948  tha t  '3 n  

a ssume 

de

r

s sion  wa s  imminent .  They  point e d   out 

evi dence  the 

p

e

gS 

�t�l 
otIS 

that  ts xe s  were  highe r ,   delivery  quot"l s  were  heAvier ,  b la ck 

price  of  consumer  goods .  They  fea red  t hat  the  post-Surrender  f
tood 

prices  hed  decline d ,   and  farm  pri ces  had  not  ke pt  pa ce  with 

mar­
rm­
at  a n   end ,  a nd  many  reca lled  with  a nxiety  the  depressions 
which  be ga n  in  1929, 

boom  W fl S 
World  War  I  a nd  the  w orld�' i de  de
the  price  Of  r ice  a nd  other  crops  fe l l  
p

�owln g 
ben 
bQq�nd8 
�t econom ic  oond i tions  might  we1l  have  been  pre f q ced 
8e '18 : 

s ome  s uch 
"In  view  of  the  impending  a gr icultural  depressi on " .  III 

of  farmers  went  i nt o   serious  debt .  Ma ny  of  the ir  discus s ions 

lem   tha t   hundreds  of 

res s i o

8 0  

by 

n 

a

a gri­

�or deta ils  s e e   d i s cuss i on  on  a graria n 
a rt  IV . 

' 

problems  i n  

Cha pter  2 ,  

79 

 
M ore  Technical  Il,.s s i sta nce  Was  De sired 

conducts  a  demonstration  at  Mizuwake . 

OD, 

Alaost  811  f�rmers  expres sed  a  desire  for  a  greater  amount  of  tech­
�ssistance .   Higher  taxes ,  heavier  de livery  quota s ,   continued  in­
and  the  decline  of  the  bla ok  market  ha d  made  them  keenly  AWq re 
king 
neighbors  who  do  a n   outstanding  j ob  in  one  phe se  or  a nother 

need  to  produce  a s   much  as  pos s ible .  More  farmers  were  se

hing.  The  new  owners ,  especially,  desire  technica l   a s siste nce , 
ce  from 
they 
�  t

nt  to  hold  on  to  their  newly  bought  la nd .   They  ere  re luctqnt 
their  ex-1� nd1ords  for  counsel  a nd   guidance ,  lest  they  wea ken 

e

wa
o 

land-ow nership  pos ition. 

�n I!bout  one-ha lf  of  the  villa ges ,  the  new  a gricultura l  extem!1l:on 
tur  Was 
(I  llleet  the  needs  of 
t  ! l  e:.cteneion 

d iscus se d .   There  Vlere  m�my 
s erve  8 S   a 
nd

pra ctica l   technica l   _ �n -v­

indi cat ions  thA t   an 

system  thRt  CAn 

ers  will 

widely . 

being 

P' :\. ­

"l 

the  new  la

own

be  us ed 

Many  farmers  have  purchased  basic  items  in  recent  months . 

Despite  the  farmers r  genera l  fea r   of  hard  times  ahead  and 

dence  of  decline  from  1947,  there  were 
still  oomparatively  well  off .  Yen  savin�  had  inoreAsed  in  mo
of 
villa ges ,  but  the  va lue  of  the  savings  rema ined  oonstant  or  perhaps 
de olined  s lightly  in  view  of  the  depreoia tion  of  the  ye n  

indications  that  they 

ma ny  

t 

s

The  borr�· 

a ome 

ings  of  farmers  t o   produce  their  crope  had  increa sed  S l i�htly  in  most 
villa ges .  Little  indebtedness  was  evident  in  December  1948  but 
many 
to 
village  leaders  expres sed  the  opinion  that  farmers  would  s o�n 
in  debt .  Nevertheless ,  consumer  goods  in  the  looal  stores  bad 
pi
greatly  since  June  1947,  a nd  fSirmere  had  been  buying  at  a  r

have 

a

d  rate .  

In  the  18  months , 

n
hi
machinery  were  made , 
t
( 1 )   consumer  goods 
nection,  two  considera tions  are  important : 
o ome  ava i lable  after  a  long  time ,   and  (2)  farmers  had  money  to 
even  though  they  often  may  have  used 
resouroes .  

purchases  of  ra di os ,   live stock, 
In 

the  sucoeeding  pages  will  show . 

considerable  pa rt  of  the ir 

ma ny  

8 S  

a 

a

d  farm 
s  oon­

had  be­
bU1  tbe'l 

08sb 

80 

Livestock  end  Fowls  Increa sed 

More  Machinery  Was  Purchased 

N U M B ER  O F   A N I M A LS  A N D   FO WLS  ON  FA RMS 
P ERCENT  CHAN G E .  JUN  47  - DEC  48 
HOUSEHOLDS 
-60  50  40 

ANIMALS  OR  FOWLS 
20 

DECREASE 

W I THOUT 

10  20 

10  0 

I NCREASE 

DECREASE 

ANI MALS  . 

V I L L A G E  

30 

30  40 

30 

TOTA L  1 3   V I LLAG E S  

I  I  R U R A L  VI LLAGES 

2  U RBAN  V I L LAGES 

E B E T S U  

M I Z UWA K E  

YOKO G OS H I  

N O B  U TA 

K A RAKO 

F U T O M I 

KAWA S H I R O  

N I K A I D O  

Y O S H I D A 

O B I E  

A I O I  

H O N A M I  

E 

NATURAL  RESOVRCfS  SEC TION 

Figure  17 

OATA  FROM  TA BLES  22  AND 

e

rous 

Livestock  of  e ll  klnde- -hore es ,  cows ,  hogs ,  goats ,  a nd  s heep-­
i ncrea sed  nine  percent  in  number  between  June  1947  a nd  December  1948. 
The  greatest  relatIve  increases  were  of  the  smaller  a n1m8 le ,  espec� 
goa ts  a nd  pigs .  Even  s o ,   goat's  a nd  pigs  t ogether  w ere  but  one -hdt 
drg ft  cattle  or  draft  h orses  In  December  1948;  sheep  were 
num
AS 
les s   thg n 
e
ble  24) .  Nearly  one-hAlf  of  � ll  the  anima ls  in 
on
a s   draft  cattle  (T
two-thirds  of  a ll  horses  were  in  this 
13  villAges  were  in  Ebe
villA ge .  The  greatest  relat ive  increa ses  in  livest ock  occurred  in 
t
vil1e ges  in  centra l  a nd  southern  Jape n ,   where  livestock  numbers 
bett 
l  Amount  of  fowls ,  fa irly 
t ra d itiona lly  been  sma llest .  The  tot
d i stributed  throughout  the  vIllages ,  increased  14  percent..  ObioJcen 
m a de  up  98  percent  of  a ll   fowls . 

ha lf  �s  numerous  a s   horses  e nd  but  two-thirds  a s  
-

su

; 

�

�

, 

8' 

the  18-month  period ;   those  without  any  fowl  decreas ed  10  percent. 

w

ithout  eny  anima ls  decreased  f ive  peroent 

F� rm  house holds 

EL ECTR I C   MOTO R S  A N D  
I N TE R NAL  COMB USTI ON  ENGI NES 

PERCENT 
DECREASE 
10  0 

C HANGE,JUN47-DEC48 

I N CREAS E 

I  20 

40 

30 

0 

. 

I L L A G E  

v 

TOTA L 

13  VI LLAGES 

20 

I I  RURAL VI LLAGES 
URBAN VILLAGES 

2 

E  B E T S U  

M I Z U W A K E 

Y O K O G O S H I  

N O B U TA 

K A R A K O 

T O  M  I 

F U 
K  A W A S H  I R O 
N I K A I DO 

Y O S H  
I 

O B I E  

D A  

A I O I  

H O N A M I  

S U Y E  

100er-driven 

t

hr

e

r

she

s 

£ZZZZjJ 
-

E L E C T R I C   M O T O R S  
I N T E R NAL  C O M B U S T ION  E N G I N E S  

n. 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SE�rION 

Fl.gure 

DATA  FRlThI  TAB L E  
18 

25 

are  unc o

mo

m

c

o

r

i

ns 

tio

y  during 

make  many 

in  farm  machine 

tors  became  avai�bi�

�eased 
enabled  the  ;��

. 
dl
the  18 
�ke
months 
c
n�se .  The  relatively 
favor­
. 
cha
s . 
e
s  0 
pur
was  in  s�ll 
motors  and 
electric 
26rtor� �
ncreased  16  percent 

Power-driven  farm  machine 
otrlc m
�O��m1? cond
bel'  �  l.ncrease 
IndiVidually  owned  e1ect�c
�  8 . 
OOlmo::e� motors  19  percent  (Table 
tbt1rel  n  O�i�  a
Of  the;Yi1,� J Ol.ntly  owned  rather  than  i
ernal  combustion  engines  j oi  t�  ua 
OU1tural n 
cooperatives .   Small-sized  w 
horae 
numbered  41 ·  D  be  alldng 
r 
elbbe�1111g the 
18-month  Pe�fod e c
inore

c�mbustion  engines , 
d  Ebetsu,  increased  two  n  emal 
re
se 
�t , 
a
out  this  inc
1y  owned  engines .  
located  in 
ctors  (most  of  them 
194�;  they  had  d ecreas ed  two 
dr
, 
rice  threshers  1 
465 

y  owned  w
a

e  percent. 

POwer ) 

ased 

nd
n. 

l.ven 

948, 

and 

; 

. ��

tr

er

er

ce

e 

w

n

-

' 

e

s

o

• 

Din 

--...  d 

• 

f 

83 

Home  Processing �nded 

Farm  households  supple­
ment  law  cash  inc ome  by 
handicrafts .  

of  farm 

ce

si

ng 
Home  pro
products  is  c ommon .  Here 
H zori"  are  being  made . 

s

�n 
m

Loca l  process ing  of  one  or  more  farm  produots  wa s  well-established 
of  the  villa ges .  S ome  home  proces sing  expende d  during  the  18 
\bout  one -third  of  the  nat iona l  farm  household  income  is  from 

elll ch 
nth
s . 
o
process ing  handicra fts ,  a nd   wa ge s   obtained  from  off
home 
makin
The 
Bevera l 
ha ndic ra ft  was  not i ced .  Lea ders  of  the  a
or 
many  of  the  villages  e
might  be  processed  loca lly

of  the  villa ges .   No  decrease  of  any  tra ditio

ic
re ssed  the  h ope  that  st�ll  other  farm  produots 

ul
They  looke d  upon  the  expans ion  of  loca l  

l  home  industr{ 

a nd   of  straw  ropes  and  bales  increased  In 

of  IItatami" ma

tura l   cooperative s  n 

rm  work . 

ttin

xp

gr

na

g 

g 

f

�

-

and  handicrafts  a s   one  poss ible  way  t o   increa se  farm  income 

. 

proces s ing 
a  bit  more . 

The  ratio  of  workers  to  the  land 

ea
'

ar

is  very  high . 

In  m ost  villa ges ,  tra ditiona l  excha nge  of  farm  work  between  farm 
families  declined  s li ghtly.  This  decline  seemed  to  result  from  the  in­
crea sed  ava i lability  of  family  labor  a nd  the  greater  efficiency  brought 
about  by  the  use  of  work  anima ls  and  ma chinery .   More  w ork  anima ls  and  
more  mot ors  on  farms  a re  a ff ording  farmers  a  greater  oppor�unity  for 
self-suff iciency  IOInd  self-relia nce .  S ome  families  a ppe� re(J  gl� d  to  keep 
the ir  a ffa irs  a  little  more  to  themselve s ,  a s   t�xes 
do iivery  quotas 
a re  tra ditionally  fixed  on  the  ba sis  of  the  knowledge  pos ses sed  by  vi1-
and 
lq ge  lea ders  of  the  economic  s ituation  of  ea ch  family. 

84 

85 

Fore st  Reserves 

crea se d 

De

Logs  are  us ually  sl edd 
the 
hway  by 

i

h

g

hand . 

ed  to 

S ome  New  Crops  Vlere  PI'l nted 

NGES  IN  CROPS  PRODUCED 

��NG  SURVEY  PERIOD 

soliE 

in  Crops 

------------1 

Produced 

. 

ty of  taro  root  crop 

or  " tatand"  matting  increased 

� 

v- Changes 
fill." 
__ 
� 
va

ne� 
introduced 
rush 

rie

A 

f

change 

"I" 

No 

ethruDI  flowers  introduc ed ;   more 
tobac c o ;   some  wheat  transplanted 
•  lIore  vegetabl es ;  more  mulberry  for 

yr 

p 

sllkwonos 

lIore  flowers  grown  for  Tokyo  market 

JObIlW 
"S-ko 

No  change 

..... h1ro 

Marked  increase  in  transplsnted  whest 

and  barley 

No  chsnge 

"I"  ru�h 

" tatam1"  matting  increased; 

a  little  more  s e ed  a nd  cotton 

for 

' More  l umber  i s   needed  for 
both  new  constr
ct
pair  of  war  damage . 

ion

u

' 

and  re­

No  change 

Marked  increase  in  transplanted  wheat; 

mo

re  v 

ageta bles 
and 

" I"  ru�h 

eugar 

cane  greatly  expanded 

Table  B 

Wheat  ie  transplanted  to  the  field s . 

use 

der  study,  prin cipa lly  bec
f
materis ls  in  the  citie s  a t   a  t im 
e 
s tricted  t imber  imnorts 
Th  f 
even  m ore  ra pi dly  hA d 
Cha rcO:I 
ing  of  s eed li ngs  Wa s  reported  t�
the  fores ts  ha d 
en  cut  duri 
areas  w� s 
. 

The  volume  of  forest  res erve  d 
S  e
crea s ed  in  the  18-m onth  period  un­
t�e
extr8 ordin� ry  nee d  for  build ing 
l
ow  grow ing  timber  reserves  a nd   re­
reserves  w ould  have  been  reduced 
t imber  prices  not  de clined .  Replent ­
�  l� g
� 
ging  far  behind  the  rate  a t   which 
nce  the  wa r .   ErOS ion  in  forest 

0. 
ores� 
n

be
ed  to  be . 

ng  a
lnc rea s  n g .  
i

8 

n 

e

o

O

a

r

p

rt

ca

l  we�v­
i ntro­

The  production  of 

II i II  rush  for  Htat�mi "  m8 tting  a nd  the  lo

IIt�tam i "   mqts  increa sed  in  t hre e  villa ge s .  Py

eth

r

of 

them

rum  WR S 

table s  be ­

in  one  vill a ge ,  a nd  more  t oba oc o   Also  wa s  grown.  Ve

the  leA ding  crop  in  one  villa ge ,   KA re ko ,   beca use  i t   wa s  de s i pnR ted 
vegetable -producing  a re a  by  the  Tokyo  municipa l  office .  Trans ­

Ing  of 
duced 
�me 
1 8   8 
pL. nt ing  of  wheat  i ncrea sed  in  three  villa ges
w ith  large  incre � se s   in 
two 
in  Nika id o ,   for  instan oe ,  the  number  of  families  f ollowing 
this  pra ctice  inore a se d   from  18  in  1947  t o  more  tha n  400  in  194 8 .   The 
tra nspI� nt in g   of  whea t   s prouts  from  beds  t o  the  field  a llows  them  to  get 
SuffiC ient  growth  in  the  fa ll  to  make  a  la rger  yie ld  tha n   is  otherwise 
POssible ,  because  the  la nd  where 
whe8t 
eUrr
e

y  a re  frown  can  be  prepa re d   for 
e  of  importanoe  oc­

only  R fter  the  rice  is  harve sted .  No  cha n

d  in  the  crops  produced  in  four  villa ge s .  

ge

h

g

t

; 

e

, 

86 

87 

More 

C cmmercie l 

Fert ili7.er  Wa s  � v� i lable 

Sa nitary  Fa c ilities  Did  Not  Cha nge 

e
Commercial  f er
pl ied  to  the  fields 
iz

ti l

r  is 
by  h  e.� 
an� • 

a  fa rm 
is  usually  impure . 

hous e  18  handy , 

nea r 
, trt'8J1l  t  r 
the  ,,8  e 

bUt 
j 

�ld 

the  other  oha nge s  

tha t  A re  taking  pla ce  in  the  vi lla ge s ,  

DO 

A ll 

f 
ing,  houses  have  no  running  water '

change s  of  conse quence  occurred  in 
cl 11tle s  rema in  the  tra ditiona l   one� . 
only  except ions  noted  were  an  n

sa nitA ry 
e
StreAm  W A ter  i s   used  for  w A s h-
outside  privies  a re  used . 
s  mp
i 
o;  piped  wa ter  into  home s  In 
rea se 
village s - -Obie ,  Nlka Id o ,   a nd  Honami . 

s a nitat ion.  I n   g

nera l

a n 

1 

i

c

, 

The 
three 

C ompost  from  the  forests  i s  
a  means  o f   increasing  crop 
yields . 

AVR ilable  commercia l  fertilizer  sup�lles  ha ve  increased  greRtly  in 
recent  months .  The  farmers  rece ived  a bout  three-fourths  a s   muoh  n itro­
gen  as  they  wa nted  in  1948.  The  s upply  of  pota sh  and  phosphate ,  how­
eve r ,   Wa B  far  from  a de quate . 
In  one  vi lla ge ,  Yoshi da ,  the  increa sed 
use  of  c ompost--mostly  from  the  f orests --in  recent  years  re s ulted  in 
des ire  for  les s   oommercial  fertilizer  than  formerly
Yoshida  villa gers 
rep orted  the  use  of  compost  for  fertilizer  to  be  highly  sati sfactory, 
psrt icu19rly  in  view  of  the  abunda nce  of  loca l  ma npower  for  the  w ork  of 
gsthering  a nd  prepa ring  compost,  the  unusua l  loca l  a oces s ibility  of 
s ouroes  of  oompost ,  a nd  the  high  price  of  commerois l   fert i li zer . 

8 

. 

Numbe r  of  Deaths  De cre a sed 

D E C R E A S E  

I  N  D E A T H  S 
DECR E A S E ,   N O V   47 - NOV  48  F RO M   NOV 45 -

(  P E R C E N T )  

V I L L A G E  

T O TA L  1 3   V I LLAGES 

I

I  R U RA L  V I LLAG ES 
2  U R B A N   V I LLA GE S 

E B E T S U  

M I Z U WA K E  

YO K O G O S H I  
N O B U TA 

K A R A K O  
F U T O M  I 

K A WA S H I  R O  

N I K A I D O 

YO S H I D A 

O B I E  
A I O I  

H O N A M  I 
S U Y E  

A L L  CA U S E S 

C O N TA G I O U S   D I SE A S E S  

IZZI 

_ 

NA TURA L  R[SOURC£S  SECTION 

Figure  19 

DATA  FROM  TABLES  2 7  A ND 

In  e :'l c h   vill� ge  n e l:l 1th  c ond itions  hq d  improved .  The  number  of 

d e :'l t hs 

e
w 
thl'l n 

of  d eath  fr om  c ontagiolls 

s h ow e d   8 
re  � 9  percent
lh  1946 . 

continuing  de cli ne  in  prq ctic"l 11y  r:! ll  vi1lFl ges ;  there 
fewer  d?Aths  in  1948  th�n  i n   1947 ,  A nd  21  � rcent 
'T' 
feV/en 
� he  decl lne 
d i s ea s e s   was  even 
percent  fewer  in  1948  t ha n   f or  the  yea r   be f ore  a nd  73  per­
tha n  for  tW?  ye

gre a t er- - 5 9  
cent 
a go .   In  five  of  the  13  villa ge s  there 
n o   dea th  from  a  c ontA g1 0us  dise a s e  in  1948 . 
C onta gi ous  dis�a ses  ma de 
� . 4   p�rcent 
e
c
1 . 5   pe
1n  19� 8 .   De cline  in  the  dea th  ra te  wa s  attr ibuted  to  more  f ood ,   com­
puls ory  i noculqt ions ,  w idesprea d  use  of  DDT ,  the  establi shment  of 
t i ona l  cl
b r ou ght  in 

I'! nd  the  i ncre a se  of  me dica l   s upplies --in  pRrt 
the  United  Sta te s . 

a ll  dea ths  i n   1946 ,  3 . 0   percent  in  1 94 7 ,   a nd 

a ddi­
from  drugs 

fewer 

of 

ro

nt 

WII 

s 

r

r

A

ini C S , 
m 
f

--

Reported  Crime s  Increased 

R E P O R T E D  

C R I M E S  

PERCENT 
OF  TOTAL 
POPULATION 

P E R C E N T   C H A N G E   C O M PA RED  W I T H  NOV 45 - M AY 4 7  

D E C R E A S E  

I N C R E A S E 

100  75 50  25  0  25  50  75 

100  125 

150  175 200 

C R I M E S ,  

MAY 47- NOV4 

B 
2 , 5 2 9  

6 2 9  
1 , 9 0 0  

1 ,

1 5 9  

I 

I 
3 
4 

1 4   U N DE R O. 5  

3 7 8  

4 

1 0   U N DER 0.5 
4 6  
1 6  
1 2   UNDER 0.5 

I 
I 

I 

UNDER O.5 

1 0 3 
5 
2  I 
1 3   UNDER O.5 

I 

V I LLA G ES 
V I L LA GES 

. 

roT 

R U R A L 

� 
�A G E S  
.I� U R B A N  
E B E T S U 
M I Z U W A K E 
y O K O G O S H I  
NO B U T A 
r< A R A K O  
f U T O M I 
r< AW A S H I R O  
D O 
N I K A 
I 
Y OS H I D A 
O B I E 
I O I 

A

O

A M I 

N
H
S U Y  E 

IL.;:t 

-

I 

NONE  R E P O RrD 
NONE  REPORTe 
� DN E   ':PORT1ED 
P
I MOlE RE
ORTED 

"':'
�
E

NO

PORJD 

7 4 1 
I  I 

2 
I 

.. 

NOr REPORTED 

IZ'Z2Z'l  M A J 0 R 

_  M I N O R  

300 

267 

IlArlillAL  KnOURCE$  SECTION 

Figure  20 

DA TA  FROM  TABLE  29 

As 

measured  by  polic e  records ,  the  number  of  ma j or  and  minor  crimes 
in  the  13  villages  as  a  whole ,  with  the  maj or  crimes  showing 
�reased 
er  relative  increa s e .   Ma j or  crimes  ( such  a s   murder ,  burglary , 
tile  great
aDd .&raon)  increa sed  most  in  the  two  populous  village s ;   minor  crimes  in­
Or.eased 
�enses 
committed  in  the  18-month  period  under  study .  Murders  occurred  dur­
lire 
�  this  period  only  in  the  two  populous  villages .   In  f ive  of  the  rural 
t.nlages , 

perc ent  of  all  of­
.In  thr ee  village s  no  ma j or  crime s 

most  in  the  smaller  villages .  More  than 

there  has  never  been  a  recorded  murder . 

were  listed  a s   minor  crime s .  

96 

90 

91 

Lower  Sec ondary  School  Enrollment  Increased 

More  Students  �t tended  Upper  Sec ondA ry  S chool 

N EW  LOWER  SEC ON DARY  SCH OOL  E N ROLL M EN T"  

P E R CENT  CHAN GE, 

V I  L L A G E  

D ECREA S E  

T O T A L  

V I LL A G ES 

13 

I I   R U RA L   V I LL A G E S  

U R B A N   V I L L AGES 

2 

E B E T S U  

M I Z U W A K E  

Y O K O G O S H I  

N O B U T A 

K A R A K O  

FU TO M  I 

K AW A S H I R O  

N I K A I D O 

Y O S H  I D A 

O B I  E 

A I O  I 

HO N A M  I 

S U Y E  

N EW  U P PE R  

SECO N DARY  S C H O O L   E N ROLLM E N T  

P E R C E N T   C H A N GE ,  J U N  4 7 - DEC  4 B  

L.L.A G E 

1/ I 

D E C R E A S E · 

60 

50 

40 

30 

2D 

1 0  

0 

1 0  

I N C R E A S E  

20 

30 

40 

5D 

60 

ToTAL. 

�LLAG E S 
U R AL  VI LL A GE S 
� �R e AN  VI LL A G E 
E B E rs u 
,., I Z UWA K E  
'l' OKO G O S H I 
N oeU TA 
KARAK O 
FUT O M I 
KAWA 
N I KAI D O 
YOSH I DA 
OB I E 

H I R O-

5 

, 

A IO I 
HONAM I 
S UY E 

-

-mm 

N O  �A V A I L A B L E 

I 

I 
I 

N O   DATA  A V A I L1B LE 

N O   DATA  A V A I L A B LE 

I 

I 

I 
N O   D A TA  A V A I L A B L E  

I 

I 

N O   D A TA  A V A I L A B L E  
I 

I 

I 

N O  rA T A   �Lf B LE 

. 

M AL E 

Em 

F E M A LE 

-

Figure  22 

DATA  FROM  TABL E  3 1  

NA TURAL  RESOURCES  SEC TION 

�  M A L E  

F E M A L E  

_ 

Figure 21 

DATA  FROM  TABLE 

NArURAL  RESOURC€S  SECTION 

th

Enrollment  in 

new  lower  secondary  schools  (equivalent  to  the 
Ame:i can  j unior  high  scho.ol)  increased  21  percent  during  the  IS-month 
per� od ;  nearly  one -half  of  the  students  were  girls ,  whose  number  in­
creased  22  percent  as  compared  �ith  a  20  percent  increase  in  the  numben 
of 
drop  in  total 

The  decrease  in  enrollment  in 

corresponded  with  the 

boys . 

to

e 

the  survey  period .  Attendance 

Fu

rni 

n?w  lOVier  secon
t�on  are  compuls ory. 
at tended  school  r
g

d

ary  school  is.  compulsory.  Nine  years  of  school  educa­
through 
children,  except  invalids ,  

In  all  the 
arly . 

llages

, 

vi

population  during 

e

plet

Each 

of  the  13 

ower  secondary  schools . 

ul
villages  had  arranged  for  the  establishment  of  ne­
In  five  village s ,   new  school  build�ngs  ha�e 
l
been  c o
ction  of  the  buildings 
was  well  under  way  or  scheduled  for  the  near  future ;  and  in  three ,   the 
new  lower  sec on
buildings . 
In  two  of  the  villages ,  Nobuta  and  Obie  the  buildings  are 
being  e rectec  and  operated  j ointly  1fith  a
d

are  in  use ;  in  five ,  c onst

ary  school  could  be  ac co

odated  in  existing  scho

ed  and 

j acen

t  viilagee. 

mm

ru

l 

d

o

m

obool 

Only  one  of  the  13  villa ges ,  Ebets u ,   ha d  a  new  upper  second�ry 

(senior  high  s chool) .  I n   six   vi lla
people  w�nting  to  a ttend  new  upper  s e condary  s chool  hR d   been  mq de , 
a  nea rby  villa ge .   In  s even  villa ge s   for  which 

of  commercial  bus  fRres  f or  stude nts  a tte nd i ng 

a rr"l nreme nts  f or 

loca l 

ucti o

new 

s ,  

ge

n 

a 

1n 

is  ava i lable ,  s chool  enr ollment  i ncreA sed 

the  IS-month  period .  The  number  of 

irls 

for  about  one -third  of  the  tota l  enrollme nt  at  the 

g

d

re

l�g 
luoh  98 
upper  sec ondRry  s chool 
det�iled  inf ormation 
rin
parcent  du
te
percent  and 
end 

a ccou

d 

g 

n

of  the  period ;  the  number  of  boys  increased  12  pe

rce

about  10 
increa sed  f ive 
t . 
n

92 

93 

PT � ' s   Were  Orga nize d  

Relig i ous  Activities  Oha nged 

I 

R E L I G I O U S   A F F I L I AT I O N 

P E R C E N T   O F   A L L   H O U S E H O LD S  

V I L L A G E 

1 0  

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

1 0 0  

�A G E S 
RUR:N 

L  VI L L A G E S 
V I L L AG E S 

fOTAI. 
I I 

2 UR8 
E BE T S U 
M I Z U W A K E 
'( o (( O GO S H I  
N O B U TA 
K A R A K O  
F U T O M  I 
K A WA SH I   R O  
N I K A I D O 
YO S H I DA 
0 8 1 E 
I O I 
A
H O N A M I 

L . ,  

-

. . .  

. . .. .

. 

. 

. . 

S U Y E  

B U DD H I S M  

C H R I S T I A N I TY 

S H I N T O I S M ( S H R I N E )  

S H I N T O I S M  ( S ECTA R I A N ) 

The  Nikaido  Parent-Te achers  Association  d iscusses  school  problems . 

12  of  the  13  vi l

g

s ,  pRrent -teR cher s  a s s oc ia t i ons  were  organ­

In 

the 

i ze d   duri ng  the  18  months ' under  con s ide rat ion ;  in  Ehetsu  a 
rea dy  be en  orpa nized  i n   �pril  1947 . 

e

la

In  ·most  villa ges ,  both  membership 
al­

PT� 

ba d 

di stributi on  of 

R nd  
tween  me n  R n d   w omen .   The 
of 
z

off i cia l  pos itions  wa s   a b out  e que lly  d iv

ded 
�  seems  t o   enli st  the  active  parti cipa ti
a  grea ter  exten t  then  any  other  genenJ l   community  orga n! ­
o

PT

i

be­
n 

women  to 
on .  W 

", ti

� 
.  PERC E N T  

_ 

I:!'Z:l 

Is::m 

A L L   H O U S E H O L D S   IN  W HI C H   O N E   OR  M O R E   M E M BERS  ARE  A FF I L I A TE D   W I T H   T H E S E  

NOTE .  GROUPS .  M A N Y   H O U S E H O L D S   A R E   AFFI L I A T E D   W I TH  M O R E   T H A N   O N E   T Y P E   OF  ORGA N I Z AT I O N . 

OF 

NATURAL  RESO UROrs  'SECTION 

Figure 

23 

OATA  FROM  TABLE  32 

Partl cipe t ion  in  Shint o  shri nes  e nd  Buddhist  temples  ba s  declined , 

.,ud  festiva ls  have  been  re duced  in  number .  However ;  the  one  or  two 

fest

v

ls  s t i ll  held  ea ch  yea r   h",ve  b e c ome  noti ceably  more  e labp­

SHfnto 
r.-.te  than 
O�8s1ngly  diff icult  e c onom i c   circumsta nce s   b ecause  of 

heret ofore .  Re ligi ous  orga n i z�ti ons  find  themse lve s  in  in­

i

a

reduced  the  value  of  cust o

inf lati o n  which 
A ry  m oney  c ontributions ,  los s   of  a ra ble 

Ills 
lfIinds  by  some  of  the  shrine s  a nd   temples  t
lep�r� tion  of  church  A nd  sta te  ( in  a c cordance  with  the  Shinto  Di rective) 
ma kes  religi ous  orga ni za t i ons  dependent  on  voluntary  pq rt icipation 
'hleb 
a nd  cont

rough  lsnd  reform ,   a nd  the 

t i ons . 

h

b

r

m

i

u

W 
94 

For  furthe r  deta ils  about  s chools ,  s e e   discus s
ctiv

tie s   in  Oha pter  7 ,   Part  IV . 

q

i

Ma ny 

temples .  The  number  of  O

families  were  s upporting  both  the  Shinto  shrines  and  the  Bud ­
s  in  the  villa ges  increa sed  24 .  

dhist 
n
rrcent  in  the  18  m onths  but  a ccounted  for  only  0 . 4   percent  of  the 
OUeeholds .  There  were  no  Ohristians  in  s ix  of  the  villa ges ,  a nd  nea rly 
O(·half  of  the  families  with  Ohristians  i n   them  were  in  one  vi lla ge ,  
kaido. ill 

is tia

hr

on  of  educa ti ona l 

i

For  further  d e t� i ls ,   s ee  d i s cus si on  of  religi ous  orgq ni za t i ons  in 
Chl.'l pter 

Part  IV. 

6 ,  

9 5  

e

tern 

W

s

perma­

Divorces  a nd  "Yoshi "  Marriages  Increa sed ' 

Western  clothes  and 
nent  waves  are 
lar  w

th  younger  women . 

os

m

t  popu­

i

This  20-year- old  grandson 
of  a  "samurai II  has 
ern�style  room. 

groom  Is  wearing  we stern  cl ot

ing  rather  than  traditi onal  dress . 

h

:fbis 

The  use  of  western-style  c lothes  hq s  incre a s ed 

rce

t ibl

pe

p

y

e

i

r

n

qu

om

om

ly

e n 

d  s

,  a

ent

e  w ,

rly  fre

m en  n ow  have  one  or  m ore  change s'  of  western  clothes ,   which  they  use 
fa
women  who  d o   occa s i ona lly  wear  them 
ing 
groups  such  a s  c lerks  and  tea chers .  M ore  perma nent  wave s   a re  being 
obtq ined,  p:l rticularly  by  younger  w ome n . 
l
use  s uch  words  as  "hello" ,  "goodbye " ,   and  " OK " .   A  few  English  terms 
for  new  i deqs  a nd  obj e cts  a re  us ed  rather  than  tra ditiona l  J� pA nese 
t erms .  This  usage  developed  a fte r  the  Surrende r .   C ommon  among  these 
ter

sh  words  ha s  be come  wide -spread ,  especia lly  among  t

s  a re  such  words  a s   "PTA "  a nd  "democ ra cy" . 

a
usua lly  from  the  nonfa r

western  clothes .  Those 

e  children"  who 

are  w
are 

led ge  of  B ome  s imple  Eng­

ow

g 

h

m

K

n

n

i

i

.  Most 

m

96 

Eighteen 

onths  is  too  s hort 

t ime  t o   be  certa in  of  changes  in 

a 

od  since  the  e nd  of  hos­
IpUy  life ,  s o  attent i on  is  given  to  the 
t!Utles .  During  this  t ime  there  wa s  a  rise  in  divorces  a nd  in  "yosh i "  

r

p

i

e

m

is ,  ma rriages  i n   which 

rrlages , 
It. ' s  family  a nd  ta kes  the  name  of  he r  fa

that 
in  part  because  of  t he  lega li

ily .   The  number  o f   divorces 
m
a t ion  of  d iv orc e s   betwee n  s ol ­
presumed  dea d  a nd  w ives  who  bad  rema rrie d .   The  right  of  the  wife 
viI  Code ,  but  this  d i d 

�:e.8ed , 
cltera 
to  aue  for  divorce  we s  granted  by  the  re vised 

the  husband  is 

a d opted·  by  the 

z

Beem  to  ha ve  a ffected  the  d ivorce  rate  in  the  vil

a ges . 

"Yoshi "  

ed  i n   number  j ust  a fter  the  Surrender ,  a s   fa milies  who 

l

C1 

nged  to  perpetuate  the  family  line .  B oth  divorces  a nd 

lOt 
�rriages  i ncrea
r
•  at  SOllS  ar
:Shi ll  marria. ges  were  le s s  fre

s

a

n  they 

were  in  the  18 

onth

m

s 

uent 
in  the  18 
q
before  that  dRte .  W 

months  s ince  June  1947 

For  furthe r   de t a i l� ,   s ee  d
Part  IV. 

cus s

of  fa.mily  life  i n   Chapter  5 ,  

is

i on 

9'7 

M ore  Farmers  Ha d   Ra d i os 

Y outh  �s socia t ions  Were  Act ive 

H O U S E H O L D S   H AV I N G   R A D I O S  A N D  T A K I N G  

V I LL A GE 

PER C EN T   OF  H O U S E H O L D S  

H AV I N G  R A D I O S  

• 

1 0   20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90 

,  TOTA L   1 3   V I LLAGES 

I I  RU RAL  V I LL A G E S  
U R B A N  VI LLAGES 

2 

E B E T S U  
M IZ U WA K E 
YO K O G O S H I 
N O B U TA 

K A R A K O  
F U T O M I  
K A W A S H I R O  

N I K A I D O 
Y O S H I D A 
I E  
0 9  
A I O I  
H O N A M I 
S U Y E  

J U N E  1 9 4 7  

EZ!ZJ 

DECE M B E R  

1 9 4 8  

_ 

NA  TUR A L   RESOURCES  SEC TION 

Figure 

24 

DA TA  - FROM  TA BLE  33 

Young  peopl e  in  Obie  meet  to  discus s   current  topic s .  

g

t 

men

of  vi lla ge  leaders , 

Ra d i os  b ecame  m ore  numerous  i n   all  of  the  vill a ge s .  About  tw o­
s o  in 

thirds  of  the  fa rm  households  had  ra d i os  in  December  1948. 
j u d
a 
w orking  order  at  the  end  of  the  18-month  per iod   than  a t   the 
it .  The  lea ders  reported  cons idera ble  interest  in  the  new  farm  rad io 
�rogra ms  but  pointed  out  tha t  recepti on  often  w a s   poor  be ca use  of 
current  � nd  tha t  fre quently  the  electricity  wa s  cut  off  ent irely. 
pa per  c irculat i on  rema ine d   much  the  same  in  ea ch  of  the  v
llage s . 
t ional  h ouseholds  wanted  to  s ubscribe
pos sible  for  the  newspa pers  to  a cce pt  m ore  subscript ions . 

hi gher  proportion  of  a ll  r� dios  w�re  in 

but  limited  newsprint 

ma de 

be gi

wea k 

it 

A l

n

i

, 

News· 
Addi­
�. 

ning  of 

the 

Yputh 

a s sociat ions  were  act ive  in  a ll  of  the  v

tivities  were  part i c ipa ting  in  village  construction  proJ e cts ,  sta gi ng 
rt ies  a nd  d is cus s ions .  Many 
sponsoring  such  a ct ivities  a s   pa
small  libra ries ,  a nd  more  tha n   one -ha lf  of  them  is sued  pub­
outh  of  the  vil���es 
tica l  life .  �  . 
ol

of  poetry  a nd  a gricultura l  topics .  The 
d 
a king  III  more  act ive  part  in  villa ge 

11a ge� . 

i

·

The ir  chief 

y
p

i

a

c
p,ibtys  B nd 
of  th;m  ha
lications 
to 
seemed 

be  t

98 

• 

�  For  further  deta i ls  about  youth  orga ni zat ions  a nd 
see  Ohapters  4  a nd  7,  Part  IV. 

ipation

, 

oli t

i

p

ca l  partic-

99 

Pa rty  Pre ferences  Cha nged 

D I S T R I B U T I O N   O F   B A L L O T S   B Y   P A R T I E S 

T O TA L   1 3  V I L L A G E S  

I

I   R U R A L  V I L L A G E S  

U R B A N  

2 

Women  Parti cipa ted  M ore  in  Politics 

1 9 4 7  

1 9 4 9  

DEMOCRAT I C   L I B E RA LS 

1::":
_  D E M OCRATS 

:1 

�  S OC I AL  DEM OCRATS 
Il  C O M M U N I STS 
IIIlI

I N DE P E N D E N T S  

t;.J�:\>1 
c=J  A LL  O TH E RS 

NATURAL  R£SOURCES  SECTION 

g

e 

Fi

ur

25 

Women  cast  ball ots  for  the  fir st  ,time . 

The  numbe r  of  pers ons  voting  i ncre a s e d   between 

a ry  1 949 ,  especia lly  in  the  rur
JaM­
in­
crea s e   w e s   in  Obie ,  where  only  44  percent  hed  voted  in  Apr i l   1947 .  Ma� 
o f   the 
in  Yos h i da ,  the  m ost  feuda list i c   and  remote  of  a ll  t he  vi ll� ges

Obie  w ere  w omen .  T he  hea viest  vot ing  i n   1 948  was 

n ew  voters  i n  

A

a

pril  1947  end 
l  villa ges  (Table  34 ) .   The  large st 

. 

'

m

a t

De
t

pon de n

and  the 

Democrat ic 

The  S ocia l 

ic  party  l ost 

s  to  the  quest i onna ire  r

moc r
he  c onservat ive  De

stren gth  duri� 
era l 
ocrat i c   L
the  period .  Many  v oters  shifted  to 
party,  and  a  sma ller  number  to  the  C ommun i s t   pa rty .  M ost  villa ge 
lead" 
ers  ins isted  that  voting  wa s  not  a long  party  line s ,  but  for  individua l 
candidates .  When  the  villa ges  were  revis ited  late  in  194 8 ,   34  percent 
of  the  re
the  conserva.tive  Liberal  party  in  the  April  1947  elect i o n ,   a nd  44  per" 
in 

they  w ould  v ote  f or  the  renamed  Dem ocratic  Libera l  pa rty 

S ocia l  Democra t ic  candi dates  at  the  la st  election ,  a nd  six 

c ent  said 
the  next  genera l  e lect ion .  Twenty-e ight  percent  reporte d   they  ha d  �ot� 
f o
sa id  they  would  vot e   that 
o ne  per
e lect i o n ,   an d  only  a  s lightly  h igher  percent a ge  
that  way  at  the  next . 

percent 
at  the  then  forthcom ing  election .   About 

e nt  sta ted  they  ha d  voted  f or  Communist  cand

da tes  in  the 
they  w ould  vot

ported  that  they  ha d  vot

i
s a i d  

la st 
e 

way 

for 

ib

r 

d 

t

e

c

s

e

1 00 

the  April  1947  el

c ti ons , 

vlll-tges  C8 st  ballots  f or  a  House  o f   Represe ntatives  ca ndidate ; 
In 
the  latte
January  1949  elect ions , 

6 5  
percent  of  them  voted . 

� D  1 3  
eitectlone ,  47  percent  of  a ll  voters  were  w omen, 
�D  the 

In 
severa l  of  the 

70 

e

r 

!!Ind 

ca n" 
elected  to  the 

e nd  Kawa shiro 

perce nt  of  the  women  of  voting  a ge  

were  w ome
CIldates 
�Uage  a s sembly .  lSI 

n . 

In 

Y os hid

a. 

women  were 

,  ( 

urther  deta ils ,  see  the  di scussions  of  women ' s   orga ni z
polit ic

l  participat ion  in  Chapter  4 ,   P�rt 

IV. 

For  f
e nd 

a

ti o ns 

a

101 

::
IIl
llI
II
Villa gers  V

i

ed  the  Future  With  More  Confidence 

e
w

,. 

P A R T   I I I  . 

Villagers  are  taking  a  more  l ively  interest  in  public  affairs . 

Not iceable  cha nges  occurred  in  the  outlook  of  the  vill

, 

ers .   In 

A  BRIEF 

DESCRIPTION  OF  EA CH  OF  THE 

VIL L AG ES '  

13 

� g

In  December  194� 

generR l ,   they  a ppea red  more  hopeful  about  the  future . 
they  definitely  a s sumed  tha t  the  la nd  reform  program  w ould  be  success­
fully  completed,  whereas  18  months  ea rli er  both  tenants  a nd 
andlords 
in  many  of  the  villa ges  evinced  considerable  mis givings  about  the 
out­
come .  During  the  l8-m onth  period  fa rmers  a chi e
t
he 
new  a g ri cul tural  c o operative  a s s oci a tj ons ,  a nd  s ome -a dditi onal  much­
wanted  lend  was  be ing  ma de  ava i la ble  t o   res ident  and  new  s et tler 
holds  thro
ma
t o   wonder  how  the  proposed 
ltur
a ffe ct 
i
ea
a
them
They  knew  tha t   taxes  were  higher ,  delivery  quota s  were 
er , 
a nd  infla ti on  had  wors ened ;  they  f ea red  a  depres s i on  and  in  genera l  
.  , assumed  tha t  the  road  ahead  would  n o t   b e   e a s y .   Even  s o ,   they  s eemed 
to  be  s omewh a t   reli eved  to  have  s ome  working  ba s i s   f o r   es timating 
thei r  life  would  be 
ik e   i n   the  m on ths  ahead . 

houee­
proj ects .  The  villa ge rs  were  beginning 
n 
c
a gri

l  extension  systems  m

ed  a  rea l  voice 

gh  la nd  recla

t 
wha 

ght 

t i o

in 

v

v

u

u

h

l

i

. 

l

; 

1 02 

Here  is 

over-all  view  of  each  of 

an 

the 

villages  -- with  emphasis  on  distinctive 

13 
features :  the  land  area,  and  how  it  is  used ; 

the  people  of  the  villages ,  where  they  live , 

am.  how  they  make  a  living;  the  economic  am. 

social  organizations  and  institutions 

the 

in 

village ;  and  the  changes  that  occurred  in 

these  phases  of  village  life  in  the  18-month 

period  from  June 

December 

1947  to 

1948. 

For  a  detailed  statement  of  the  way 

in 

which  the 

villages  were  selected ,  see  the 

' 13  

introduction  to  Part  n. 

Each  village  is  described  in  turn,  be­

ginning  with  the  northernmost  one ,  Ebetsu 

in  Hokkaido ,  

ending  with  the  southern­

and 

most  one ,  S�e 

Pref'ect1.D'8 . 

in  KumaJDoto 

E B E T S U - M A C H I ,  

H O K K A I  D O 

Dis tinctive  Features  of  Ebet su-Machi 

Ebetsu ' a   land  area  is  s even  times  the  average  of  the  other 

vi llage s .  

12 

Bbeteu-machi  in  Hokkaido  i s   the  latest  settled  Bnd  the  largest  in  arM  of  the 

vil-

well  as  the  s econd  largest  in  population . 

It  combines  rural  and  urban  element s ,  

13 

..  8e 

within  i t   two  urban  c enters  witb  a  total  of  ahout  20, 000  people ,  along  with  a  rural 
� 
JIIIPIIllt10n  of  about  10,000 .  Ebetsu ' s   land  area  is  seven  times  that  of  the  average  of  the 

villages  and  farms  average  nine  times  as  larg e .   Roads  are  straight  and  wide-­

_.,  12 
everYthing  i s   larger  snd  farther  apart  than  in  the  other  vill ages .  Relatively 
pNCtlcally 
.,.utng ,   EbetsU  (like  Hokkaido  generally)  is  a  frontier  Brea,  as  indicated  by  recency  of 

low  population  density,  and  more  individual i stic  living . 

�tllment , 

Farmsteads  are  scattered  over  the  farming  area  Bnd  are  not  clustered  into  hamlets 

much  as  in  the  other  villages .   Ric e ,   the  main  crop,  is  grown  in  paddy ,  BS  in  the 

17  eo 

Villages ,  and  similar ,  too ,  are  Ebetsu ' s   shri nes ,   temple s ,   school s ,   and  agricultural 
different  migrant  groups--is  rep­

IUMr 
eo.:peratives.  Even  s o ,   Ebetsu--8ettled  later  and  by 
Ntlltative  of  the  newer  and  less  crowded  i sland  of  Hokka ido .  Land  is  not  subdivided  so 

many 

and  new  settlers  have  more  opportunities  here  than  in  the  other  village s .  

.. �, 

S C A L E  

Y4  0 
I  I 

!l2 
I 

I  M I L E 
I 

L E G E N D 

� 
//// 

<L 

LlJ 

LlJ 

X 

X 

X 

P A D DY  F I  E l D 

= 

F I E LD 

� 

M A I N   R OA D  

U P L A N D  
F O R E ST 

C O M P O S T  

R E C LA I M E D  

R A I L R OAD 

�  R I V E R  

-

P O N D  
C O N TO U R  L.I N E 

lA N D  

./) 

( FE ET ) 
H O U S E  S I T E 

NATVIIH  RfSOU/lUS  SEer/DN 
106 

Figure  26 

the  capital  city  of  Hokkaido,  20  miles  away .  The  relative  ease  with  which  farm 

3,000 

in 

a  big  paper  mill ,  the  brick  kilns,  and  in 
people  commute  daily  by  train  to 

ways ,  including  an  increase 

in  many 

obtain  urban  �mployment  affects  rural  lite 

factorie s  in  and  around tbe  town.  More  than 

indu.strial  employment  is  availablE! 

Muoh 

��rO , 

inc.omes  a.nd  a  wider  range  of  social 

�_
�e  can 
IIt4 calh 
contacts .  Part-time  farmers 
4�lCon�ic 
�eea  20  percent  from  June  1947  to  De­
� 1948, 
���ber  of  part-time  farmers  remained 
---�t  or 

Whereas  in  most  other  villages 

decreased . 

ed. 

lb,  0 

�VU1�n repatriates  are  numerous ;  more 

uni ties  for  settlement  on  reclaiu.­

Ebetsu  than  in  the  other  12  villages 
-There  are  four  principal  reasons' 

lbe 
COIbtn 
Ibl. rport
tlC1d :nd; the  absence  of  a  background  of 
radition ,   so  that  a s similation  into 
\lit  C
!la"  o�t
"leInbl 

is  relatively  easYi  the  close­
Ebetsu  to  Sapporo ,  which  was  a  chief 
y  point  for  Japanes e   returning  from 

y 

O 

A  hip-roofed  barn  and  s110  are 

prominent  on  this  farm . 

107 

Sakhalin  and  V�nchuria ;  and  the 
numerous  industries  which  offer 
for  employment . 

Ecologically,  Ebeteu  is  a  Wide 

POPulated

area ,  much  of  it  sparsely 
two  urban  centers .  Each  of  these 
center  with  many  inst1tutions  that  8  a 
surrounding 
ganizat10ns  are 
than  1n  the  other  12  village s , 

a��ead 
l'  -1th 
though  b S81'va 
noticeably  weaker  1�� 
y  Ebet� 
to  be  getting  stronger  and  more  trad��P� 
lo� 

as  time  passes . 

rural  area . 

the

A1 

Tbere  is  about  as  much  livestOck 
Ebetsu  alone  ae  in  the  other  12  Villa 
bined .  More  than  one-halt'  of  the 
and 

horsee  are  i n   this 
1Ili J.k  
Ebetsu,  an  average  of  two  out  of  thr;� 

vi llage 

draft 

1 
11 
gel 
Cl 

have  a  borse ,  whereas  in  the  other 
are  a  rew  more  cow s   in  Ebetsu  than  there  are  farms ;   in  the  other  villages  there 

villages  only  one  farm  in  six  has 

12 

B 

to  11  farm  households .   Fsrming  techniques  are  relatively  advanced . 

fence s   are  just  as  rare  here  aa 

any  of  the  other  villages . 

in 

hors e .  The; 
lQ 
1s  OJll. II 
1 
Althougb

. 

Potatoes  are  stored  outside  under 
deep  layer  of  dirt . 

a 

common, 

milk  COlf 
stock  is  more 
has  a  few  large  hip-roofed  barns  and  siloe 
and  many  smaller  ones  pat.terned  after  the 
big  ones .  Local  resident s  report  that  the 
large  ones  were  built  first  at  some  of  the 
larger  dairy  and  livestock  breeding  farms . 
White  potatoes  are  an  important  crop,  sec­
ond  to  ri c e .   Y�ny  cone-shaped  earthen  po-
tato  hills  for  outdoor  st.orage  are  seen  in 
the  late  fal l  and  winter  in  the  fields  near 
farm  dwellings . 

� 

�� 

about 

Peat  bogs  make 

perc ent  of 
up 
the  land  area .  Ext ensive  land  reclamation 
is  tentatively  pro jected  by  the  government, 
and  some  scattered  settlements  have  b�en  launched  in  recent  years  by  groups  of  families 
moved  in  from  other  parts  of  Japan  and  from  abroad .  
Christian  group  hopes  to  be  able 
reclaim  and  s ettle  a  large  area .  Proj ected  land  reclamation  efforts  cover  about  5 ,000 
Some  of  Ebetsu ' s   peat  land  has  been  reclaimed  by  drainag e ,   which  is  a  ma j or  operation, 

own  a 

40 

A 

g' by  the  application  of  clay .  Reclama t i on 

the  peat  lands  adjac ent  to  uplands  already  being  farme d .  

has 

been  most  successful  around  the  outer 

/ / 

'f.. 

edges 

, 

Many  effort·s  to  reclaim  peat  l8� 
when  at.tempt. 

have  failed  especial 
the  bog ,   where  the 
in  the  middle 
peat  1s  deepe s t ,   drainage  problems 
worst ,  and  clay  banks  farthest  away11_ 

It  was  reported  that  most  of  the 

Iv 
. 

of 

fat.� 

es  occurred  because  not 

enough  at 

ur

tion  had  been  gi ven  to  the  constru�� 
tion  of  a  ma j or  drainage  system ;  � cI  • 
instal 
giant  pumps  may  have  to 
to  11ft  the  water  from  low-ly ng 
i 
nals  up  to  the  river  leve�  so 
flow  out  to  the  sea .  Village 
are  keenly  interested  in  peat 
lamation,  for 

ea­
iU 
i� :er' 
le8  rea­
bog \Ie­
be  dons  S  10-

it  can 
there  is  room  for 

be 

if' 

e 

much 

) 

Workers  apply  c l a y   t o   a  p e a t   bog . 

oessfully, 
cal  expans ion. 

108 

Further  Facta  About  Ebetsu 

3 0 , 23 4  

5 , 577 
1 , 316 
1 5 ,907 
7 , 5 3 5  

5 . 6  
o 

41. 4 

138 

o 

POPULATION 
BY  TYPE 

HOUSEHOLDS 
BY  OCCUPAT ION 

LAND  AREA 
BY  USE 

(l[j:.J �'cs  SECTiON 

Elevat ion  above  aea  level  (teet) 

At  village  hall 
At  10w9 st  and  highest  points 

Draft  an
Number 

ima

ls 

Average  per  farm  household 

Electric  motors  and 

engines 

Numbei' 

e

a

l 

rn

int

combustioD 

Average  per  farm  household 

36 
10-320 

2 ,050 

1 . 56 

288 

0 . 2 2  

REGULAR RESIDENTS 

A fZZZ2I 
_ NEW  RESIDENTS 

B 

FARMING 

E
�rw�SpW;F������C

I7ZZJ 
_ 
_ A L L   OTHERS 

, 

PADDY 

P E R M A N E N T   PASTURE 

C 
Fll2.a 
_ U P L A N D  
!'Zll 
rmnm FORE STS 
_ B U I L D I N G   SITES 
UNDEVELOPED  A N D  
� 
WASTELAND 
� 
� OWN E D   BY  L A N DLORDS 
AND  RENTED  O U T  
_ OWNED  By  OWN E R ­
� CULTIVATORS 
� P E N D I N G   DISPOSAL 

OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT 

"""" 

I3J'lr1 

18-!looth  Period 

Ins '·i t1lt.ions  and  Organizations 

wa

4 1   per

e

o f   the  arable 

c

r

s 

nt 

OriiiJ'lbip  o f  

at�ng tenants 
"!lira! pu.rpose ag:ri()ultural  cooperat.ive a8800i­
�terred  to 
IODa 

ope
land 
up  on  dissolution  ot  town 
were  set 
repatriates,  mainly  from 
tile  JlQQOkG1  �n  taU 
in
I'  or  c�"i1ian 
seoondary  sohool buildings 
ria  and  Sakhalin, 
"'Datl'lJet;10n 
foal' - lo1ter 
association  was  org
ni

o f   1947 
a
cre

ed  in  each 

axe  under 

Manohu­

pe('cent 

unit 

15 

ot 

ed 

s

a

z

pest 
reclamation  projects 
og areas 
in  c�1me  occurred 
b

a �i-te,che�6 
rnploYlllent  increased 
twu. r1al 
..bliln  settle�nt  and other 
a .� ... 8Blll1  in  the  extensive 
� he 
Problems 
Local 
�:t.e �ra1nn�  fo  peat 

<V  increase 

8  ra  e 

1 
��laent  of  consumer 

fc.r 

COntl'o�e 

reclamaUoD 
demand  fol' white potatoes 
r  elimination 01' food 

whi te pot.stoes 
bog 
a

future  market 
i

rte
axtenslv9 geogrAphic area 

ng a 

si ",�le  unit.  o�  Ebe  llU,  be-

ita 

tt{CIIU 
'=aliso  � of  mak
o 
�iClll'." __ 
-.  � 
liee 
t. 
�le 

Potatoes 

'  � _ 

.. • . . • . 

Milk 
Wheat and hlU'ley 

Soybeans 

Schools 

e l ementary  s chools 

11 

4  ne'" 

lO�'er 
2  ne·.  upper 
pub l i c ,  

secondary  s c

oo ls 
s e condary  s chools 

h

private

(J 

1 
o rgani z a t 1 ons 

) 

Relt�ious 

10  2udrhist  te

ples

-10 

into

m

S

-

3  resident  priests 

resident  priests 

12  Shrine 

8  Sectarian  Shtnto--8  resident  priests 

h

- -

Christ ian  churches--l  minister 

2 

Coop'lratives 

Agricultural 

Nopporo  A gri cultural  Cooperative  Assn 
Ebetsu-Maehi 
C ooperative 
S e ta�aya  Settlers  Agricultural  Cooperative  A ssn 
Ne'f  Nopporo  Settlers  Agric

l tural  Cooperative 

A s sn 

As sn 

u

Settlers  AgriculturAl  C ooperative  Assn 

Kakuyama 
Many  smsl!  clayi ng  cooperat i ves 

rascellaneous  organi zati ons 

M

e n ' s  Improvement  A s s n  

Farme r s '   Union 
Young 
youth  Associ ati on 
Parent-Teachers'  Assn  ( one  for  each  scho o l )  
Firemen ' s   A ssn 
Agric\lltural  Mu

Rel i ef  Assn 

ua

Assn 

t

l 

F-ishery 
Civil 
Paper 

Engineeri ng  A s sn 
Union 

t'ill  Labor 

109 

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Dist1nctive  Features  of  Mizuwake-»ura 

... 
... 
i 

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(,) 
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-.:! 

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X 

in  north  c entral  Honshu 

of  the  Tohoku  region  type,  rather  feudalistic 

JI1JIu"ake-lI1UI'a 
,.Derally 
•  Uving 

unprogTeseive .  The  village  is  entirely  rural;  88  percent  of  all  households 
primarily  by  farming .  The  eastern  one-third  of  the  village  is  the  center  of 
tion;  22  percent  of  the  total  village  area  is  padd�  and  nine  percent  is  cultivated 

1.a 

tt •• 

government .  The  ruggedness  of  these  mountains  has  prevented  the  building  of 
tbrough  them.  The  mayors  of  Mizuwake  and  seven  adjoining  villages  are  trying  to 

pad.  Nearly  all  of  the  rema.inder  of  the  village  contains  mountainous  forests ,   owned 
IIiD11  by  the 
roads 
the 
�  aa

title  of  these  forests  transferred  to  the  villages ,   basing  their  claim  on  ancient 

to  indicate  that  these  forests  did  once  belong  to  these  villages. 

i
d 

opportunities  are  limited.  The  population  remained  practically  stationary 

EConomic 

lift 
�

� 

mats .  The  latter  are  made  in 

18-month  period .  The  belief  is  held  generally  that  the  eoonomic  conditions  of 
�  the 
Y1l1agers  will  improve  through  added  1ncome  from  forestry  products  1f  the  village  of­
t.kd.l.  are  successful  in  their  effort  to  obtain  title  to  the  national  forests .  Fuel  and 
for  vill age  use  now  can  be  procured  from  the  forests ,  but  no  charcoal  can  be  made 
�st 
tor  sale  and  no 
lumber  can  be  eold .  The 
��portant  supplementary  sources  of 
are  emp1o,yment  outside  of  the 
' :!.1i8, local  manufacturing  of  rice 
"  �:pe and  mats ,  and  weaving  of 
houaeholds  on  looms  from  locally 
UIl.  "1"  rUsh .  The  villagers  refer  to 
weaving  industry  as  a  "girl  saver 
IIeca 
by  it  farm  families  can  remain 
1Ol., USe 
tur� wit�out  having  to  contract  their 
•  Or to  other  employers . 
Flll'lns  Ilre  relatively  1a.rge  and 
1oIlge;rei:1, as  compared  with  the  11 
� &v·aettled villages  to  the  south . 
'�t :r�ge size  of  farms  was  1 . 6   cho , 
the  average  farm  size  of 
f ?floes 
the  Villages  south  of  it .  A 
anding  problem  has  been  the 

girls  to  operators  of  textile 

Straw  mats  and  rope  are  made  on 

till 

ICttt. 

111118 

II , 

g 

O

looms  1n  the  home . 

10"i"8t 

111 

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11 0 

inadequate  wat er  supply  in  dry  periods 
voir  is  being  constructed  in  the  mount ' 

A 
Sin s ,  

rm 

Mizuwake  is  one  o f   t h e   villagea 

i 
activities  had  tak

portant  land  refo
before  the  Occupation , 
to  30  cho 
r! 
sentee  owners  to  35  farm  tenant  falllili
largest  purchase  was  1 • 
cho.  The  sal 
land  was  carried  out  in  somewhat  the  s 

tl 
1938-43 en 
During 
land  had  been  transferred ' r
es
e 

.3 

�h

1ah 

Pl4I!, 
t1tl,. 
l'orn _b., 

• 

'!'b, 
ot  the 

in  the  post-Surrender  land  reform  prog::: .�  _ 
latter  program  served  a  double  purpose 
in'  The 
villa g e ;   it  sold  more  land,  162  cho ,  to 
tht ,  
t 
and  it  confirmed  t h e   pre-occupation 
enant. 

Before  the  Occupation  land  reolamati 
already  starts.d  on  the  upper  edges  of  the o� hat 
ith  22  cho  accommodating  18  nUltl 
vated  area s ,  
households .  The  area  has  since  been 
include  2'7  more  oho .  Five  new  households  ed  to 
have  been  located  on  the  reclaimed  land, 

expand'8W 

w

Many  farm  dwellings  are  "L" -shaped, 
animals  kept  in  the  short  side  of  t
nv�nience  in  rainy  and  snowy  weather .  L1v� 
k

fa
� 
rm 
a  c O
s toc 
in  any  of  the  11  villages  s outh  of  it 

� s   relat ively  more  numerous 

With 
he  "La 

Further  Facts  About  Mizuwake 

3 , 272 
509 
448 
2 , 327 
712 

1 . 6  

11 

47. 7  
153 

than 

B 

c 

Elevation  above  sea  level  ( feet) 

A t  village  hall 
At  lowest  and  highest  points 

Draft  animals 

Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

Electric  motors  and  internal  combustion 

er.gir:es 

Number 
Ave�age  per 

D 

household 

farm 

508 
360-3 , 2 10 

465 

1 . 04 

84 

0 . 19 

REGULAR  RESIDENTS 

NEW

RESIDENTS 

. 

A 
I2ZZ2I 
_ 
B 
rzzz:

:1  FARM I N G  

I N DUSTRY,  COMMERCE, 
AND  PROFESSIONS 

_
_ ALL  OTHERS 

PA DDY 

C 
I?ZZZJ 
_  UPLAND 

PERMANENT  PASTURE 

!Zll 
_  FORESTS 
_  BUILDING  SITES 
b OWNED  BY  L A N DLORDS 
�  A N D   RENTED  OUT 
�  OWNED  BY  OW N E R ­
IIiiIiI

CULT I VATORS 

OWNED  BY  SHRI N E S  

I 

o  POPULATION 

BY  TYPE 

HOUSEHOLDS 
BY  OCCUPATION 

LAND  AREA 
BY  USE 

ARABLE  L AND 
BY  OWNERS H I P  

UW!;;:' 

be �n 

the  IS-Month  Period 

Institutions  and  Organizations 

�1p  of 
�.rred 

a  in 
20  percent  of  the  arable  land  was 
to  operating  tenants 

t�ctn 

to  the  general  village 

cooperative  associations,  i n  
_  agricultural 
al  co­
��.t.1ve,  were  established  upon  dissolution  in 
.. w  1947  .of  the 
Jnats  doubled 
�.!-el' 8scondary  school  'was  organized j  a 

of  "-1"  rush  for  "tatallli 
n 

local  Wlit  of  Nogyokai . 

tlon 

agr

ul

ur

is  planned 

ic

t

new  . 

wuniJIg 

assoctation  was  organized 

nt-teachers 
lie"  dllelllngs 
OII.rroJaotl two replaced  dwellings  that  burned 
".:_ 
...... 
_'UQrl1lg  Village 

established  jotntl,y  with  a 

were  erected--five  on  rec1ama­

clinie  lIae 

Sohools 

elementary  sohool 

1 
1  new  lower  secondary  school 

RaHgious  organizations 

5  Shrine  Shinto--2  resident  priests 
1  Sec
2  Buddhist  temples--2  resident  priests 

Shinto--no  resident  priests 

ari

an 

t

Cooperatives 

Mizuwake  Agricultural  Cooperative  Assn 
Serj. culture  Coopera.tive  Assn 
Fruit  Grower s '   Cooperative  Assn 
Reolamation  Settlers  Agrioultural 

o

at

e 

Se t.tlers  Rural  Industry  Agrioultural  Coopera

per

Co

iv

A  young  woman  carries  com­
fields . 

post  to  th

e 

• 

I J 
;7, 

of  Ebets u ,   a  more  specialized  livestock 
villages  were  in  Mizuwake ,  although  l e s s   than  six  percent  of  the  farm  households 
this  village . 

area ,  l'.early  30 

percent  of  the 

draft 

in  J" izuwake 
h�rses 

in 
were  iD 

Y' 

The  social  structure  of  this  villafe  revolves  around  a  c ombina tion  of  groupings 

first  on  the  initial  settlements  al ong  the  many  small  water  c ourses  us ed  fc)r  irr 

({ 
,r 
p. �s econd,  on  the  mutual  aid  practices  of  households 

in 

extended  family  sys t em .   All  thr ee  of  the s e   traditional  groupings  have 
for 

generations  and  remain  fairly  stronb • 

the  same  locality ;  ar d 

many 

, 11  
77,.( Iwat e   Prefec ture . 

Two  popular  Shinto  shrines  attra c t   3 0 , 000  to  40 , 000  pilgrims  annually  from  all over 

One  shrine  has  a  life-sized  sacred  white  hor s e ,   many  statues 

and  numerous  " tori i " .  These  shr ines  make  Mi zuwake  well-known  throughout  the 

of  foxes, 
countryside. 

t
a
side  of  this 

A  s

ll  for  the  draft  horse  is 

liLli-shaped 

dwelling , 

the  short 

in 

A  sacred  hors e 
in  a  popular  shrine . 

B 

talld' 

va  Lo� 

Problems 

Water  for  paddy 

P  ot 

Be 

ltl.onal 

fuller 

to  perm.tt 

to ":t�t titles  to  national  fores 
ge " 
1!ork  required  beoause  ear
caused  del�  in  sow-ing 

l1a.i qllOt 
� "I"  rush 

It. 

Silk 

be  transferred 

� 
usa  of  forest 

1'8-

delivery  of 

barley 

heat 
ly 
"

and 

tive  Assn 

New 
Forestry  Cooperative  Assn 
Livestock  Agricultural  Cooperative  Assn 

Miscellaneous  organizations 

Youth  Assn 
Women' s  Assn 
Social  Education  Commission 

Assn 

Parent-Teachers' 
Educational  Commission  ( gun  level) 
Agricllltural  Mutual  Rel1ef  As:<n 
Firemen ' s   Assn 

Growers ' 
Un ion 

'Tobacco 
Farmers ' 

Assn 

Assn 
-

113 

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Distinctive  Features  of  Yokogoshi-Mura 

Yokogoshi  is  in  the  low-lying  Echigo  Plain. 

Xekogoshi 
ta

is  in  the  low-lying  Echigo  Plain,  on  the  Agano-gawa  (Agano  �ver )  near  the 
in  one  of  the  most  intensive  rice -producing  areas  of  Japan .  Almost  all 
is  in  cultivation,  the  only  exception  being  the  gra aslands  inside  the  levees  0.£ 

, 

a
\1  of  N1 1g

Agano-gawa •   The  village  is  wholly  rural .  More  than  95  percent  of  the  land  area 

.... land 

with  nearly  two-thirds  of  it  paddy .  Obtaining  household  fuel  in  t�i s   treeless 

is 

\lvated, 
tSll.ge  has 

8.1',1ay8  been  tedious  and  expensi va . 

II1tes  (Trombicula  akamushi  and 

sUClller  months 

during  the 

and  occ>lsional  fatalities 

�. 
transmit 

dellensi s )   which  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Agano-
Japanese  river  fever  ( scrub  typhus )  and  cause  some  <1 -
hazard ,  added  to  that  /'j 

Because  of 

floods ,  many  of  the  narrow  etrips  of  land  insida  the  levees  are 

to 

in  the  village .  

t.his 

X 

laft 

wild 

used  in making  thatched  roofs . 

overabundance  of  water  is 

ever-pres ent  problem .  About  one-third  of 

h

An 
Y1l1.a:ge  is  in  the  extensi 

below-sea-ltaval  paddy  area  around  the  city  of  Niigata . 

of  giant  electric  pumps 

continuously  to  lift  the  water  up  into  oanab  that 

the  Japan  Sea .  The  average  elevation  of  Yokogoshi  is  11  feet  above  sea  level . 

va 

an 

run 

e  area  of 

t

J I X 

UlDe88 
fI recurring 
lJrIpu  grass , 

ltaiteries 
I1CIII  out  to 

boundaries  of  the  village  are  highly  irregular  beoause  of  the  meanderings  of  the· 

The 

Formerly  the  entire  area  of  the  village  was  on  one  side  of  the  river,  but  some 

�Y.r. 

60 

branches  and 

grass 

'l'ree 

:�soked  along  the  levees  of  the 
,'(Ssno·gawa . 

" kaye " 

a re 

This  building  contains  20  giant 

pumps  whioh  lift  water  from  the 
below-saa-level  paddy  area . 

, years  ago  flood  waters  cut  a  new 
since  then  about  one-fifth  of  the chatlnel 
I 
I lf'been  separated  from  the  main  p
art V111.ee� 
\ holds  are  concentrated  in  settlem�nt 
of  them  on  the  higher  lands  along  th:' 
ll 1t)l..  The  lO-f8lllily  groups  here  ha'ITe 
portent  since  the  village  was  firat 
few  hundred  years  ago,  and  remain  8 
factor  in  the  social  structure  of  the 
eoonomic  oooperation,  the  basic 
In 
the  "nob  kokumiai"  ( farmers 
hic
I  small 
w
of  the  rice  seedlings  for  transplant!  • 
the  paddy  are  produced  in  great  cooPe 
seed  beds,  with 
many 

h  is  a 

6e1l 

gr 

b 

from  another  are  very  narrow . 

The  partitions  di'ITiding  one  field 

oUp 11 
large  grouping  of  neigbbo�OI\). 
small  u:tt., 
of  these 
participating .  Some  small  farm  machinery  is  owned  and  used  jOintly  by  these 
groups .  Two  or  three  households  wi thin  the  IO-family  groups  cOmmonly  exchanged  "or�CIII 
Economic  opportunities  are  limited  largely  to  farming ,  except  for  small  operation 

bamboo,  "daikon"  pickling,  and  rope  making .  The  nonfarm  household� ,  compri sing 
of  the  total,  decreased 
slightly .  The  total  population  increased  slightly,  despite  a  decrease  in  the  number 
repatriates  and  evacuees . 

hous eholds  increued 

period ,  whereas  the 

during  the  Ie-month 

J II 
7 X past,  and  much  of  this  work  continues .  

ne  to 

small 

f arm  

Olla 

a 

at 

The  tradition  of  farm  unions  is  old  and 

strong  in  Yokogoshi,  and  agitation  for  land 
reform  has  a  long  history .  The  village  had 
a  highly  feudalistic  structure,  with  a  few 
households  owning  most  of  the  land.  The 
great  maj ority  of  the  farm  people  actively 
welcomed  the  land  reform  program . 

I I �  

Yokogoshi  participates  in  one  of  the 
land  "amelioration"  proj ect s "   which  consists 
of  laying  off  the  paddy 
grid­
iron  system  of  straight  irrigation  ditche s ,  
drainage  canals,  and  roads .  Agricultural 
leaders  report  tha t  straightening  of  the 

a  regular 

in 

Rice 

large  cooperative  seed  beds . 

seedlings 

in 

are  produced 

this 

village  and  about 

ditcbes  and  roads  has  resulted  in  about  a 
lO-percent  increase  in  crop  yields--par� 
from  the  additional  land  made  availablr, �c .. 
d 
partly  from  the  more  efficient  £a�m pra:j8C\ 
perlilitted.  There  are  300  cbo  in  the r the 
cho  n tI;Ie 
in 
entire  project .  About  three-fifths  of
rDlll
coat  is  borne  by  the  national  gov
remainder  1s divided  about  evenly  betw 

prefectural  government  and  the 
farmers  like  the  additional  yieldS 

fa�er�; �# 
sible  by  "amelioration"  but  often cO;P tlleJt 

of  the  cost  and . of  the  elimineti on 
small  anci ent  fi elds . 

nt; 
e 

3,0,000 

IDS  18111 

eell  t./I. 

Til' 

0 

e

Potatoes  are  an  important  second­

ary  crop  in  this  village . 

Further  Facts  About  Yo)("gcllhi 

9, 583 
1,448 
1  OnL 
,  7U 
1  558 

Elevl)tio

above  Bea  level  (feet) 

n 
�t  village  ha ll 
U  lowest  e n
animals 

highe st 

i

ts 
n

po

1 

],S1l f 
0 

i  n 
pO---bol ds 
_.let  0 
lIlOU,ehO�: (ohO» 
�ou,e  d 
"1 )4""  8  d  (chO 
(oho 
) 
in  which 
{srlll 
� _tad 
1  arM 
G-JP 
tfS'I� or  tot8 
OJ.'op  is  gt'CMn 
� tbaP  Cr'tation (in
� �ec1P��o�n�(��18�)� _______________ � __ �� ______ -: ______
�  __ e  seas 
ftd'�#l'-
A 

�ve1'8ge 
combustion  engines 

6 
225 ' 

1: 512 

1 . 2  
7 

Nwuber 

Draft 

,iSS 

D 

es

ch

) 

8 

d 

per  fA rm  household 
Eleotrio  moton  end  internal 

Number 
�verage  per  farm  household 

12 
10-15 

364 

0 . 33 

__ r-�---------------------1 

A 

REGULAR  RESIDENTS 

rZZZl 
_  NEW  RESIDENTS 

B E7ZZl  FAR M I NG 

I N DUSTRY ...  COMMERCE, 
AND  PRO�ESSIONS 

PJ!IImI 
IIII'Q'iIIII 
_  ALL  OTHERS 

C E7ZZl  PADDY 
_ UPLAND 
_  BUILDING  SITES 
@*,1 WASTELAND 
� OWNED  BY  LAN DLORDS 
_ OWNED  BY  OWNER­
� 

A N D   RENTED  OUT 

CULTIVATORS 

lana 
of  it 

rabip  of 

rce
Vtll!lferred  to  operot1Df  t&nnntsl 

of  the  arable 

land  wa� 
r
operated  by  owner-oultivators 

now  94  pe

nt 

54  pe

t 

cen

or  .U  land  Is 

t.plea  "nd 

uJlrin.es  o1llled  tlto  percent  of  S'l'able 
at  bjJffinning  of  period  end  ooned  none  at 

end 

T1drtr-four  locsl  a gricultura l  pr�ctice  a ssocia ­
gricultura l 

were  dis

37  new 

ed, 
ol
v
groups  WBrB  org� nized 
18Dd  "amelioration"  project 

tlobe 
�1C8 

and 

s

a

1ba 
u
,  'oliool  b
Ichool 
,  blab"oo 

ldin
g 
WBS  started 
beaketry 

i

for  the 

W.ll S 

C'lrried  forword 
seconda ry 

new  lower 

pickle  fa ctory  wore  started 

tile 

bJ  a  Village 

c
diiellings  of 
o

!l nd   !I 
t
o
pera
I
er  lArge  la nd10rd  became  a 
fo
Jl!!tronized  mu
rm
e\llll
s

the  National 

-s  br'lDch  of 

lUoh 
Illl4s\II 

ve 

Il 

��ive  LOCII l  Problems 
�8e  of  fuel 

l'abundonce  of  water 
!be 
deadly  ilUlBct 
lon
J
1I1'!IneBe  river  fever 

g 

the  �

no

a  which  causes 

ga

-gaw

done  only  by  "amelioration" 

a
ittle  fields  which  is  needed 

oll801idatlon  of 
C 
l
hioh 
.�ns
ll!Idl.y but  ... 
CIIn  be 
i
e  oceration 
!n  ex""' 
CO'If. 
v
lower  eecond!lry  school  b
heavy, 
ildi
. of  ne'll 
ng 
1'h!&t the buUd1n1r 
u
ed
d 
large 
only 
as  ne
r  shUt  of  the 
which  aep" ­
�ted 
one  s

no  ri vor  chg 
nt  from  the  rest  of  the  village 

half  as 

ettle

nnel 

is 

'gil 
me

e

OWNED  BY  SHRINES 

� 
nnn  OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT 
PENDING  DISPOSAL 

� 

Ma in 

icult

Products 

�gr

uro.l 

Vegetables 
Fruits 

t 

R' ce 
'I1h1te  pate boas 
toea 
Swee
Institutions  A nd  Orpnlzations 

pots 

Schoo
s 
l

4  elementary  schools 
1  new  lower 
h
r
y  sc

ec

onda
s
niZlltionB 

ReligiOUS  or

ol 

o

gs 

Shrine  Sh1nto--no  resident  pries ts 
Buddhist  templas--20  re sident  priests , 
ing  teaohers 
oo

for  priests 

s

14 
16 

in 

oh

l 

Cooperatives 

Yokogoshi  J.gricultural  Cooper�t ive  �6sn 
Serieulture  Cooperative  (gun""l'lidf.) 

Il iscellaneous  organizations 

Farmers '  Union 
youth  A.ssn 

i nclud-

'  r 

Wome n ' s   �ssn 
Farent-Teachers'  .�ssn 
Fruit  Growers '  �ssn 
Vegeteble  Growers '   �se
Service 
School  Committee 
�gricllltural  Feir  .�ssn  
J.gr1culturAl  �Iutual 

�Bsn 

n 

elief 

,l,san 

R

�BBn 

F1relllen ' s  

117 

N O B U T A - M U R A ,  N A G A N O   P R E F E C TU R e:  

Distinctive  Features  of  Nobuta-Machi 

N 

is  an  inland  mountain  village  in  north  central  J�pan .  A  little  more  than  one­
of  the  land  area  is  in  cultivation .  One-sixth  of  the  total  area  of  the  village  i s  
�d  hillside  farming ,  mostly  wheat  and  barley,  white  potatoes,  and  sweet  potatoes .  

Jobuta 

I' 

L E G E N D  

� PA D D Y   F I ELD 
� � U PL A N D   F I E LD 

= 

--..:::::: 

M A I N   ROAD 

R I V E R 

FO R E S T  

• 

C O M POST 

LlJ  LlJ  LlJ 

S C A L E 

I 

M I L E  

NATURAL  R�OURCES  3leTION 

Figure  29 

118 

I R R I GA T I ON 

RES ER 

VOI R  

C O N TO U R   LI N E 

( f E ET ) 

H O U S E   S I TE 

Paddy  fields ,  which  account  for  10  percent  of  the  land  area  of  the  village,  lie  in  the 
Small  paddy  fields  sometimes  extend  on  up  the  moun-

valleys  along  the  s

l

to  the  highest  sources  of  water .  Great  effort  has  often  gone  into  the  construc-
maintenance  of  high  steep  terraces  to  make  additional  small  paddy  fields .  Dwell­

l  streams. 

ma

• 

I  � 

ere grouped  together  by  hamlets  on  the  hillsides  above  the  paddy . 
aDd 

than  70  percent  of  the  area  of  the  village  is  in  forest,  much  of  it  on  very  rug­

�ta1ns .   All  of  the  forest  lands  are  privately  owned  except  for  two  percent  owned  by 
lore 
'!Uage

Forest  products  are  basic  to  the  local  economy,  especially  charcoal  and  tim­
Bale  and  compost  for  use  in  the  fields .  From  many  places  in  the  upper  portion  of 

. 

tor 
'�e ,   the  Japan  Alps ,   cov-
mc;ch  of  the 

' 

the  distanc e .  
year 

br  BnOll' 
Been 
lit 

ir, 

• 

are 
for  farming  here  is  not 

�nOm1c  opportunities 
ted, 
profitable 
the  timber  is 
:ut .fast e�  than  it  is  groYI-
and 
uch  replanting  of  forest 
1 
nee�ed .  The  populatio
I 
;ed  about 
one  percent  be-
\ly �e 1947  and  December  1948, 
ecause  of  the 
eturn  of 
s 
to the  cities  and  the 
111  Out19ard  migration  of  pec­
lelU>ch  of  work. 

n 

r

cho  of  land 

43  plann  ' 
be  b 
a
h  1 r°llght 
nd 
tilt 
Years 

eo ,  12 
into  cultivation 
rec.lama tion  in  the 
Six  new  settler 

t

o 

--

eo

snt 

1lb4 
a" 

farms.  B

e  of  the  stna.lln elll.&rge 

households  will  be  located  on  tbi 
la�� 
of  them  are  there  now) ,  and  a  lit�l
tional  land  will  be  available 
. e 
a
project,  the  poor  quality  of  the  :88 ot � 
us
1.1, 
high  elevation-about  2 , 000  feet  a�
level
tbe  village  leaders  do  Dot  e O"e 
economic  benefit  from  the 
reClalllati�eClt 
The  social  structure  is  based 
five-family  group  and  the  extended  �n tha 
the  u..'\mlet  is  made  up  of  seve
fi  81Q11)'J 
ve·f�,_ 
n  recent  t 
r
I 
groups . 
es  m8DY  act1.viti  �� 
such  as  those  of  the  youth 
nd  wOlllen '  ea, 
more a  aaeo. 

red  more  and 
cen
ofations ,  have 
the  lIoazall ,  a  subdivision  of  the 
which  there  are  seven .  Feuda
ties 
strong  in  this  village,  where  a  tew 
hous
trolling  positi ons

1 e 
ds  have  traditionally  OCCUPiedan� 
� 

ho
e
l

1m 

al 

ar 

te

l 

a

. 

These  logs  and  firewood  are 
stacked  on  a  mountain  road  ready 
for  transportation  to  the  villag e .  

h
of  "b1rdn1l 
and  also  two 
households 
"nonbumanslt).  The  former  live  in  a 
of  their  own  and  generally  do  small 
in  add.1tion  to  sh oe  repairing  and 
l
o
a  "geta"  factory;  the  latter  are  more  sharply  s eparated  from  the  rest  of  the  p
worldllC 
gage  in  small-scale  gardening ,  hunting,  leatber  work,  and  misce.11aneous  repai
p
e  aDd 
r  work . 

There  are  about  a  dozen 

Eta 

ousehoLb 

e

;' 
) � 

)( 

t

a 
build­

Nobuta  vi llagers 

a

n

w

ed 

high 

they 

new  lower  secondary 
school 
thought  the 
ing.  However, 
cost  would  be  too 
for  them 
to  bear  a lone ,  so  they  arranged 
with  the  officials  in  adj acent 
Kofu-mura  for  the  j oint  erection 
and  operation  of  a  school  that 
serves  both  villages .  The  new 
school  building  has  been  built 
near  the  boundary  line  between 
the  two  mountainous  village s .  

households  already  have 
settled  on  this  land  which  is 
part  of  the  reclamation  project .  

New 

Further  Facts  About  Nobuta 

3 , 667 
659 
607 
1,S64 
506 

o . S  

33 

39 
15S 

more  then 

Elevation  above  sea  level 

feet

At  village  hall 
At  lowest  and  highest  points 

(

) 

Draft  anil1l!lls 

NUlllber 
AVerage  per  farm  household 

Eleotric  motors  and  internal  combustion 

engines 
Number 

Average  per  farm  household 

1, 561 
1, 3SO-3, 820 

223 

0 . 37 

42 0.07 

A 
[ZZJ REGULAR  R E S I D E N TS 
_ N E W   'RESIDENTS 

FARMING 

8 
£ZZ2J 
_ ' N DUSTRY,  COM M E RCE , 

A ND'  P R O F E S S I O N S  

IWiiIlII 
_ A L L   OTHERS 

, 

PADDY 

G 
E7Z1 
II!I UPLAND 
_ FORESTS 
_ BUILDING  SITES 

b OWNED  BY  L A N DLORDS 

"""'"  A N D   RENTED  OUT 

OWNED  BY  OWNER­
CULTIVATORS 

OWN E D   BY  S H R I NES 

lIm't'eII 
� 
e 

arable  land  -as 

Inetitution�  and  Organizations 

Schools 

elementary  school 
j ointly  operated  ne" 

1 
1 

secondary  school 

lower 

Religious  organizations 

7  Shrine  Shinto--l  resident  priest 
6  Buddhist  temples--l  resident  priest 

Cooperatives 

to  31 

Nobuta  Agricultural  Cooperative  Assn 

Miscellaneous  organizations 

Youth  Allsn 

' 
ores t.  products ;   fo rests  being  depleted 

l 

lllle  t  r 
r .. t.  n 
t.d �  lhan  they  are being  replanted 
8eonomie  Opportunities 
lItco:�:�t1on With adjoining  village 
,  lCUltural Product s  

School 

'�7 

er 

of  new  low

Firemen 's  Assn 

Women ' s   Assn 
Parent-T9achers' Assn 
Agricultural  MUtual  Relief  Assn 
Forestry  Allan  (to  be  organized  early  in  1949) 

A  new  lower  secondary  school 

iog  is  being  erected  by 
of  Nobuta  and  Kofu . 

the  villaS 

lt� 
'it.  p  t 
&...t  0  atoes 
Potatoes 

Wheat  and  barley 

S ilkworms 

ild' 
bU  e9 

OJ 

!:! 

W 
a:: 
::J 
r-
0 
w 
l.1.. 
w 
a:: 
a.. 

« 
� 
« 
r-

-

« 
(f) 

.. « 

a:: 
::J 
� 

I 
0 
� 
« 
a:: 
« 
� 

�  ....J 

122 

Distinctive  Features  of  Karako-Mura 

-� 

UJ 
-.J 
q 

(,) (f) 

0 

-.:! 

ILl 
Z 
::::i 

� 
z 
ILl 
ILl 
� 
:::E 
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:.:  => 
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III  Z  => 
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lL  (,) 

-0 

-3 

-3 

-3 

One-third  of  the  land  area  of  Karako  is  in  paddy . 

in  the  west  central  part  of  the  Kanto  Plain,  about  50  miles  northwest  of 
little  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  area  i s   arable  land,  one-third  of  which 

larik0 1S 

foIIlO.  J. 

the 

Ara-kawa .  Levees  are  necessary  to  control  flood  waters  through  much  of  the  village . 

pI�  and  two-thirds  cultivated  upland.  The  paddy  is  in  the  lowlands  al ong  a  tributary 
.,..unrelft  side.  All  of  the  forest  is  privately  owned,  except  for  one  small  tract  in  the 

forest,  on  level  land  and  in  the  hills  on  the 

two-fifths  of  the  village  is 

part  of  the  village  owned 

ent • 

than 

in 

er

nm

ov

g

IOIt  hUly 

by  the 

village,  which  is  within  easy  reach  of  Tokyo ,  has  many  new  resident s ,   especia lly 
percent  of  the  total  population, 

�cuees .  In  December  1948 ,  these  evacuees  comprised 
�!pite  a  decrea se  of  new-type  res idents  in  the  18  months  preceding  that  dat e .  

The 

14 

Karako  was  settled  about 

who  brought  with  them  the  extended  family  system.  The  social  structure  takes  it s 

years  ago ,  principally  by  families  from  Yamanashi  Prefec­

300 

ive, 

Vegetable  seedlings  of  various 
)'pes  are  grown  in  beds . 
t 

Uost  households  produce  some 
vegetables  for  the  Tokyo  market. 

123 

character  to  some  extent  from 
1 this 
tended  family  system,  but  it 
by  compact  locality  grouPingS  !h 
established  economic  and  SOCi� the 

around  local  sbrines  as  "eU 

among  the  villagers . 

a  i·(!b 

1s 

are 

One  of  the  seven  buraku 

;f 
Eta  families,  who  live  more  or  llllade IIp 
u-
from  the  other  villagers  and 
-, 
ess  '1Ittt 
from  them,  especially  in  matters  iSOlet", 
\ 
{  to  religion  and  marriage .  The 
lation  was  affected  during  World  �al 
tJ-�or  some  time  after  hostilities  e/l� 
ed ,  
tbe  presence  of  large  numbe.rs  of  K
brought  in  as  unskilled  laborers 
t�reall' 
l a  military  airport  and  at  the  exca\>a�orlt 
an  ammunl tioD  dump  in  the  side  of  a  1011 
However,  all  of  the  Korea:� 

mountain
left  the  village  by  the  end  ot 

10 

. 

1948 .  II 

Raising  silkworms  is  an  im­

portant  industry  in  Karako . 

! 

Karako  differed  from  the  other 

llages  in  1948  because  vegetables  were 
portant  crop  than  rice.  The  village  is  within  the  area  designated  by  the  To�o 
�«;X tan  office  as  a  vegetable-producing  area  for  the  Tokyo  market .  As  an  incentive  to 
veget·able s ,   larger  allocations  of  connnercial  fertilizer  have  been  1llade  available  to 
fa�mers .  Rice,  soybeans ,  wheat  and  barley,  sweet  potatoes,  and  mulberry  for  slllcwona 
are  important  crop s .   The  area  in  mulberry  increased  during  the  18  montha 
respons�  to  the  program  of  the  prefectural  government  to  increas e   prodUction  of 
Uhder  stud)­

12  Vi

\ 

a  aOl'e 
me1��,. 

A  land  reclamation  proj" ect  on  an 

of 

A

39 

shan-
ab9ut  180  cho  is 

oned  military  airport 
eing  carried  forward .  Eighty  cho  of  recla­
mation  land  1.n  this  village  will  accommodate 
about 
new  settler  families .  In  this  pro-
J � j ec t .   the  house  sites  are  dispersed  over  the 
farming  area,  ' with  the  land  of  eacb  house­
hold  l yi n g   i mmedia tely  a round  the  dwelling. 
Thi s 
not  the  �enerBl  s ettlement  pa ttern 
in  the  older  parts  of  the  villape ,  although 
the  dwellings 
n  it  a re  not 
com­
pact  f1'roupinp,s  as  s ca ttererl  B l onr  the  rr a i n  
roads . 

so  much  i n  

is 

1

raw 

Harvesting 

wheat 

of 
Nine  of  the  families  on  the 

. 

project  are  Catholics  who  came  from 
Japan  in  two  groups .  Most  of  the 

other  ". 
lies  on  the  project  came  in  small  gro�!!t. � 
different  parts  of  the  island .  That  y-;., 
the  reclamation  area  which  is  in  Kara:� till 
be  oreanized  as  a  separate  buraku  wi 
!bi8 � 
next  few  montbf .  Villagers  believe 
posed  arrangement  would  be  highly 
tory  because  certain  problems,  such  as u"', 

scarcity  o£  fertilizer,  particularly 
and  the  lack  of  water  for  paddy 
distinctive  to  the  reclamation 
the  social  organization  of  the  recla:�vat� 
households  differs  because  of  their 
backgrounds  and  dispersed  settlement .  

POste 
lands, Aleo, 
area .  t�OJl 

faO" 
satlstbe 

Fertilizer  is  scattered  by  hand. 

12.4 

Further  Facts 

Karako 

About 

5 ,471 
939 
749 
1, 180 
622 

27 
0 . 8  

5 1 . 2  
203 

than 

percent  of  the  arab

e  land  Was 

oper8ting  tenants 

l

_".CjiJ'nld 

of  30 

to  the 
temples  ( five  percent  of  all  arable 
the  land  reform 

enant

lold  to 

s  under 

t
dialolutlon  of  Nogyokai
praG�iee  ASsociations  were  disBolved  and 
qricultural  groups  were  organlze<.1 

16  looal  agricul­
28 

, 

school  buildi ng 

erected 

secondary 

U-Dt-<tescbllrs  association  was  organized 
'.;�;S.����1::: in 

��"'�I.II  ...... ·" .. "'Lm' 
, 

association  was 

WII8 

cooperative  assooiation  was 
estab-
producers  of  raw  sill< 
lNlberry  for  lIil.kwarlllB  was  increased 

I18t  up  to 

to  servioe 
ill 

nct.1ng  assooiation  was  organi�8d 

mar-

t

mers 

be 

a
than  traditional  rico 
!lot  dependabla  Bi nee  'll'artilT.s  air­

to 
fanting 

by 

lition  dwnp  IIere 

1..;.  1011 of  Yegetablee  reported 
� 
Profitable 
rta�IOII "ater 
� 
�lon tarmers  finding  abandoned 
� UQtbe  becauss  top  801 1  

�tIIlta1nB1de  aJ!lll

he 

IlId 

cutting  or  forest  tor  lUllber  and  charcoal 
nd 

leveling  the  land  for  an  airtield 

airfield  la
1Ill8  removed  from 

�ea8  in 

Elevation  above  sea  level  ( feet) 

A t  village  hall 
At  lowest  and  highest  points 

Draft 

animals 

Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

, 

Electric  moters  and  internal  combustion 

engines 
Number 
Average 

per 

farm  household 

138 

80-360 

347 

0 . 46 

205 

0 . 27 

A 
I?2ZZJ  REGULAR  RESIDENTS 

NEW  RES I D E N T S  

FAR M I NG 

B 
l?ZZZJ 
__  I N DUSTRY,  COMMERCE, 
II6WA1II  A N D   PROFESSIONS 
l1li  ALL  OTHERS 

PADDY 

C 
I?2ZZJ 
_  U P L A N D  
DDIID  FORESTS 

B U I LD I NG  S I TES 

� OWNED  BY  L A N D LORDS 
u.uA  A N D   R E N TED  O U T  
_  OWN E D   BY  O W N E R ­
- CULTIVATORs 
..,..  OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT 
E&&oI  PEN D I NG  DISPOSAL 
PW¥N OWNED  BY  S H R I N ES 

Main  AgricuUural  Products 

Vegetsbles 

Rice 
Soybeans 

Wheat  and  bsrley 
Sweet  potatoes 
Silk 

Institutions  and  Organizations 

Schoo ls 

2  elementsry  schools 

new  lower  secondary  s chool 

1 

Religious  organizations 

6  Shrine  Shinto--l  resident  priest 
5  Buddhist  templss

3  resident  priests 

--

Cooperatives 

Karsko  Agricultural  Cooperative  Assn 
Sericulture  Cooperative  Assn 
Re c lamation  Agriculture  Cooperative  Assn 
Dairy  Cooperative  Assn  ( gun-wide ) 
Horticulture  Cooperative  Assn  (gun-wide ) 

Miscellaneous  organizations 

Parent-Teachers/ Assn 
Kerako  Athlet' c  Assn 
Social  Educat.ion  Commission 
Youth  Assn 
Farmers '  Union 
Ve getable  Market i ng  Assn 
Pig  Reising  Asen 
Agricultural  Mutual  Relief 
Firemen 
I 

s  Assn 

Assn 

125 

lUl
0 

R 

W 
0:: 
::::> 
I-
<.) 
W 
LL 
W 
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a... 

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CD 

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::::> 
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w 
(!) 
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� �  
3& �  

Distinctive  Features  of  Futomi-��a 

__ ��.'r1l.HU 

is  a  small  village  on  the  Pacific  coast 

It  i s  
by  small-scale  farming  and  small-scale  fishing .  Roughly  one-third  of  the 
make  a  living  primarily  by  farming ,  one-third  primarily  by  fishing,  and  one-
a  combination  of  farming  and  fisbing .  The  collection  and  drying  of  seaweed  for 

miles  southeast  of  Tokyo . 

80 

also  important  in  the  village ,-

are  very  small ,  averaging  only  about  four  tan .   Rice  paddy  is  possible  in  only 

ru.8 

parts  of  the  village,  making  up 

percent  of  the  total  land  area .  Cultivated 
... 11 
18  even  more  limited  because  of  the  steep  slopes  of  the  sandstone  'height s ,   which  at 

14 

extend  out  to  the  seacoast .  Because  of  the  widespread  ownership  of  the  small 

relatively  little  land  was  purchased  under  the  land  reform  program--eight  cho  or 
percent _ 0f  the  cultivated  area .  The  average  for  the  13  village s   studied  was 

cho, 

to 

laOunted 

41 
this  Vil lage 
cliffs,  carved  and 
IIDdstone 
the  aurf  that  is  rendered  useless  by  typhoons . 

scalloped 

percent  of  the  cultivated  land .  A  little  more  than  one-half  of  the 
is  in  fore s t ,   and  the  remainder--one-fifth  of  the  total--is  wasteland, 
by  the  weather,  and  a  rocky  al'ea  immediately 

44 

'l'hle  b 

J'utollli 

l'eakwa ter  wa s  buH t 
a s sociation . 

fishery 

the 

by 

e

Settlements  on  the  rough,  rocky 
compact . 

t 

c

s

a

oas

are 

Except  for  a  few  dwellings 

row  inland  stream,  the  houSeholds 
a1 
lage  are  located  along  the  Coast 

obg  , 
( numerous  fisherman  households  on  :oad 
ih 
that  runs  around  the  lower  edges 
lfpen1tlsula  east  of  the  road.  MOre 
I  fourths  of  the  area  of  the  entire· 
too  rough  for  dwellings .  The  rail 
the  seacoast  repeatedly  tunnels 

f  " 

0 

that  extend  to  the  very 

tuns 
water . 

';O�d 
edge  °\lgb 

t

ot  th, 

. 

With  opportunities  for  earnin 

hood  in  farming  and  fishing  quite fi' 
the  population  decreased  thre e   perce:tted, 
tween  June  1947  and  December  1948 
were  few  civilian  repatriates  her� 
ber  of  evacuees  decrease� 

be­

Tb 
th er. 
e 
� 

Seaweed  collection  is  important . 

the  number  of  regular  residents  also  declined .   Emigration  of  people  from  this 
�  pecially  young  people  in  their  late  teens ,  to  the  Tokyo-Yokohama  area  has  been  a 

a  result,  many  farm · households  and  fishing  households  are 

younger  sons  rather  than  by  the  eldes t ,   as  is  common 

most  of  Japan . 

in 

' 
inherited  b 

:Jtx occurrence . 

As 

\. 

Crop  failures  here  have  been  common,  because  of  the  des tructive  typh oons  every 

three  years .  There  is  no  possibility  of  a  reclamation  proj ect  in  the  village.  To 
their  income s ,   the  farmers  take  advantage  of  th�ir  comparative  nearne s s   to  the  Tokyo 
They  specialize  in  the  production  of  chrysanthemums,  carnations,  and  other  flowers 
tor 
in  Tokyo,  and  in  the  production  and  processing,  at  a  local  dairy  cooperative ,  of 
clair, 
ducts,  also  for  the  Tokyo  market .  Th e  area  in  flowers  and  the  number  of  milk  cows  both 
creased  during  the  18-month  period . 

typi cal  house  site  is  sh own  in  Fi gure  39 . 

two 

A 

The  families  who  devote  their  time  primarily  to  fishing  are  concentrated  in  a 

fishing  buraku  which  is  located  at  the  base  of  the  steep  sandstone  peninsula  that 
into  the  Pacific .  Just  east  of  the  peninsula  are  two  small  islands, 
recreation.  Seaweed  is  processed  j ointly  by  a  group  of  familiee. 

POPULATION 
BY  TYPE 

SECTION 

Feudalism  has  traditionally  been 
powerful,  but  in  recent  months  a  dls­

I 

rX tinct  shift  has  occurred .  More  of  the 
positions  in  the  village  office  and  in 
organizations  are  being  filled 
b,y 
heads  of  rank-and-file  households . 

the 

I 

. 

tion  WII S 
to  the  Isll!nda 

set 

up 

the  coast 

to  prOlllote  tourist 

.IIS.'OCllAt'lnn  lias  re-established 

off 

tion 

s  eata blisbed 

a8sociation  1188  org3nlzed 
118 
...... ID\·ot..u'nk .•  __ 
a  little 
s
on 

reorganized 

a

I 

oci�t

8

a 
Loesl  Problems 

i

lISS 

iva 

Drying  is  a  common 

preservation  for  fish ;  the 
fish  are  then  packed  for 

method�fe

d 

t
i  !Dell

Sh  P 

; 

�� tyPbooll8  thlJt  destroy  crops  and  d'!lII8ge 

8qUIPnent 

!IM:"a nglng  for  construotion  of  ne"  lOller 
per  ca pite 

ol  buildIng  beooUB8  of 

t10\Ut 
��  in 
"11 -.".,,/ B
rz...t{Oli �"' tnOCessitated  by  scarcity  of 

10lJ 

local 

economio 

cho

....  180 

Keeping  the  nets  in  r

i

a  continuing  problem  for  the 
fisherman . 

epa

r  i 5  

FUrther  F�cts  'bout  Futomi 

2 ,752 
560 
257 
478 
116 

0.4 

26 

83 . 0  

259 

c 

Elev'!!tion  above 
4t  villi! ge 
�t  lowest 

eel'! 

11 
hi

hIJ 
and 

he
g

s

t  points 

level  (feet, 

Draft  anlmais 

Number 
�ver8 ge  per  farm  household 

Electric  motors 

interMl  combustion 

engines 
Number 

and 

farm 

Average  per 

household 

10 

0�10 

19 O . O?  

14 

0 . 05 

D 

!&a in  �gricultur'l1 
Rice 
SlIeet  potatoes 
Whest  a 

rley 

nd  ba

REGULAR  RESIDENTS 

_ NEW  RESIDENTS 

B lZZ22J FARMING 
_ INOUSTRY,  COM M E RCE, 
- AND  PROFESSIONS 
_ F I SH I N G  
_ A LL  OTHERS 
C 

PADOY 

IZZZ2I 
_ UPLAND 

PERMAN ENT  PASTURE 

IlZl 
FORESTS 
IDDID 
_ BU ILDI N G   SITES 
� WASTEL A N D  

OWNED  BY  LANDLORDS 
A N D   RENTED  OUT 
Q.---.: 
IZZZ2I 
_  OWNED  BY  OWNER­
CULTIVATORS 
IIIIilII:I:iIiI 
�  OWNED  BY  S H R I N E S  

OWNED  BY 
PENDING  D 

IIr"lII":. 
WlA'.I 

Products 

pota toes 

Milk 
White 
Flowers 

Institutions  and  Orgqnl�tion9 

Schools 
1  e
1 

eme nt
l
ne" 

a

ry  school 

lower  secondery  school  (pla nned) 

Religious  orgAnizations 

6  Shrine  Shinto--no  resident  prie st s 
4  Buddhist  temples--2  resident 

ts 

i
es

pr

Co

ti

es 

opern
Futomi  � griCl1ltura l  Cooperative  hBn 
Da iry  Cooperative 

v

Miscellane ous  org� n iza t ion9 

Fishery  �ssn 
youth  �SBn 

B  �ssn 

Firemen I 
Parent-Te�chers'  �Bsn 
Florist  �ssn  . 
Tourist  ./t.ssn 

\grlcultural Mutua l  Relief  \ssn 

KAWA S H I R O - M U RA ,   S H I Z U O KA  P R E F E C T

U 

N 

Distinctive  Features  of  Kawash1ro-Mura 

is  in  the  heart  of  the  tea-producing  area  of  Japa n .  

pe  along 

!be village  o f   Kawashiro  is  i n   the  heart  of  Japan ' s   principal  tea-producing  area, 
bolI,aers  on  the  Pacific  coast,  southeast  of  Tokyo . 

The  arable  land  lies  in  narrow 

streams ,  more  or  l es s   like  the  veins  of 

maple  leaf . 

a 

is  proud  of  its  tea ,  which  grows  in  well-trimmed  rows  on  the  rolling  hUl­
a  locality  the  appearance  of  a  great  formal.  garden .  On  a  hillside 
�o 

railroad  as  it  passes  through  the  village  is  a  giant  s ign 

This 

ving  tea  sign  has  been  there  for  many  years . 

in 

living  tea  bushes : 

• 

laoshirO 
,  p,ving 
the 
TEll.  PRODUCING  AREA" . 

many 

11 

Processing  the  tea  which  is  raised  and  preparing  it  for  market  provide  an  additional 

In  the  village  are  about  60  small  tea 
income  for  the  residents  of  Kawashiro . 
plants ,   which  hire  an  average  of  about  five  employees  each  for  a  four-month 

e  or 
ling 
in  the  sumliler . 

j 
hmd 

little  more  than  one-third  of 
area  of  this  village  is  in 

comprising  about 

it .  Most  of  the  remain­

,  JleaY1 

III'  p
hn 

Bre 

paddy. 

More  than  one­
the  village  is  forest ,  the 
n  of  which  is  privately 

of 
orti
About  one-seventh  of  the  for­

o

� d is  owned  by  the  vUlag e ,  
to  specific  buraku,  and  fur­
�8�bdivided  for  use  o£  groupS  of 
ouseholders .  Because  of  the 
application  of  compost 

SS­

molsture ,   the  area 
area  in  tea  fields  have  a 
e  relationship. 

� 8  required  to  maintain  the  nec­
'llat  1 annual 
the
ttttl\1t 
ttpo�: IIlarket  for  tea ,  as  locally 

D ecember  1946,  had  been 

forest 

in 

in 

W omen  pick  tea  leaves  at  the  govern­

ment  experiment  station . 

• 

131 

L E G E N D  

� PADDY  F I E L D  

//// U P L A N D   FI E LD 

=  MA I N   R OA D  

S  C A  L E  

CO M PO ST  � R I V E R   1==;;I;I==�;;;;;;;;;;I;;!;;;;;;;;;;;;;;l�d� 

�2 

0 

I joIl 

R A I L R O A D  

=-=-=-=

}4 

F O R E ST 

oL ol.i  LL 
"  b  0 

)( 

x 

x 

I RRI GATI O N   R ESERVO I R 

RECLA I M E O   LAND

• 

� 
• 

C O NTOUR  L I N E  

H O U S E   S I T E  

( FE E T )  

N�TUR�L  RESOVR'fS  SECT 1011 

Figure  32 

130 

dull,  re sulting  in  serious 
for  the  tea  producers .  Th 
leaders  were  anxious  to 
esp
l
tea  produ ction . 

i

l

a

e

c

y  abroad,  for  the� 1Il&�� 
II\trp  • 

fi e  \'i 

Pro 

Further  Facts  About  Kawashiro 

A 

advertising  sign 

tea 

in  living  tea  plants  can 

be  seen  from  the  train 
passing  through  Kawa shir o .  

LI.any  factorie s  

been  built  in  Shizuoka 
Pref ectur e .  

have 

Proce ssing  and  packag­
ing  tea  for  market  provide 
additional  SUIlll!ler  employ­

ment  in  the 

l

. 

vil

age

, 

a

Cent 

Economic  opportunitl 
ing  on  tea  and  rice  farl!li�
expanded  slightly through· � ba"e 
off.farm   empl oyment  and  add! 
processing  of  farm  products  ti� 
el'�� 
cipally  rope  made  from  rice ' 
and  oil  pressed  from  rape  s  s�. 
Pl'� 
population  increased  two  pe!ecl. TIlt 
the  18  months .   The  number  �ent  � 
lar  resident s ,   who  made  up � l' 
rcent  of  the  population  � 
reaide�t  11 .. 

90  p
cre
creased  during  the 

e
sed ,  and  new-type 

a

B  ct.. 

periOd .  

Land  reclamation  involvl 

cho  in  forest  portions  of 
18ge  area 

under 

also  is 

the �� 
way .  tl� 

new  families  al ready  have  beeD  ."" 
tIed  on  reclaimed  land,  and 
mated  50  resident  families will� 

able  to  enlarge  their  pr
holdings  through  reclamation. 

sent  . 

an 

e

� 

each  of  which  was 

The  social  structUre  of  t:, 
village  i s   based  on  a  comb1nB� 
of  generally  self_sufficient 
�� 
earlier  8 (� .. 
;\-
rate  village--kinship  groupe . 
--
or  remna��!tJ • •  
tended  familie s)
family  groupings .  Such  act 
a s  maintenance  of  roads ,  �:Il uP 
ot (.)It 
sick,  and  funeral  arrangelll
� 
y  are  handled  within  t  ,,� 
For  many  years 
this  pOli� 
been  the  scene  of 
intense 

a l
l
work 

Js 

10-

of 

, 

ical  riva lry. 

5 , 757 
964 
768 
1 , 545 
544 

0 . 7  

3 1  

87 .6 

244 

Elevation  above  sea  level 

feet

At  village  hall 
At  lowest  and  highest  po ints 

(

) 

Draft  animals 

Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

Electric  motors  and  internal  combus tion 

engines 
Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

197 

8-920 

125 

0 . 1 6  

175 

0. 23 

B 

C 

D 

A 
lZZZ2l  REGULAR  RESIDENTS 
_ NEW  RESIDENTS 

B 

FARMING 

15 

HOUSEHOLDS 
BY  OCCU PATION 

LAND  AREA 
BY  USE 

ARABLE  L A N D  
BY  OWNERS H I P  

C 

tea 

I NDUSTRY,  COMMERCE, 

E22ZI 
II!!m!I!I 
� A N D   PROFESSIONS 
_ A LL  OTHERS 
l?ZZ2J PADDY 
� UPLAND  ( including 
uw.w  farms  1 
IrD 
DIlDO  FORESTS 
_ B U I L D I N G   SITES 
o � OWN ED  BY  L A NDLORDS 
� A N D   R E N T E D   OUT 
� OWNED  BY  OW N E R ­
� CULT I VATORS 
� OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT 

...  PEN D I N G   D I S POSAL 

PERMANENT  PASTURE 

O W N E D   BY  S H R I N E S  

f:'::?:;:�\1 

Institutions 

Organj zat.ions 

and 

�bip  of  27  percent  of  the  arable  land  was 

the  operating  tenants 

�.rred  to 

unions 

ere  organi z
.. 

and  among  the  employees  of  the village 

1It107f. 
��8 
rlauJ.t
ur
q
�re1al  and  1nduBtr�  association  was  set 
Pl'olllOte  the  ssle  of  tea 

al  cooperative  association 

up 

A 

ed  among  village  hall 

Plftllt-teachera  association  wa.B  organized 

A 

secondary  school  building  was  ereoted 

..  10ller 
:ta 1!as  buUt.  f(tr  Bchool  lunches  at  an  ele-
achoo� 
�c  Waa  p.stabl1shed 
A  01 

ry 
increases  of  power-driven  riee  hulling  ma-

121 

175, 
reshing  machines ,   frca  46  to 

and 

of  power-driven 

80 

to 

!IiIlne 

CUlty  f 

rkets  for  tee 

110& ib trom 
�ve  Local  Problems 
. 
� 
�lng  ma
tOI'  te 
� of 
�  lI
�1""'''' .. 
.. � 
ll� 
'" 

__ 

• 

_ 

. 

. 

arranging  for  compoat  £roa  forest 

0 
a  plants 
�ea  tiel d s   and  other  fart1l  land  fr
rf:l.eld  construction 

. 

m  mili-

o

Wheat  and  barley 
White  potatoes 

Schools 

eleme

2 
1  new  lower  secondary  school 

tary  s chools 
n

Religious  organizations 

S  Shrine  Shinto--no  resident  priests 

10  BuddhIst.  temples-

7  resi dent  priests 

Cooperatives 

-

Kawashiro  Agricultural  Cooperative  Assn 

Miscellaneous  organizations 

Employees '  Union  of  workers  in  Village  hall  anc 

in  local  cooperative 

New  Settlers  Assn 

Commercial 
Women ' s   Assn 
Youth  Assn 

and 

Industrial  Assn 

Parent-Teachers' Assn 
Livelihood  Protective  Assn 
Firemen ' s   Protective  Assn 
Agricultural  Mutual  Rel ief  Assn 

t  Potatoes 

133 

N I K A I  D O - M U R A ,  

N A R A   P R EF EC T U RE 

Distinctive  Features  of  Nikaido-Mura 

Nikaido  is  in  flat ,  open  country. 

in  the  Yamato  plain  of  northern  Nara  Prefecture,  is  in  f1atJ open  coun-

fik,aldo-mura , 

•  It 

wholly  rural  but  is  within  easy  reach  of  Osaka ,  Nara,  and "Kyoto  and  is  located 

is 

tn�  town  of  Tambaichi .  Approx1m.,tely  one:-fourth  of  the  area  is  in irrigation  ponds 

� 
bouse  sites .  Nearly  70  percent  of  the  area  is  in  paddy  and  only  four  percent  in 

culti­
There  is  no  possibility  of  a  reclamation  project  in  this  village,  where  the 

upland . 
11  BO  completely  used;  this  area  has  been  farmed  for  more  than  a  thoUsand  years . 

more  than  90  percent  of  all  cult�vated  land  in  paddy,  farm  life  centers  around 

lith 
, with  wheat  grown  as  a  second  crop  in  winter  on  the  same  land. 

the  wheat  is  transplanted  as  seedlings  from  seed  beds  to  fields.  This  enables  the 
t  started  early  enough  in  the  fall  and  be  ready  for  harvesting  by  early  summer • 
nine-tenths  of  them  being  one  cho  or  less .  Practically  all  of  the  work 
...  by  hand .  The  1 , 160  f8-�  households  in  the  village  own  a  total  of  158  draft  ani-

of 
are 
to  ge

./ 

increasing  propor- �� 

An 

small, 
only  20  other  farm  animals  of 
85  percent  of  the  farm 

IDd 

• 

lore  than 
lda 

din  December  1948 

.,  kind ,  and  33  percent  had  no  fowls . 

had 

any 
no  animals 

N 

L E G E N D 

� PA DDY  FI ELD  =  MA I N   ROAD 

R ES E R V O I  R  �  R A I L R OA D 

__ 

--- R I V E R  

=+= B R I D G E  

H O U S E   S I T E  

N OTE :  V I  L L A G E   E L EVATI O N  

1 4 8  FEET 

S C A L E  

�4 

I 

o 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

134 

Figure 

JJ 

�'��U4'tAn 

1'b.  tanners 

areas 

obtain  their  fuel 

the 
outside  of  the  Village,  usually 
groups  of  households  who  pay 

from 

e

c

a 

18 

n
tly 

tor  by 
price  for  a  given  amount  of 
Specified  size.  Compost  in  this 
entirely  from  rice  stra."  and  the 
:\other  looal  crops.  Before  World 
ermelons  were  an  important 
prod­
few  have  bean  grown 
ojore  re
the  national  necessity  of  inoreas­
ro"duction.  As  locally  reported, 
PrOdUction  wss  popul a r   hecause  of 
for  melons  i n   the  nearby 
�8rket 
so  because  of  the  generally  in-
. 
01 
Iree  iP1y  of  wat.er  for  the  extensive 
8� 
Nikaido  and  adj ace.nt  villages . 
lJId  bu�b 
are  still  produced 
qUant  a 
't acuities, although  the  amount  of 
�8  ba.  d be devoted  to  them  in  re­

in  mar­

a been lim! ted. 

... _...,u"p .. 

. 

Homes,  as  elsewhere  in  Japan, 
are  of  simple  construction,  and 
many  of  them  are  old . 

The  headquarters  of 

sect  of  Sectarian  Shinto  isenri 
Tambaichi:n 
the  nearby  town 

of 

T 

t

he 

Further  lacta  About  Nikaido 

Most  houses  in  Ni

do 
inner  courts ,  in 
he 
rnany
hous ehold  and  f arm   proces s 1  
a ctivi ti es  a re  condUcted . 

k
i
which 

a

ve 

ng 

the  most  populous 

Nikaido 

i s  

Nikaido  are  all 

( of  the  11  entirely  ru ral  villages . 

The  dwellings 
in 
grouped  by  hamlets ,  all  shown  on  the 
map .  Nearly  every one  of  the 
ham-
J  lets  was,  many  decades  ago,  a  sepa­
rate  village ,   with  a  shallow  moat 
around  it .  Each  hamlet  has  a  sepa­

I

I 

\ 

4"" rate  storage  pond  for  irrigation, 
and  its  o�n  shrine  and  temple .   As 
a  result,  this  village  now  has  2B 
shrines  belonging  to  Shrine  Shinto , 
five  shrines  of  Sectarian  Shinto, 
and  21  Buddhist  temples .  The  head­
quarters  of  the  Tenri  sect ,  a  Sectarian  Shinto  religion ,  is  in  Tambaichi ,  and  some 
dormitory  bu1).dings  of  the  headquarters  are  in  Nikaido ,  providing  added  economic  and 
activity  for  many  villagers .   Forty-seven  households  in  Nikaido  have  Christians  in  th.-, 
villages.  Beoa� 
which  is  a  larger  proportion  of  Christians  than  in  any  of  the  other 
there  is  no  Christian  church  in  the  village,  Nikaido  Christians  go  to  Tambaichi  in 
to  attend  church  a ervices . 

ord.r 

or  UH 

12 

sooJa1 

The  internal  arrangements  of  houses  and  yards  are  distinctive;  many  houses 
) 7  /' 
'_ inner  court .  In  an  area  of  crowded  population,  this  affords  space  at  each  dwelling  t� 
the  newly  threshed  rice  and  wheat  on  straw  mats  in  the  sun ,  as  well  a s   to  do 
the  grea  _ 
amount  of  home  processing  of  agricultural  products ,   especially  the  making  of  rice  st�a 
rope  and  straw  bales . 

have  an dl1 

The  resi dent  population  increased  two  perc ent  during  the  IS-month  period ,   bu 

crease  of  40  percent  occurred  among  evacuee s ,   most  of  wholn  returned  to  Osaka . 

t 

de' 

8 

, 

/ 

small 

One  buraku  of  thLs  vil.l.e.ge  is  made  up  entirely  of  92  Eta  households .   These 

rfarming ,  -make  great  quantities  of  "geta" ,  do  leather  goods  work ,  and  engage  in 
household  industries .  The  Eta  and  the  other  villagers  do  not  intermarry . 

1  rather  distinctive  econo.my  as  oompared  with  the  remainder  of  the  villag e .   They dOy otb'l' 
r  the co� 
p�b� 
s  still  const itut es  a  semi-independent  munioipality .  Within  each  are  �uS1  s'" 
d  telllpl'" 

long-established  cohesive  groups  ( "kai to" )  that  traditionally  exchanged  work  in 

c  social  structure  of  the  village  stems  from  the  fact  that  each 

The  bas
en
le
t

r  11'"  • 
0 
a  lit.tl• 

t 1s e
�v sons, helped  i n   time  o f   sickness  and  death ,  and 

intained  the  local  shrines 

man 

an 

tt

I. 

ma

0 

i

m

136 

11,437 
2 , 0136 
1, 160 
1, 281 
926 

0 . 8  

131 

5 5 . 5  

-193 

Elevation  above  ses  level  (teet) 

At  village  hall 

At  lowest  and  highest  points 

Draft  anilN!lls 

b

r 

Num
Average  per  farm  household 

e

Electric  motors  and  internal  combustion 

ngines 

e
Number 

Average  per 

farm  household 

181 
150-190 

15

13 0. 14 

130 

0. 11 

c 

D 

HOUSEHOLDS 
BY OCCUPATION 

LAND AREA 
BY USE 

ARABLE  L A N D  
B Y  OWNERSH I P 

A 
fZZZ
_  NEW  RESI DENTS 

ZJ  REGULAR  RESIDENTS 

B 

FA R M I N G 

ZI 

fZZZ
_  I N DUSTRY,  COMMERCE, 
A N D   PROFESSIONS 

_  ALL  OTH E RS 
C 
rzzzJ  PA DDY 

I11I

II  U P L A N D 

_  B U I LD I N G   S I TES 

I RR I GATI O N   RESER -
VO I R S  

� 
D 
fZZZJ  OWNED  8Y LANDLORDS 
AND  RENTED  OUT 

OWNED  BY OWNE R ­
C U LTI VATOR S  

_ 

P  or 
�.rred 

19  percent  of  the  arable 
t

the  operat1.og 

was 
138  percent 

land 

to 
households 

tenan
ought  some  lend 

s ;  

the 

tarm 

b

under 

�
� . todU8try  association  was  organized 
�1 ,1I88. oCi·ation 

�

�-te

'1_ ot 

a8sociation  wa

was  established 

Dln l s  

aaher8 

oc

s 
ation 

reorganized 
e

as  or
cl

88s
lias  built, 
hOUseholds 

Ipital 

i

w
and  a 

o  establi shed 
running  piped  water  (ser­
o�lfl Tambaichi)  increased  tro m  300  to  350 

houlleholds  who  transplanted  wheat 

with 

i

ganis

ni

d 

..,.�  tarm 
�lef.edllngS  from 
400 
- 1'011\ 

15 

to 

blot.! 

Va 

Local  Problems 

'

at

1tY of  . 
tty :��  inaccessibi llty  of  tuel 

for  irrigation 

Pl'Oduoing  r1ce  when  "8te�10DII 
locally  believed  to 

eoat 

P; 

er 

and 

pro-

'lbtr  111'0 
"'-lile 

are 

be  more 

and  bulbs 

Seeds 
t
Frui

s  and 

tlowerll 

Insti tutio.ns  and  Organizations 

Schools 

elementary  schools 

3 
1  new  lower  secondary  school 

Religious  organizations 

28  Shrine  Sh1nto--2  resident  priests 

5  Sec
whom  have  other  full-time  work 

aria

n 

t

Shinto--5  res i dent  priest s ,   most  of 

21  Buddhist  temples--21  re

ide

t  priests  (5 
n
than  half  of  whom  do 

s

are 

priestesses ) , 
more 
time  work  els ewhere 

Miscellaneous  organizations 

Rural  Industry  Assn 
Savings  Assn 
Firemen ' s  

sn 

As
Mutual  Health 
suran
Parent-Teachers/ Assn 
Women ' s   Assn 

In

ce  Assn 

Youth  Assn 
Agricultural  Mutual  Relief  Assn 

rull­

137 

lIeed  beds  to 

tields  1.0-

Nikaido  Agri cultural  Cooperstive  Assn 

and 

Cooperatives 

Y O S H I D A 

M U R A t  S H I M A N E  PR E F E C,T U R� 

D istinctive  Features  of  Yo shida -Mura 

N t 

L E G E N D  

� 
jI//� 

P A D DY 

FI E LD 

U P L A N D 

FI 

ELD 

F O R E S T 

C O M PO ST 

"' 

'" 

)( 

)( 

)( 

)( 

M A I N  R OA D 

--<-

R I V E R 

/) 

C O N T O U R  

( F E E T  ) 
H O U S E  

L I NE 

S I TE 

Yoshida  is  in  a  remote, 

mountainous  region . 

vated,  mostly  paddy  in  narrow  strips  along  the  streams  that  originate 

����lid.a-JnUI·a  is  mountainou s ,   remote ,  and  heavily  forested .  Only  four  percent  of  the 
the 
forests  of  the  surrounding  mountains .  The  arable  area  would  be  even  smaller  ex­
the  great  outlays  of  human  labor  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  embank­
make  small  paddy  fields  as  far  a s   pos sible  up  the  mountainside  on  either  side  of 

in 

More 

one-half  the  households  are 

the  compact  mounta inside  settl ement  where  the 
office  is  located;  the  remainder  are  in  a  settlement  over  the  mountains  where  steel 
than 
made,  scatt ered  up  the  narrow  valleys ,  or  living  off  in  the  mountains  as  char­

in 

" .�KIRra 

Roads  of  neces sity  follow  the  streams  and  are  rar e .   In  only  one  instance-­

village  hall  settlement--does  a  road  lead  across  a  mountain  from  one  narrow 

another . 

the 
to 
with  a  part  of  the  villa�e  that  is  difficult  to  reach . 

second  road  is  being  constructed  south  across  a  mountainous 

A 

id

r

g

e  to 

pU�Chl�A 

Foreat 
ot 

land  co

is
the  village  ar ea .  When  cul­

s  69  per-

m

p

e

r

land 

rad

is  SOld, 

tional 
t
gather  fuel  and  compost 
from  the  forest  go  with  it
reform,  tbe  land  commis­
130  cho  of  arable 

i

•• n 

c.erti1'1ed  the  sales  of  140 
;  linked  with  the  270 

2 , 311  cho  of  traditional 
14nd .  This  linkage  is  due 

reliance  the  farmers  place 
to 
forest  compost  to  enrich 
and  producing  charooal 
their  inoome .  Four­

. 

." ......... _ .•• 

oPe  ng , 
ns

and  there  are  some 

m!� househOlds  engage  in 
ratio
"�ique  t enancy  system 

,  the  house 
cul­
forest  ar ea  and  some­

site, 

. 

linda%'  a

tOols  and  live;tock  are 

l� 
tltorn  d, 

A  new  road  over  the  mountain  is  being 

construc ted . 

" 

'-

-�.�.- ;!�: 

�ented  by  the  farm  tenant  a s   a  uni 
t 
single  landlord .  Along  with  this 
ent  go  the  loyalty  and  deferenc
JlD
l � enant  and  the  pa trohag e ,   protect! 
,
leadership  of  the  landlord . 

r�o� 

e  �l'l'sllt�� 
r  t�e 
on,  sll4 

village 

Livelihood  opportunities  are  1 
small  farming  operations,  charcoal  i�1ted  � 
and  a  little  wood  and  metal  handicr�k�� 
Yoshida  is  too  inaccess ible  for  Vil�t WO�k 
In  t�;e�B � 
commute  to  outside  employment . 
months  under  study,  the  four  rapatriat  18 
the 
moved  out  and  there  were  tf es  til 
cuees,  althougb  officials  reported  th  � e� 
in  December  1945 .  ReguJ.:l' ther. 
2 . 5  percent 
December  1948 .  There  are  seven  Eta  hou9�7 � 
s!," 
in  n�bjh� 
retlll' 

are  very  poor  and  are  deoreasing 
for  the  people  who  move  out  seldom 

near  the  old  smelter  settlemen 

170 
in.creased 

had  been 
dents 

June  1  rea, 

f rom 

er, 
11 .  

\ 

Farmers  rely  on  compost  from 

the  forest  to  enrich  their  fields . 

Village  life  h a d   been  highly  feUdal 
founded  the  village  more  than  700  years  : 
ancestor
Prior  to  land  reform,  this  family  paid  about  70  perc ent  of  all  village  taxe s ;   it  pays 
percent  now .  As  of  1945 ,  the  family  owned  in  this  and  adjoining  villages  more  than 
15°· 
cho  of  mountains  and  forests,  as  well  as  several  hundred  cho  of  tenant-cultivated  field. 
1$  � 
along  the  scattered  streams .   The  family  also  owned  a  smeltery  i n   the  mountains 
was  iron  sand;  this  smeltery  ceased  operations  20  years  ago .  The  non-land owning 
Whelle  th 
houaeh 
had  for  generations  been  beholden  to  the  landlord  family  for  economic  aid  and  for 
the  � 
,.. r port  of  religious  institutions .  The  landlord-tenant  system  in  this  village  involved 

five-step  hierarchy,  so  that  the  landlord  never  had  personal  contact  with  his 

centering  around  a  family  whose 

' 

a 

tenants. 

The  large,  well-constructed,  well-equipped  school  building  is  a  monument  to  the 

nant  role  of  the  feudal  family .  The  building,  erected  in  1937  chiefly  with  funds 
by  this  family,  is  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  new  lower  secondary  school. 

dOld­
do bat. 

New  owner-operators  are  relatively  more  numerous  in  this  village  than  in 

a�  other. 
A.pril  1947,  139  tal'll  households-" 

Great  changes  have  occurred  during  recent  months . 
percent  of  the  total--owned  neither 
farm  land  nor  house  site . 
In  Decem­
ber  1948,  there  were  only  five  such 
household s .   As  a  result,  the  people 
are  taking  a  much  greater  interest 

In 

in  the  collecting  and  spending  of 

taxes  and  in  village  affairs  in  gen­
eral .  Ninety-eight  perc ent  of  all 

I people  o,f  voting  age  voted  in  Janu­

a.ry  1949,  by  far  the  highest 

politi­
cal  participation  in  any  of  the  vil­
lage s .   Also  unique  in  this  tradi-
� a  tionally  feudal  village  was  a  woman ' s  
�I  successful  candidacy,  despite  keen 
opposition,  for  a  seat  in  the  vil­
lage  a ssembly .  It  is  not  yet  clear 
� whether  the  high  political  partici-
l  " pation  is  the  product  of  a  new  demo-
cratic  fervor  or  is  a  further  exam-
ple  of  how  completely  the  people 
established  habits  of  obedience  can 
be  manipulated . 

s 

I 

I 

Further  Facts  �bout  Yoshida 

0 

�.lJJt1on 

.oM J  pO";bo1dS 
(cho 
:l"':'-1  hOUeboldO 
) 
�l lJnd �nd  (chO) 
��  reo 
(cho 
) 
tIod 
in  which  more  than 
�  .. 
C  farm 
�sJ go  s1ze 
1  o rea 
��t of ::t�own
(inches 
) 
tIfIII OfOP o1pitotion 
.� 1 �O' S��:A:so=n�(d_a�y_s_) ______________
��-

B

A

3 , 192 
567 
372 
9, 518 
336 

• 

0  9 
0.3 

1�· 2  

E1ev�tioD  above  sea  level  (teet) 

At  village  hall 
At  1011eat  and  highest  pointe 

Draft  animals 

Electric  motors  an 
tum 

Number 
herage  per 
;:;:�s 
Ave1"lge  per  fanD  household 

household 
d  i  te 

n  rna  com 

1  busti 

on 

1 ,246 

720-3 ,600 

449 

1 . 21 

183 

0.49 

__________

____

______

__

____ -,� ____________

__

__

C

D 

A 

____ -, 

15 

POPULATI0N  HOUSEHOLDS 

BY  TYPE 

BY  OCCUPATION 

a 

;36 

1945  end 

(trred 
amount 
Detore  t he   lAnd  reform,  in 

percent  of  the  a rable  lAnd  was  traDB­
p  Of 
to  operating  teMnts  by  the  Land  COlluDission. 
of  land  had alrea<b"  been  Bold  to 
the  village 
the  arable  land 

t large
These  sales  were  certified  by  the  Land 
r 
that  aince  1945 apprarl­
ta.nt.. 
Ca.iaB1
n,  which 
o
perceJJt 
tr/lnsferred  to  teMnt  operators . )  
.... 11 80 
...  bean 
'POD81bla  JlI'Irtleipation,  have  begun  to  become  a"Bre 
role 
or  their 
eecondary  Bohoo1  was  organized 
III  IC!ller 
�nt-ta8chers  association  wes  orgsnized 

generally  sccuetomed  t o  little  ra­

taxplyers  aDd  independent  vo!-ers

'1Uagers, 

1946, 

SOIl)9-

means 

being built  over  a  mountain to  conneot 
1ao�ted  narrOll  vlllle,.  with  the  village  office 

III  road  1a 
ID 

BS 

01' 

in 

. 

111 

�t1ve Lcca1  Problems 
OCeaslbll1ty  because  of  remoteness 
: Coat 
of  transferring  oharc
OdUots  to  market 
� 
cntt.t1ng  of  forest  for  charcoal  and  timber 

oa

1  and  other  forest 

rzzza  REGULAR RESIDENTS 
_  NEW  RESIDENTS 

B 

FZZZ1  FAR M I NG 
_  I N D USTRY,  COMMERCE, 

AND  PROFESSIONS 

ALL  OTHERS 

C 

_ 
l'ZZZJ  PADDY 
_  U P LAND 
�  PERMANENT  PASTURE 
_  FORESTS 
[& 

WASTELAND 

D 

OWNED 
AND  RENTED  OUT 
BY 

LANDLORDS 

OULTIVATORS 

EZZZt 
l1li  OWNED 
Em  OWNED 
r11J  ���51�:b 

BY 

BY 

OWNER­

SHRINES 

u�w-_ 

InstitutionB  and  Organizations 

Schoo1a 

1  e1amelltary  Bchoo1 
branch  elementary  schools 
1  new  lower  secondgr,.  school  (no  new building 

needed) 

6 

Rel1gious  orgenizations 

. 

4  Shrine  Shinto--1  resident  priest 
5  Buddhist  temp1es--6  relident  priests 

Cooperatives 

Yoshida  'grlou1tur!!l  Cooperative  hlln 
Liveatock  Cooperative  (gun""llide) 
SericUlture  Cooperative  «(UO""IIide) 
New  Settlers  Coope1"ltive  (gun-wlde )  

Miscellsneous  organizations 

Commerci�l  Bnd  Industrial  lasn 
fRrent�eAchers' Assn 
Firemen's  Aslin 
Charcoal  Producers 
Women' s  Assn 

hSIl 

The  school  building 

and  well- equipped .  

�Ultur8l  Products 
ltot 
�te a..at  Potatoes 
es 
Potato

Soybeans 
Whegt  and  blrle,. 
RAw  silk 

Fanners '  Union 
youth  �SSIl 
Mutual  Relief  Assn 

 
O S I  E  M U R A ,   O K A YA M A   P RE F E C T U R e 

N 

Distinctive  Features  of  Obi e-Mura 

Obie-mura  is  wholly  rural . 

It  is  characterized  by  int ensive  paddy  farming  and  by 

progres sive  outlook  as  measured  by  use  of  farn  machinery  and  home  proc es sing  of 
Life  in  the  village  is  influenc ed  by  tae  proximity  of  the  sizable  town  of 

8 

nrCKlUI;"Z> . 

-where  considerable  industrial  e�ployment  is  available .  

�,�,� •• ,

the  village  area  is  in  intensive  paddy,  five  percent  in  arable  up­
forest.  Most  roads  are  narroVi  and  run  parallel  to  the  winding 
ditcbes ,  A  small  land  reclamation  effort ,  involving  four  cho  in 
be  used  to  enlarge  pres ent  farm  holding s .  

The 

farms  are  small ,   averacing  0 . 8   cho ,  Many  agricultural  product s   are  home-proc essed, 
"tatami"  matting  from  the  locally  grown  "i"  rush  and  rope ,  mats ,  and  bales 
there  were  in  the  village  50  motor-driven  "tatami" 

ra

looms  were  individually  owned ,   Uore  than  one-t enth  of  all  farm  households  had 

n  looIDs ,  or  about  three  looms  for  every  four  farm  households j   All 

t

s
300  foot -

w .   In 
dr
''·DI8.kilJlIZ  machine s .  

l�'''

December 
iv

1948 , 

e

machinery  i s   more  common  in  Obie  than  in  any  of  the  other 

villages ,   This  area 

Farm 
known 

in  Japan  as  the  most  advanced 

in 

farm  mechanization.  There  are  35  individually 

12 

L E G E N D  

�  PA D D Y   F I E L D 
// / // 
////// 

U P L A N D   F I E L D  

W 
b  W 
6  iii  6 

X 

X 

X 

F O R E ST  A N D   C O MPOST 

R E C L A I  M E D   L A N D  

M A I N   R O A D  

R I 

E R  

--... -�---

V 

o  CO N T O U R   L I N E  

( F E E T ) 

• 

H O U S E   S I T E  

C A L E 

5 

I� 
2 ! 

�4 

I 

o 
! 

d 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SEcrlON 

Figure  3 5  

142 

kost  of 

the  homes  have "tatarni

" looms . 

Making  rope  is  an  important  home  industry , 

143 

owned  small  walking  trac tors 
the  tractors  in  the  13  Village: X-IJ�ellth 
274  stationary  gasoline  engines
Thol'Q  it 
driven  rice  threshers ,  one-third 
1_ 
I lI' in  the  13  villages .  Here  as  el 
of  the 
400 
Japan,  the  machines  are  S�8U 
�e7lhelle 1Il 
'  ·n�8t Of 
tractors  are  three  hors epower
vidually  oimed  engines  are  l e�s \�l.l 1 

1 
' 
8t'1d 

horsepower . 

tilt-.. 

fa rm  machinery,  there  are 

In  addition  to  the  individuall 
owned  electric  motors  and  four  st;;:tjvU7 
17  coo 
gasoline  engines,  all  three  hors 
more .  Electric  outlets  in  paddy }1 it'  01' 
owo� 
vide  a  inean s  of  readily  accesSible : ds 

threshing  time,  electric  cords  are  ol'ler; 
The  use  of  machinery  in  Obie  has· 
lated  by  the  interest  of  the  Ohara 
at  nearby Kurashiki 

promoting  meeruun 

'Y  <lltne4 

farming . 

in 

1e4 

Farm  machinery ,  such  ss  these 
milling  machines  at  the  cooper­
ative 

pl entiful  in  Obie . 

mill,  is 

" 
I �  
/' 

Piped 

running 

now 
pect  to  be  served  within  three  years .  Obie  is  arranging  for  J oint  opera tion  of  a 
secondary  school  with  a  nearby  villag
.  A  new  j ointly  erected  school  building  is 
to  be  ready  by  1950 , 

120 

e

60  more 
new 

househ�lds  in  Obi e ,   and 

water  from  Kurashiki 

serves 

The  pOpulation  gained  slightly  (0.3 
�rcent)  during  the  18  months .  The  number 
of  regular . residents  increased  by  One  per­
cent ,  and  the  number  of 
residents 
/. decreased  by  10  percent .  There  are  25  Eta 
families  in  Obie,  six  of  them  bein�  small 
farmers .  Most  of  the  Eta  households  live 
C\�r1nc1pally by animal  slaughtering ,  leather 
If'I working,  and  sandal  making .   They  live  apart 
from  the  other  residents  both  socielly  and 
religj:ously. 

new-type 

! 

The  basic  unit  of  l ocal  organiZation  in 

() I  Obie  1s  the  "nokyogumi" ,   the  agricul turd 
;V� cooperative  group .  This  group,  usually  con-

The 

new  lower  secondary  school 

i s  expected  to  be  ready  for 
yancy  in  1950 . 

OCCU­

p

erf�: ::' 
sisting  of  about  10  familiel) ,  
Il{or  the  functions  normally  performed 
\atiOIl• 
J'1Poommunities  by  the  neighborhood  ass;:;or!ll81 
At  the- same  tlme-,  it  serves  as  an 
local  �t  of  the  village  agr1cult� e 
e(JfOpt/' 
a� 
aUve .  Because  of  the  unusually  1�! little 
iflbbotflooc! 
need  for  the  cooperation  of  the n� ;Ve:;dJC 
groups  in  rice  transplanting  Bnd  � 
JapaP. 
such  as  is  common  in  other  parts 
groupin�' 
A  special  type  of  religiOUS 
the 
,{\/V " kogumill  or  "kona kama " ,   .functions 
reli'" 
vr 

of  farm  equipment ,  this  community 

funerary  occasions . 

gious 

a1 

i 

0 

0 

and 

These  motorcycle  trucks  are 

by  the  agriculture  co­

owned 
operative . 

Further  Facts  About  Obie 

4, 050 
824 
492 
526 
367 

0 . 8  

84 

42 . 8  

223 

Elevation  above  sea  level  (feet) 

At  village  hall 
At  lowest  ann  highest  points 

Draft  animals 

Number 
Average  per 

Electric  motors  and  internal  combustion 

farm  household 

engin

s 

e
Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

13 

5-330 

312 

0 . 63 

481 

0 .98 

A 

FZZZJ -B 
� 
-
-C 
EZZZJ 
-
11IIIIIIII 
-
0 E7ZZJ 
11&1 
lD 
1m! 

REGULAR  R E S I DENTS 

N e: W  R ES I D E NTS 

FA R M I N G  

I N DU STRY,  CO MMERCE, 
A N D   PROFESSI O N S  

ALL  OTHERS 

PADDY 

U P L A N D  

F O R E STS 

BU I LD I N G   S I T E S  

O W N ED  BY 
AND  R ENTED  O U T  

OW N E D   B Y   OWNER -
C U LT I VATO R S  

OWNED  BY S HR I N E S  

OWNED BY 
PENDING  D I SPOSAL 

Institutions  and  Organizations 
Schools 

elementary  Bchool 

1 
1  new  lower  secondary  school  ( new  building 

planned) 

Religious  organizations 

4  Shrine  Shinto--no  resident  prieste 
4  Buddhist  temples--4  resi dent  priests 

Cooperativee 

ltural  Cooperative  Assn 

Agric

Obie 

u

Miscellaneous  organiz

ions 

percent  of  the  arable  land  was 

lP'IIf1'41lTEtd' to  the  operating  tenants 

agriCUltural  practice  associations  were 
60  agricultural  service  groups 

I flIltOl.ftd ,  and 
organized 

OODnUUty  hall  Was  opened 
lower 

secondary 

Was  organized. 

:��rq1;-�laclIQrA  ass
toope.l'IItlve  basis 

school 
o
ofHtatamf  matting 
t

ociat

n 
was 
of  funeral  services  was  aITanged  for  co­

established  on  a 

was  organized 

lllg 
'Pttatlvel,y 

Problems 

ter 

igation 

IlIot:be  looal 
�ttle 
tao 
irr
" '  ... L. 
�� 
'1' tIlah" barlflT 

wa

t 

• . 

tOl"  "tatam1" 

Sweet  potatoes 
Fruit 

at
Firemen ' s   Assn 
Parent-Teachers' Assn 
Agricultural  Mutual  Relief  Assn 
Reclamation  Assn 

Youth  Assn 
Women' s   Assn 

A I  0 1 - M U R A t   K A G A W A   P R E F E C T U R E  

Distinctive  Features  of  Aioi-Mura 

• 

N 

' 

Aioi  lies  along  the  coast  of  the  Inland  Sea . 

� 

on  the  island  of  Shikoku,  ba s  little  arable  land  and  much  forest .  The  one­
�he  land  that  is  cultivated--nearly  all  paddy--lies  along  the  coast  of  the  Inland 

Aioi-mura , 

of 
and  in 
�tbern  part  of  the  village .  These  extensive  forested  mountains  are  so  rugged  �hat 

a  narrow  strip  along  a  two-pronged  stream , that  flows  fr0m  the  high  mountains  in 

traverse  them.  Th e   dwellings  ( Figure  40 )   a re  concentrated  in  the  paddy  a rea  along 
up  the  nsrrow  valley.  A  s core  of  households  are 

coast,  with  a  few  households  s c

tter

the  mountaind--charcoal  worke rs  and  new  settlers  working  on  reclamation  proj ects . 

a

ed 

in 
Forest  undergrowth  is  scanty,  because 

low  rainfall  and  sandy  hillside s ,   so  less 

ga

he

ed  here  than  in  most  of  the  village s .   The  extensive  forest  lands  are  used 

0;: 

r
t
arcoal

1s 
with  sawable  t imber  only  in  the  better-watered  higher  mountains  back 
or  oh
coaat .  Farms  are  small  and  int ensely  cultivated .  The  average  size  farm  i s   only 
e  of  Fu-
the  smallest  of 

villages  except  the  fishing-farming 

of  the 

illa

, 

The  land  and  the  sea  are  cl
ose  together  in  Aioi ,  physi cally  and  economically . 
,

v

any 

13 

g

the 
tan. 

L E G E N D  

W.-<0 P A D D Y   F I E L D  
/ / � U P L A NP  F I E L D  

M AI N   R O A D  

R A I L R O A D  

�-

,  F O R E S T   � R I V E R  

w  W  '" 

X 

X 

X 

C O MPOST 

..  R E S E R V O I R  

R E C L A I M E D   ./"-;  CO N T O U R   LI N E  

L A N D  

( F E ET ) 

H O U S E   S I T E  

NA TURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

Figure  36 

Scattered  land  reclamation  proj ect s ,  

28 

ho

were  under  way  in  the 

, 

o

�'��"Q 

�e8tern  portions  of  the  village .  Ten 
be  used  to  enlarge  exist.ing  farms 
tb.e  r
1 
1111
er  to  provide  settlem,ent  op-
ties  for  12  new  families .  Several 
-at l'1date households  from  Manchuria  are 
on  thiS  land . 

ema

in

e 

d

S C A L E 

'/

2 

I 

r.4 I LE 

.-;;! 

�4 
I 

a 

I 

As the  result  of  an  earthquake  in  late 
SOllle  of  the  paddy  land  along  the  c oast 
salt  water  began  to  seep  in.  This 
and 
land  oan  be  cultivated  only  because 
Construction  of  a  deeply  laid  sea 
the  shore  line .  The  project  fur­
sO�e  greatly  needed  local  employment ; 
paid  for  by  the  national  and  the 
governments . 

Paddy  fields  lie  close  to  the 

s ea  in  Aio i .  

Some  regular  I'l,onr 
ment  is  available .  On� e�p� 
members  from  each  of  ab  01' �'r": 
households  are  employed i! 50  t 
manufacturing  plant .  The  a ,  
made  of  rice  stl'aw  and 
1  rOPe  1 
mostly  by  fishermen  in  t� 'Qaell  • 
nearby  villages .  SOllie  f  1s  Illl4 
make  straw  rope  by  hand  ew  lIo� 
' 
an,y  machines  or  tools 
1 thOllt 
lOCal, 
soy  sauce  factory,  sa�
"
A 
U 
sugar  refinery  provide  aom' 
ful  work .  Fishing  afforda 
e 
j or  inc9me  for  48  household the 
8 . 
The  population  gailled 
during  the  18  months .   RegUla�U, 
.idents  increased  four  percent 
new-type  residents  decreased  � 
percent .  Even  so,  new-type !' 
thougb  Uc:a1 
rather  remote ,  new-type  residents  are  relatively  more  numerous  �ere  than  in  any  other � 

lage,  because  man,y  people  who  had  emigrated  to  Manchuria  returned  to  Aioi  after  1945. 
A  local  unit  of  one  of  the  farmers '  unions  was  organized  in  this  village  in  1946 
was  strong  in  June  1947 .  The  land  reform  and  other  agrarian  programs  were  then  be1n,g  � 
� 
ried  forward  with  enthusiasm,  and  th�  co­
operative  had  set  up  and  wae  operating  a 
sawmill. 

dents  made  up  27  percent  of  the  population  at, the  end  of  the  period .  Even 

The  sea  wall  protects  Aioi  against  erosion. 

IlI\4 
4tll1rl,. 

8' { _. 

Aioi  has  76  Eta  households  who  live  in 

a  settlement  by  themselve s .   Most  of  them 
are  small  farm  operators ,  although  much  of 

� 

a_�  their  meager  income  is  obtained  from  various 
small  industries  at  home  and  from  wage  work 
outside  their  settlement . 
were  permitted  to  become  members  of  the  ham­
let  shrine  as sociation.  They  take  the  ashes 

In  1948,  they 

/of  their  dead  to  a  temple  in  Takamatsu, 

miles  away,  and  marry  within  their  own  group, 
though  ueual�  not 

the  villa

e

30 

within 

g

. 

Villagers  are  awakened  a  little 
before  sunris e  by  the  ringing  of 
this  large  temple  bell . 

, 

The  social  structure  of  Aioi 
(
cnaracter  from  the  highly  self-conta�ne 
. 
lloaza"  which  constitute 
ture  of  the  six 
1888 ,  e a ch  of  the 

e 
talc  s  iU 
d  III_ 
the 

811 

village.  Until 
independent  village ,  
ma intained  its  oVin  ic'l entHy 
of  local 
1 ties .  Long-established 

,er 

shrines  and 
groups  ( "memba " )  still 

eneral 
and  each  has  in  g  po� 
through  sU�tiv_ 
communi ty:. lit--
o t. 
tfo1l tof 
.runc bY  B  IIPf" 
e  1S  e' 

S 8ven-

and 

d 

weddinr-B ,  but  funerals  s re  conducte
cial  funeral  /Z:coup ,  and  work 
only  by  two 
monly  carried 
boring  households . 

exchung 
or  three 

on 

neH�)I­

S 

1x  ,,811 

FUrther  Facts  A
out  Aioi 
b
Elevation  above  sea  level  ( feet) 

4, 569 
916 
622 
2 , S68 
323 

At  village  hall 

10 

�tiOD 

."  pOe.,bo],dS 
� Iso  ell  ],d-
� bD� �J  ���� 
!!� .. �d  II  of tarPl 
vr'rd!  el' total 
�l1t of  is  groWD 
P"';' 
croP 
� pf!lCs�asoD (days) 
1  itatl oD 
_____ ------------------------------------------,-----------________ --, 
�vt�e 

At 
Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

enginel!! 
Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

Electric  motors  and  internal  combustion 

aNa  in  which  more  than 

(cbo) 
( inches) 

lowest  and  highest  points 

Draft  animalll 

0-2, 270 

0.64 

44.6 

0 . 12 

22S 

0 . 5  

399 

So 

?2 

B 

c 

o 

15 

A lZZZJ  REGULAR  RESIDENTS 
_  N EW   RESIDENTS 
B 
IZZZ2I  FAR M I N G  
_  I N DUSTRY,  COM M E RCE, 
-
AND  PROFESSIONS 

_ F I SH I NG 
_  ALL  OTHERS 

C 
� PADDY 
fI!.III UPLAND 
_  FORESTS 
_  B U I L D I NG  SITES 
@Wil WASTE L A N D  

'&"" OWNED  BY  L A N DLORDS 
� A N D   RENTED  O U T  
I!III!lIIIII OWNED 
OWNER­
r.m:=  CULTIVATORS 
@WU OWNED  BY  SHRI NES 

BY 

IS-Month  Period 

...... 

45  pe rcent  of  the  arable  land  was. 

.

the  operating  tenants 
e g

rah:ll)  of 
�ratlve 
Ylllsge  0ffi ce  employed  a  public  health  nurse 
wall  at  the  coast  line  was  started  to 
water  from  seeping  into  the  sunken  paddy 

to  operate  a  sawmtll 

to 
b

an 

,..·."':lDl.1�1! 

e lli

gs  were  built  or  reno­
ngs  erected 
dwel

ittee  to  become  parishioners  of 

n

lizabJe  farm  dw
and  a  fe
were 

li
e
local  shrine  for  first  time 
i cult

w  settlers I 
rm

p

a
org'lnized 

al  cooperative  association 

gr

ur

��t1on 
::- lower  secondary  school  building  was  erected 
hbt.-teachers 
1llOtive  Local  ProbleUIII 

association  was  organized 

rl� s
a
,,�l1ct 

e 

lt  water  into  sunken  paddy  near  coast 

tion  agallist  Eta  households 

I' residents 

bot",een  r

epatriates 

� 
'1. �nf bllrley 

matting 

II  for  "tatami "  

from  Manchuria  and.  . 

Sugar  cane 
Sweet  potatoes 
Tobacc

� 

Institutions 

Schools 
1  e
e

and 

ent

ry 

Orgcni�t1ons 

m

l

a

school 

s

o

h
c

o

l 

1  new  lower  secondary 
g
ns 

Religi

us  o

n

ti
8  Shrine  Shinto--no  resident  priests 

iza

a.

o

r

o

Sectp-rian  Sh1nto--no  :tesident  priests 
Buddhist  temples--2  resident  p ri ests

1 
10 

' 

Cooperatives 

Aioi  Agricultural  Co
o
Reclamation  Agrj cultural  Cooperat ive  Assn 
Hog  Rais in
Cooperative  Assn 

perative 

Al!!sn 

(prefectura1  level) 

g 

Miscell aneous  organizations 

Tobacco  Prs.ct.ice  Assn 
Farmers '   Union 
Equity  C lub 

Worr.en ' s   Assn 
Firemen ' s   As
Parent-Teachers' Assn 
Forest  Assn 

n 

s

th  As sn 
Y
Fishermen 1 s  Assn 
l  Mutual  Relief  Assn 
Agr:l cultur, 
.. 

ou

H O N A M I - M UR A t  F U K U 'O K A  P R E F E C T U Re: 

Distinctive  Features  of  Honami-��a 

H onami  is  the  most  populous  of  the  13  villages • . 

is  in  the  mining  area  of  Fukuoka ,  in  northern  Kyushu. 
studied,  having  nearly  40,000  inhabitants .  A  little  less  than  one-tenth 

It  is  the  most 

live 

farming ,  about  eight-tenths  by  mining ;  one-third  of  the  farm 

nO�LBI3J'IU�.U" 

have  one  or  more  members  working 

by 

the  mines ,   full- or  part-time .  The  farming 

conc entrated  in  the  low-lying  c entral  portions  of  the  village .  One-third  of  the 
area  is  in  cultivation,  nine-tenths  of  this  being  paddy ,  One-fourth  is  in  forest, 

in 

in  wasteland,  and  the  remainder  in  building  sites . 

has  result ed  in  the  sinking  of  c onsiderable  farm  land  area ;  some  has  lowered 

� 

teet  and  is  now  under  water,  while ,other  land  ha s  sunk  enough  t o   be  too  wet  for 

I
farming .  The  one-fourth  of  the  area  classed  as  wasteland  includes  coal  tipple s  

as  the  sunken  farm  land .  According  to  estimates ,  the  sunken  farm  land  increased 

percent  in  the  18  months,  new  ponds  having  formed  in  several  places . ,  

two 

M I L E 

M A I N   R O A D  

I 

v' 
'\ 

��  M A J O R   R A I L R O A D 
---< R I V E R  

R E S E R V O I R 
C O N T O U R  L I N E 

( F E E r )  

_ 
� 

H O U S E   S I T E 

t1��1 tipples  and  sunken  farm  land 

-lth  water  are  common . 

ad 

Four-fifths  of  the  miners  live 

in  cocpany  house s .  

o 

, 

L E G E N D  

� 
///// 

6 
w 

cCJ) 

.. 

PA D D Y  F I  E L D  

U P L A N D   F I E L D 

F O R E S T  

C O M P O S T  

S U N K E N   L A N D 

C O A L   T I P P LE 

NATURAL  RESOURCE'S  SorT/ON 

Figure  37 

150 

Nine  cho  on  a  wooded  slope 

cleared  of  underbrush  for 
1s 
to  be 
on .  
cultiv8t1
new  families  are  to  be  settled;  th 
claimed  will  be  used  to  enlarge  ex� 8l'ea  1' ... 
No 
farms  in  this  part  of  the  village .  stillg 
Practically  all  of  the  employe 
three  larger  mining  interests--tour 
ot  th, 
of  all  miners--live  in mining  compa�f1tth, 
ments .  The  remainder  are  employed  =bY  eettt ... 
mining  companies  and  do  not  live  in 
ll.l .. 
jtlement s .   The  population  increaSed  ��Oh Itt. 
cent  during  the  18  months ;   new-type 
.;.-:..:���  increased  nine  percent  and  regular  r::el� 
Q  12  percent ,  chiefly  because  of  the  Int�Q.ellte 
,  households  attracted  to  the  coal  mine
lll!:  or 
-
special  inducements  offered  to  mine lIor� the 
J 
and  their  families .   The.re  was  conSiders era 
-' 
.---
Th�l. 
population  of  the  village  would  have  increased  even  more  if  housing  facilities  had be.' 
available  for  additional  miners .  About  400  n.ew  hou.ses  are  now  under  construction 
by  � 
three  big  mining  companies .  

and  out  of  the  mi.ning  villages  by  both  new-type  and  regular  residente 

___ ;"".
after 

cars 
pleting  day ' s   work. 

Miners  leave 

movement 

sllll

com­

PIl'. 

8S 

in 

e '

Y 

• 

I

� 

100 

15 

• 

p�tion 
1  pO uaeholDlI 
lds 
� ��� :rea  ( eho) 
!"� 110  ell 
JI'.:�l  J,a"'::  land  (oho) 
� .. to� 
ill 
t  �Al  a
8
of 
... 
itation  ( inches
ept 
:...e
oroP 
...
(dllYs )  
.-1  p�c 8:1180n 
�vr�e 

fal'lII  (cbo) 

r
is  grown 

f 
0_ 

in 

ea 

��

i 

e

____ 

) 

which  more 

Further  Facts  About  Hooami 

39 ,836 
7,910 
703 
1,322 
443 

0 . 6  

88 

63.9 

203 

Elevation  above  sea  level  (feet) 

At  village  hall 

At  lowest  ane  highe st  points 

Draft  animals 

Number 
Average 

er  farm  household 

p
Electric  motors  and  i

te

engines 

n

rna

l  combustion 

Number 
Average  per  f�rm  household 

62 
60-370 

419 

0 . 59 

188 

0 . 27 

than 

----------------------------------------------

--------------------

,-

A 

-, 

Approximately 

percent  of  the  households  now  have  piped  running  water . 

, vl/ /;. 
dfl  plans  are  carried  out ,  all  dwellings  will  have  running  water  by  1951 .  

'70 

( 

There  are  160  Eta  household s ,   most  of 
whom  have  recently  become  owner-operators. 
l�tr They  live  in  five  buraku.  Many  a s sociate 
freelY- With  other  people  on  eoonomic  mat-
IV 
ters .  but  marriage  and  ordinary  sooia1  con­
I 
tacts  are  confined  to  their  own  group . 

Honami  has  more  cases  where  both  hus­

band  and  wife  are  members  of  the  agricul­
tural  cooperative  association  than  does  an1 
I "J   other  village .  Thirty  percent  of  all  mem­
bers  were  women .  The  average  for  the  13 

\ villages  is  12  percent . 

If  present 

_�"1IIater.red 

ot  33  percent  of  the  arable  land was 

operating  tenants 

to 

local  agricultural  practioe  aasooiations 
new  sgricultural  service 

.... ' •• O 

were  organized 

... VIIO,  and  26 

Honami  is  near  the  urban 

enter  of  Ii­

zuka  and  in  many  respects  is  a  suburb  of  ·it . 

c

secondar,r  school  buildings  were 

24  Shrine  Shinto--l  resident  priest 

dwelling  units  are  nearing  oompletion 
of  wheat  trebled 

2 
12 

Sectsrlan  Sblnto--IIO  resldent  priests 
Buddhist  temples--4  resident  priests 

�_.UlIIM�", 

dwellings  increased 

Cooperatives 

The  people  have  business  and  social  contaot• 
there  and  send  their  children  to  its  nol!  UP"' 
.per  seoondary  school .  NeverthelesS .   t::Ul 
basic  social  structure  in  rural  aress 
centers  upon  the  traditional  neighborh�:o 
d 
grouping s .   In  the  mining  settlements 
10" 
neighborhood  groups  are  of  a  newer  an 
d 
s 
cohesive  type .  Since  1946,  most  min
e�nduct 
been  members  of  labor  unions,  w
h  a  igb� 
h
their  activities  independent  of  the  DS 
hood  groupings .  

ic

� 

'f 

n 
11&'"  II;/... 

Miners  receive  incentive  goods 

LJ:::=:tl ... .L. ! 

a t   the  company  store . 

Protective  deities  sre  ens 

hrined in 
each  s ettlement  at  larger  mines;  :n;:1ne end 
shrines  are  at  the  entrance  of 
mineS' 
the  most  dangerous  spots  wi thin  th e 

s ture 

sa 

sunken  land  ca

sed  by  mining  increased 

of 
teachers  asso ciations  were  organized 

u

�th8 Local  Probleu 
� land  

tJ'  of  boueing  facilities  for  lliners 

cO_unity  feeUng  between  f

rs 

14ttta 

�ultural  Products 

"_ 

Vegetables 
Sweet  potatoes 

ar1lle

and 

�rll 

Ronami  Agrioultural  Cooperative  Aasn 
Miners'  Hsalth  Cooperative  ASlin 
Cooperative  (gun-wide) 

Liysstook 

Miscellaneous  organizations 

Youth  Assn 
Women' s  Assn 
COlllm9rcial  Men ' s   Assn 
Parent-Teacher� As9n 
l'1rel!l9n' lI  Aaan 
Boy  Scouts 
3  aanitary  teams  (minerB  on17  participating) 
Health  Insurance  Assn 
Agricultural  MUtual  Relief 

Assn 

1 53 

ALL  OTHERS  ( mostly cool 
miners) 

PlmIIB I NDUST RY,  COMMERCE, 

E2Z2I REGULAR  RESIDENTS 
_ NEW  RESIDENTS 
8 E2Z2I FAR M I N G  
IiYiIIlI:iI AND  PROFESSIONS 
_
G EZZZI PADDY 
III UPLAND 
II FORESTS 
IIII
_ BUILDING  S ITES 
WASTELAND  ( sunken 
.  '-.. ' 
lands  and 
f$;-":1 
D 

cool  tipples ) 
OWNED  BY  L A NDLORDS 
AND  RENTED  OUT 

1777'1 
_ OWNEO  BY  OWNER­
"-'"I 
I CULTIVATORS 
Il5III
� OWNED  BY  GOVERNM ENT 

..  PENDING  DISPOSAL 

....

Inst1�tutions  and  Organizations 

Schools 

3  elementary  SChools 
2  new  l
we
o

r 

secondary  schools 

' Religious  organizations 

II
II
II
S U Y E  - M U R A ,   K U MA M OTO  P R E FECT U R E 

Distinctive  Features  of  Suye-Mura 

N t 

Suye  is  a  small  mountain  village. 

L E G E N D  

� PADDY  F IELD  =  M A I N   ROAD 
!I//;  U P L A N D   FI ELD  -<. R I V E R  

P O N D  

F O R E ST 

6 

6 

6 

x 

C O M P OST 

RECLAI M E D  LAND 

• 

C O N TO U R   L I N E  

(  F E E T l  
H O U S E   S I T E  

Suwe-mura  is  a  small,  remote  mountain  village  in  Kumamoto  Prefecture,  in  the  central 
the  island  of -Kyushu .  One-third  of  the  land  area  is  arable,  and  the  other  two-
in  forest ,  There  is  about  twice  as  much  paddy  as  cultivated  upland.  Rice  i s  

or 

18 

settlement  pattern  consists  generally  of  fairly  compact "small  groupings .  The 

is  ooncentrated  in  the  low-lying  lands  along  the  Kuma-gawa ,  which  runs  through 

portions  of  the  Village ,  A  strip  of  paddy  with  occasional  settlement  extends 

·"R.IlI�l'n 
the  middle  of  the  village  and  along  a  stream  that  flows  down  from  the  mountains ,  
IIttlements  in  this  valley  have  road  connections  only  with  the  main  part  of  the  village . 

LiVelihood  opportunities  are  limited.  Two-thirds  of  tHe  households  earn  their  living 

by  farming ;  the  principal  nonfarm  employment  is  in  small  commercial  establish'; 
a  local  whiskey  distillery,  and  in  the  extensive  forest  areas ,  Charcoal  is  the 

in 
ortant  forest  product ;   charcoal  operations  were  greatly  expanded  during  the  war , 
months ,   the  cultivation  of  mulberry  for  silk  worms  was  increased ,  and  in  an  ef­
18 
o
e  income s  the  residents  tried  several  experiments ,   such  as  planting  sugar 
to  in
on  the  borders  of  fields--growing  more  tobacco,  and  planting  "ill  rush ,  Addi­
.ew1ng  machines  were  purchased  to  enable  village  women  to  process  text1le  goods  in 

reas

S C A LE 

h 
! 

o 
; 

�4 
I 

I  M I L E  

IVATURAL  RESOIIRCES  SECTION 

Figure  38 

r54 

�  of  the  homes  have  been 

established  for  generations . 

uJ,.8.tlon 

...ul ��lIebol(lS 
};,-l �c>�8eholl'JS  (chO) 
::... .. ..  r.d  a:r<la 
( cbo 
t-: _}  111 
(cbo) 
) 
f\I��.,te<l  of 
land 
1�:Otal 
fum 
in  which  more  than 
c:,.ee �
uee. 
,  ,o'pt  of  19  groWD 
,. of!'  oroP nip
, .. �  pr: sea90n  (days) 
;;;'t·!r.e 

it1ltion  ( inches) 

Further  Facts  About  Suye 

2 , 140 
357 
249 
1, 132 
3B3 

1. 5 

61 

71. 3  
208 

EleVation  above  sea  level  (feet) 

At  village  hall 

lo
Draft  animals 

At 

w

est  and  highest  points 

Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

Internal  combustion  engines 

Number 
Average  per  farm  household 

, 

476 
460-2 , 700 

268 

1.08 

68 0 . 27 

____ --------------------�-------------------------------rA-------------------------, 

their  own  home s ,   Four  '"tatami"  mat  looms 
in  the  village,  were  purchased  and  put  t ' 
ing  10ca11 
v 
" 

grown  rush , 

t 
be  fit-
0  uSe  11  at: 
elll, 

Ve· 

by 

areas  are  owned 

Approximately  one-half  of  the  extensi 
the  national  government 
eighth  by  the  prefectural  government ,  �ne-� one 
private  individuals,  and  one-sixteenth  by  t�ghtb bJ 
lage;  the  remainder  is  owned  jointly  by 
loc 
l'.1l., 
� 
.  Resident!  reported  that  these  j Ointly  OWoed
lands  earlier  belonged  to  an  ancient  temple  tal-eat 
�  long 
since  abandoned,  and  that  after 
years 
f 
the  l ocal  households  their  j oint  ownership 
Illla  bf 
Callie  to 
be  recognized. 

tOl-eat 

e 
Bl 

ma� 

• 

Land  reolamation ,  as  now  planned ,  Will 

a pproximately 

cho  of  forest  land  for 

50 

,  little  more  than  one-hali'  of  thi s ,   in  a 
highl and  area ,  is  expected  to  a ccommodate  8b:�-ted 
'new  settlers ;  the  remainder,  scattered 
thrOUghou� 
the  lower  portions  of  the  village ,  w11l  be  avella 
for  resident  farmers  to  enlarge  their  operations.

to 

lIlt 

0 

cultten 

up 
'VatlOli. 

Weathered  stone  shrines 
are  seen  along  the  roadside , 

The  population  increased  by 

foUr  percent  in  the  18  months ,   In­
creases  o ccurred  in  the  number  of 
both  r�gular  and  new-type  resident s ,  
particularly  o f   military  r-epatriates . 
The  number  of  evacuees  decreased, 

This  village  shows  many  evi­

dences  of  antiquity ,  Midway  up  the 
narrow  valley  in  the  center  of  the 
village  is  the  abandoned  old  temple 
with  weatherworn  gravestones  nearby) 
and  weathered  gravestones  of  earlier 
times  are  seen  here  and  there  along 
the  roadsides ,  

I 

A  new  lower  secondary  school 

was  erected  rec ently . 

centers  around  the  general 
of  the  12  buraku,  the 

The  social  structure  of  the  village 
lV' /\. 
�_
self_sufficienc)'  • 
cohes iV� 
/  I 
7 local1ty  groupings  of  long  standing ,   sn 
the  well -established  custom  of  rotation 
religiOUS  rites  and  feasts  among 

high

of 
of 

41 

y 

l

groUPS 

' 

households . 

OIDerahip  of  19  percent  of  the  arable  land  WaS 

transferred  to  operating  tenants 
p'ublic  health  nurse  WaS  hired  bY'  the  village  to 

I 

I 

ol  building  was  eroated 

& 

general  public 

tile  schools 
planted 
secondery 

:e"'" 

eane  Was  planted  for  the  first  time 

he  first  tiJno 
an,d 
tor  t
ch
o
s
8ta�on  was  built 

ruah.  was 
- lower 
, 
POlice 
�I' 
r-I' toot-operated 
MrioultuI'8  cooperative  association  was  o
fttatand a 
r
d 
association 
PI!'ent-teaohers 
�etivEl 
�l.tlon or  the  forests  bY' 
\�� pr

rcoal,  "tatSlll1 
n 
a
partJ.;y  beca1llle 
of  tbs 

tor  ch
u
of  Village 

overoutting  or 

t  Pl'lces 
od

ProblelllS 

Local 

anize

cts , 

w:as 

org

mat  1001118  were  bought 

ganized 

trees 

matt1llg,  and  other 

rellOte  loca-

The  villagers  report  that  it 

df.fficul t  for  them  t.o  maintsin 
and  other  public 
limited  village  income  from 
tioD  of  the  new  lower  secondarY 
said  to  be  especially  burdensome . 
of  the  high  income  taxes  and  heaVY' 
delivery  quotas . 

Sl:11  ... c ,  s. 

I-tecause 

t8.lCe5 

been 
baS  �e 

the  s�h�e 

0 ;:reC� 

1  a l  
schooVi&� 
i.J1  op 
cr 

�eultural  Productll 
�::t and 

b  1 
JlOtatoes 

.... 'let 

ar  f!1Y 

Vegetables 
S i lk 

o 

EZZJ  R EG U L A R ' RESIDENTS 

NEW  RES I DENTS 

B 

_ 
EZZl  FARM I N G 

A N D   PROF ESS I ON S  

_  I N DU STRY,  COMME 
_  ALL  OTH E R S  

G 

rzzza  P A D D Y  

_ U P L A N D  
_  F O R E S T S  
_  BU I LD I N G   S I T E S  
rzzzI OWNED  BY  LANDLORDS 

AND  R ENTED  O U T  

D 

..  OWN E D   B Y  OWNER ­
CULTIVATORS 

m OWNED BY GOVERNMENT 

PEND I N G   DI SPOSAL 

ARABLE  LAND 
BY  OWN ERSH I P  

Institutions  and  Organizations 

Schools 

1  elementary  school 
I , new  lower  s e c ondary  school 

Religious  organizations 

1  Shrine  Shinto--l  resident  priest 

Buddhist  temple--"l  resident  priest 

1 

•  Coope ratives 

S�e  Agricultural  Cooperativ�  Assn 
er
Sericulture  Goo�
Livestock  AS8n  ( gun-wide) 

tive  Assn 

a

Miscellaneous  organizations 

lIomen ' s  Ason 
Youth  Assn 
Parent-Teachers' Assn 
Crime  Prevention  Assn 
Firemen' s  Assn 
Tobacco  Cultivators '  Assn 
Agricultural  Mutual  Relief  Assn 
Forest  Owners  Assn 

, 

TYP I C AL  FA R M   H O U S E   S I T E ,   F U T O M I 

0 

,-;  a  Q 
LATRINE 

(')  (') 

��) 

,�\  0  n  n 

C  ()  r) 

<)  Q 

, 

t) 

r\ 

) 

, )  

Q 
G:1 
iL  I'l 
S  .� 

Q 

a:  :J 

I" 

/} 

(')  � 
o  ,> 

" 

I  I  lSliRINE 

CLOSET 

'  lCLOSET 

ROOM 

K ITCHEN 

,,} 

n 

" 

..-ALCOVE 

ROOM 

ROOM 

FIRRLACE r: 

BATH 

\ LATRINE 

STORING  SHED 

DIRT  FLOOR 

FOR' MANURE 

UPLAND  FIELD 

UNDER  THE  EAVES 

ENTRANCE 

STORE  SHED 

DRYING  YARD 

� 

1\ 
I 
I 
I 
ROAD 

� 

D 

,r 

I  L?  {}  <.\  Cl 0  ,...  0 
,  \:) 
CI  .';"  ,D 
(I)  , 
r\ 
::) ,...> CJ 
CHICKENi 
HOUSE 
J

,., •  ,..,  f'\  "I 

"  0 

<\ 

1\  (J  0 

0 
0  11  11 

WELL 

G 

UPLAND  FIELD 

F'igure 

39 

SCALE 

0 
I 

5 
I 

10 FT 
I 

II 

P A R T  I V  

IQo,t)  0  T Y P I C A L  FA R M   H O U S E   S IT E , A I O I  
o  0  G 

PADDY  FI E LD 

ANALYSES  OF  SPECIA L   PHASES  OF  VIL L A GE  L IFE 

a I..) 

() 

K I TC H E N  

D  ClO  0 

2>  0 

W E LL 

O 

:) 

() 
(8 
o 
Q 

CLOSEr 
0 
A LCOVE-

FAMILY BUDDHIST-
ALTAR 

CLOSET-

RO AD 

o  0 
o  ,J\  0 
D  f) 
'  I) 

"  .... / 
o 
o 

°0° 0 

S HRINE 

ROOM 

ro---,---hlT� 
ROOM  �  9 
ti r-

f---+----I 

:;: 

� 

DIRT 
FLOOR 

I-
I-

ROOM 

HOUSEHOLD � 

ALTAR '-

ROOM 

U N DER  THE  EAVES 

� 

o 
'" 
o 
0:: 

o 
z 

j 

0. 
J 

COMPOST 
YARD 

UVESTOCK 
SHED 

rT� � 

00 

� 
�I-----j 
LATRINE  � 

WORK ROOM 

I-

ffi 
o 
z 
::l 

SCALE 
� 

0 

10  FT 

, 

D R Y I N G   Y A R D  

" 

� 

L------------�H�O�U�S�E----------I ---' --��=_=�� 

NAruRAL  /lES�URClS  SECTION 

158 

Figure 

40 

In  tIlls  final  part  of  the  report,  atten­

is  given  to  certain  matters  which 

too 
tion 
involved  for  adequate  treatment  in  the  topical 
approach  used  thus  far. 

are 

subjects  discussed 

The 

are  the  recent 

agrarian 

reforms,  the  continuing 

problems,  factors  affecting  village  and 
rural 
Community  organi�tion,  leadership  and  politi­
partiCipation,  famil.v  life  in  the  vilJages ,  

cal 
religious  and  educational  conditions ,  and  the 
general  outlook  of  the  people .  Use  is  made  of 
the  first-�nd  materials  that  were  obtained 

vi llage  record s ,   from  interviews  with  vil­

from 
lege  leaders  and  representative  households 

from  questionnaires  filleo  in  by  representa-
tives  of  1,300  households ,  and  from  the  general 
over-all  observations  of  the  field  staff . 

, 

1 

Chapter 

AGRARIAN  REFORM 

ian  reforms  were  the  cause  of  most  of  the  important  changes  that  took  place  in 

ar

13�i].lage8  from  JWle  1947  to  December  1948 .  In  the  opinion 
..  gn1f'lcant  of  these  reforms  was  the 
�t .� the  new  agricultural  cooperative  associations  and  by  the 
��ed it 
resulted  in  more  land  tor  the  villagers .   11I 

refo

land 

rm 

program,  followed  by  the  estabUeh­

or 

those  interviewed, 

reclamation  program, 

land 

of  the  13  villages ,  local  leaders  agreed  that  the  most  important  change  which 

AGRICULTURAL 

LAND  REFORM 

In  12 
taken 

plaoe  in  the  18  months  under  study  was  the  transfer  of  land  to  operating  tenants .  

be  seen  in  Table  10,  the  proportion  of  all  cultivated  land  transferred  to  tenant 

from  April  1946  to  December  1948  averaged 

percent  for  the  villages  as  a  whole . 

���I�r8 

this  period,  67  percent  of  all  of  the  farm  operators  had  purchased  aome  land  under 

41 

(Table  11) .   W  Only 

peroent  of  the  farm  land  was  transferred  to  tenants  and  but  26  peroent  of  the  farm 
.,...tOl'S  bought  land,  did  local  leaders  rate  the  land  reform  program  seconc1  in  importance, 

in 

the  farming-fishing  village  of  Futoml,  where  but 

reform  of  the  flsher,r  assooiations  first .  

,11  villages ,  there  were  clear  indications  that  the  peo

thought  the  agricultural 

I n  
reform  program  would  be  carried  through  to  completion .  However,  in  none  of  the  vil 
.. 
had  the  recent  sales  to  the  farmers  been  registered  in  the  land  ledger  in  the  regls-
the  Attorney  General ' s   Oftice ,  This  registration  is 
and  involved  task,  because  so  many  ssparate  amall  fields  are  involved.  In  all  vil­
arrangements  were  being  made  to  go  forward  with  the  registration . 

office  under  the  jurisdiction 

In  moat  villages, 

ple 

or 

retorm  otficials  estimated  that  registration  would  be  completed  early  in  1950, 

Nearly  all  of  the  lands  purchased  through  the  village  land  collll

ll1ssiona  were  resold  to 
..  families  who  were  tenanting  them  (Figure  41) .  This  course  was  adopted  in  r ecognition 
.,  the  IIOr�l  Uen  held 

tenants  on  the  land  they  cultivate  and  the  solidarity  and  general 

bUity  of  the  Japanese  rural  family,  as  well  as  to  ensure  the  least  pos sible  disturb­

by 

"'aa 

Il10, 

to  prodUction .  The  only  exceptIons  of  consequence  were  households  operating  less  than 
wbo  generally  were  considered  pert-time  farmers  and  therefore  ineligible  for  pur­

;;t:,  or  the  land  they  farmed  was  adjudged  insufficient  to  provIde  a  dependable  living 

tan 
rUy  by  farming .  The  land  reform ,  as  antiCipated 

its  promoters,  brought  no 

' a_ 
to  the  farming  population .  A  small  increase  in  the  number  of  farm  households  wa s 
--�lon 
Plo-aed principally  by  the  inability  of  maturIng  youth  to  obtain  remunerative  off-farm  em-

dis­

by 

11D�nt . 

C 

tor  copy  of  Memorandum  iain1ed  by  General  Headquarters;  SUprellle 
for  the  Allled  Powers ,  in  December  1945  to  the  Japanese  Governaent  directing 
improve  the  economic  conditions  ot 

See  Appendix 
IIIIlnder 
it to  enact  land  reform  and  other  legislation 
the  farm  people  of  Japan. 
See  Appendix  D  for  a  brief 
country  as  a  whole  and  a  8UlDmary  of  backgroWld  data  about  the  farming  conditions 

of  the  agricultural  land  retorm  program  for  the 

summary 

to 

om

C

­

the  land  reform  was  launohed  to  correct . 

-hleb 

161 

D I S� R I  B U ! I O N   O F   C U LT
1  N  J A PA N  

"
I V AT E D   L A N D  

0 1  S T R I  B U T I O N  
A CC O R D I  N G  TO 
1 9 4 0   C E N SU S  

E ST I M AT E D   D I S T R I B U T I O N 

A S   OF  3 1   D E C E M B E R 

1 9 4 8  

U N D E R   N E W  LA N D   R E FO R M  

e  and  a ga in  the  new  owner-opera tors  point e d   out  tha t   it 

li nd  often  of  their  f9thers before  them,  t o   ow n   s ome  lc! n d ;   sever�l  a d ded  thll t 
it 

l  hope  of  gett ing  l.J.Ind  in  the ir  lifetime ,  but  now  tha t  they  have 

l i fetime  hope 

no  re

been 

hAd 

'I 

a

'1'jJJ!s ,  

,I tl1e� h8 d 
f)IJ'I  /18  t to  kee p  it . 

f)lJf  1150 

nd  Reforms 

U! 

a. 

JIS4 

30 

ge ,  

e  a
TIl end 

large  l a ndowning  faldly  held ,  as  an  a bs entee 

cho  of  arable  la nd  ha d   been  spld  to  te na nt  f.'lTllJers  in  the  late  193 0 ' s .  The 

about  50  cho  of  arable  l.J.Ind ,  mostly  I=8 ddy.  The'  ow n ing  f!'lmily,  w hich 

gr iou ltura l  la nd  reform  program  launched  in  late  1946 ,  !l nd  virtua lly  c ompleted 
of  1948 ,  wa s  n.ot  w ithout  forerunners  in  the  vill.'l ge s   studied .  In  one  villa 

� 
W t�ke , 
jiJ1I'  otion ClIme  about  in  this  I118 nnerl 
bec ome  in­
lIf1II'�entlY wea lthy  in  ind ustria l   opere t ions ,  cont inued  to  take  a n   interest  in  the  teM nt 
.. Flues  on  the  land  a nd  to  IlJ!I ke  regula r  pilgrim
ges  to  a  lOCI'l l  shrine  in  M izuw!lke .  The 
ta,11bility of  tra naferring  the  lJ1 nd   to  the  tenants  we s  dis cussed  by  the ' loee l  pe ople  over 
,of  severa l   yea rs .  They  worked  out  a  stra te gy  whereby  the  village  meyor  was  to  re-
�t the  priest  of  the  loca l  shrine ,   to  whioh  the  family  OIlme  at  lea st  once 
pDf'l'lod 
hel)d  o f   the  family  if  the  la nd   could  be  purcha sed  by  the  operl'l ting  tenllnt s .   The 
to  assure  the  OIfner  thllt  the  te na nt s   w ould  a ppre ci�te  t he  opportunity  to  buy  at 
'!II'  the 
.. 
lIS 8 
price ,  
As events  turned  out ,  the  head  of  the  fll mily  WA S  will ing  t o   s e l l .   The  snles  o f   the  
,ere  fina nced  by  the  government  through  the  Centra l  COopElr.'l t ive  BAnk  for  4. gri culture 
._�.·trv and  the  local  Industria l  Cooperative  � ssociat ion ,  w ithin  the  framework  of  the " 
d justment  Law  e na cted  in  1938  by  the  Diet.  The  la nd  wa s  sold 
ten-
111II11ies.  The  largest  a mount  bought  by  a ny   one  family 
cho .  The  price  pq id  to 
fixed  by  law .  The  teM nt  purcls sers  were  permitted  to  I=8Y 
big  ls nd
the land  i n  
a nnua l   insta llments ,  with  interest  on  t he  a mount  still  owed  a t   the  rate 
per

tha t  he  himself  thought  the  proposition  might 

of  interest  to  the  fll m ­

ning  family 

nt  per 
24 

yell r ,   t o  

to  35 

La nd 

a nd 

hI'Id 

. 3 

be 

WIl S 

WI'I S 

O'll

1

B 

�

!l

. 

,.2 

ce

a nnum .  

UDder the  recent  a gricultura l  la nd  reform  progrAm,  162  cho  were  purcha sed  by  the 

in  M izuwske  through  the  local  land  commiss ion  a nd  res old  to  295  farm  house holds
nt  of  the  farm  households  in  the  villa ge
, 
The  loca l  people  look  upon  the  late 
ctions ,  a ll  of  whi�h  went  uncbsllenged  by  the  reoent  program ,  a s  a  s ort  of  fore­
which  wa s  compulsory  a nd  thorough,  but  wa s  pointed  to  loca lly  w ith  considerl'lble  pride . 

It  wa s  permiss ive  a nd  incomplete  as  contra sted  w ith  the  post-Surrender  la nd  re ­

. 

NA TURAL  RESOURCES  SEcr/Oft 

Figure  41 

· 121  

li nd  larger  pre -lI'Ind  reform 

of  la nd  to  tenants  occurred  in  late  1 94 5  

early  1946  in  Yoshida ,  where  a  large  la ndlord  s old  137  c h o   t o   more  tha n 
�  Second 

sale 

farm 

200 

no 

There  was 

evidence  whatsoever  that  any  of  the  new  owner-operators  would 

prater  to 
be  tenants  again  or  that  they  would  just  as  lIoon  be  tenants  as  owners.  Available  ev1d'­
was  conclusive  that  the  new  owners  1n  the  villages  desire  to  bold  on  to  the  land  they � 
been  able  to  acquire  and  to  remain  in  their  new  status  as  landowners .   This  determinatiOO 
the 
may  have  important  effects  upon  such  matters  a s   the  extent  of  parti cipation 
people 
sern::, 
in  poll tical  affairs  and  in  local  organizations  and  agencies,  the  types  of  public 
provided 
local  taxes ,  and  the  interest  farmers  have  1n  technical  information to tnct It 
l ds  through  better  seeds,  more  effective  fertilizer  for  their  fields,  and  bett 
b,y 
their  yi
e
marketing  outlets . 

of 

delivery  quotas  heavy,  and  the 
" agreed  that  the  decline 

Most  new  owners,  along  with  the  other  fa.rmers,  reported  that  they  found  taxes bigh, 
ontinuing  inflation  burdensome .  Also ,  they  generall! 
the  blaok  market  in  agrioultural  produote  ha s. made  it mo� t.c' 
ficult  for  farmers  to  make  enough  income  to  meet  expenses,  especially  in  view  of  thr.t10� 
that  they  had  to  purchase  on  the  black  market  many  commo
number  of  new  owner-opera tors  in  each  of  the  villages  were  asked 
if , the  tJI" 
face  of  these  economic  problems,  each  of  whi� bad  become  worse  duriDg  the  18  m�� th., 
chann
would  prefer  to ,  or  would  just  as  soon,  be  t
wan�ed  to  hold  on  to  their  ownership  of  the  land . 

nants  again .  All  of 
e

ties  unavailable  through!n 

said  "nO  , 

els . 

them 

�­

tbI 

in 

di

A 

c

'glta tion  in  prewar  t imes  for  improved  l� ndlord-tena nt  rela ti ons  ha d   been widespread 

villa ges ,  Yokogos hi ,  � i o i ,   and 

ws shiro ,
tena nt s  had  let  it  be  known  that  they  wanted  better  lea sing  c onditions . 

while  in  several  other  villages  sma ller 

Ka

' 

of 

III  tA lking  of  the  near  completion  of  the  init ia l  phase  of  the  a gricultur
",

late  1948,  villagere  sa id  they  ha d   found  it  hard  to  believe  tha t  so  comprehen-

la nd 

l 

reform 

ogram  would  really  be  launched  a nd  ca rried  through. 

""""'��"III  1n 
a  pr

d 
S  ult  eduC9tion  a speot  of  the  a gricultur'l l  l'l nd  reform  program  wa s  evident  every-
The 
T
eD!nt  members  of  the  commission, 
of  whom  were  obviously  ill  at  ea se  !l nd  in­
� i 
1947 ,  were  s omewhat  sea ­
the ir  new  posts  when  the  villages  were  vis ite

d  Pen 
1b{formers  ' in  open  meetings  18  months  late r ,   having,  in  the  meantime ,  'ttIken  a  re -

e  J)IIrt  in  numerous  tr.gnsa ctions  s nd   decis ions . 

IMny 

June 

'SIoa8

in 

d 

g
ers  under  v'lrious  government  pr ograms  whioh  fixed  the  price  a nd  f

6 ,  

u

�ll  transa ctions  were  voluntary  on  the 

more  tha n  300, 000  cho were  bought  by  tel1!l nt 
ta ted  the 

c ll

R

of  se ller  and 

1

between  1 926   a nd  194

t 

o
Tlu-ou  h 
terro 
tin 
b".:ncing when  needed . 
, "'Var . 

JS PI!I ll, 

pert 

162 

163 

all 

The  selection  of  an  agricultural  land  commission  in  some  villages  afforded  all 
adult  farm  population,  tenants  as  well  as  owners,  an  opportunity  to  vote  on  a  matte 
of  tll, 
element�  of  the  village.  In  some  villages,  elections  were  notr 
real  interest  to 
but  instead  candidates  for  membership  on  the  commission  were  'chosen  at  a ,buraku  cau beld, 
ot 
Qua. 
In  about  one-half  of  the  villages,  the  number  of  candidates  selected  was  the  same  a
number  of  posts  to  be  filled,  and  so  these  buralru  nominations  amounted  to  electioDsB  the 
composition  of  each  commission,  however  chosen,  was  of  first  importance,  for  it  conte  Th, 
five  tenants,  two  owner-cultivators,  and  three  landlords .  The  very  composition  of 
1ned 
commissions  proclaimed  the  fact  that  the  tenant s '   interests  were  to  be  protected 
by �8a 
tenants  themselves,  rather  than  by  someone  acting  on  their  behalf 
the  tradit1 0nal  paternalism  of  rural  Japan. 

had  been  the  cas 

8S 

' 
t.  ill 

Soon  after  the  agricultural  land  commissioners  had  been  selected  in  December 

they  began  to  explore  their  assignment .  The  first  phase  was  the  purchasing  of 
land  of  absentee  owners  and  corporations ,  for  these  purchases  did  not  involve  the 
cated  matter  of  determining  retention  rates  before  purchase,  Later,  lands  rented  out 
temples  and  shrines  were  purchased,  and  then  the  lands  of  resident  owner-operators 
priests  or  by  groups  of  parishioners .  The 
temple  and  shrine  lands  operated 
tention  rate  in  most  villages  was  about  three  cho,  although  in  the  village  of 
in  the  rest  of  Hokkaido,  the  retentio�  rate  was  considerably  higher  (10  cho)  because
scale  of  agricultural  operations  is  larger, 

1946 
the  81'a-bJ. 
COlllpll' 
�­
andWT 

max11nUm  r ... 
' 
Ebetsu  � a  
the 

by 

The  purchasing 

absentee-owned  land  went  smoothly,  but  some  difficulties 

of 

countered  during  the  purchasing  of  resident-owned  and  temple-owned  lands.  The  least 
cw. ty was  experienced  in  Yokogoshi,  where  agitation  for  improvements  in  land  tenure 
been  active 
However,  the  early  success  of  the  local  commissions  in  arranging  for  the  purchases 
trom  the 
absentee  owners  provided  a  much-needed  tl'aining  for  the  later  purchases  froa  the  rel1giOlll 
organizations  and  the  �esident  owners ,  

�. 
had 
years,  and  in  Obie  SDd  Aioi,  which  had  a  great  preponderance  of  tencte 

for  many 

were  en­

I n  June  1947 , 

villagers,  espeoially  in  southern  Japan ,  doubted  that  the  land  

man;r 

form  would  actually  be  carried  out . 
to  own  the  land,  if  ownership  were  poesible,  but ,  not  being  absolutely  certain  thst 
be  sold  to  them ,  they  wanted  to  malntairl  their  traditional  accepted  relationships  with 
landowning  families  from  whom  they  rented . 

tenants  wanted  to  play  the  game  sate . 

They 'ftJIW 
it  would 
the 

Many 

' 

r .. 

not  be  csrried  through  on  schedule� 
Rumors  that  the  new  lend  ref'onn  program 
. .... 
June  1947 ,  numerous  persons  re ....
might 
widespread  dtn'ing  the  first  visit  to  the  villages, 
that  tenants  were  saying  that  they  did  not  want  to  become  owners  or  did  not  know  whether 
not  they  wanted  to,  However.  when  direct  answers  were  sought  from  tenants  themselve.ll, 
most  definite  information  obtainep  was  that  they  feared  they  might  not  be  able  to  bec�
owners . 
by  various  large  landowners  and  the.1r  agents .  

some  of  the  unfavorable  ruIIors  were  being  passed  along,  if  not 

or 
tbt 
, 
U4 

Clearly 

ongina 

In 

eei.all1 
As  the  commissions  prooee4ed  on  schedule  with  their  purchasing  program ,  all,  esp 
when  the  reselling  of  the  land  started,  the  importance  attached  by  the  villagers  to :bAt 
ship  on  the  commission  increased  greatly.  Then,  and  only  then,  did  it  become  clear 
th  � 
the  commissions  actually  had  authority, 
'the  tenant  members 
1  !d 
to 
tige  of  the  COmmis sions,  especially  their  tenant  members,  Until  the  resale  of  tb\ �f tb­
of  the  tenant  1118111bers  did  not  know  just  wOOt  their  situation  was .  MOB 
began , 
seemed  to  have  assumed  that  the  landlord  members  of  the  commis sion  were  cooperating 
program  UDier  dtn'ess ,  and  that  as  soon  as  they  had  the  opportunity  to  undo 
what  was 
done,  their  sense  of  selt-interest  would  lead  them  in  that  direction , 

week  added 

being 
in  tb. 

Every 

em� 

many 

of 

d 

The  purchase  and  resale  of  the  land  was  a  tedious  matter.  In  eaoh  village'
" 
�� 
d  ill  edd!-
and  hundreds  of  small  tracts  were  involved,  each  with  its  own  size  a.nd  shape, 
8�ls  s(IIA 
tion  many  trscts  with  forest  or  other  rights  had  to  be  dealt  with ,  More  than 
t  f�r  sal" 
te�t  families  could  not  purchase  because  the  plots  they  were  tenanting  were 
no 
that  is  the  fields  might  be  those  which' an  olmer-operator  could  hold  within  hiS 
ret8f1W,J) 
right,  in  addition  to  the  area  he  was  cultivating .   Such  tenants  often  wanted 
d  "ere 

an 

164 

eligible  to  purchase  land.  The  com­
mis sions  sometimes  resourcefully 
worked  out  an  exchange  of  plots  be­
tween  absentee  owners  and  those  that 
could  still  be  rented  by  resident 
operators ,  In  these  cases,  two  or 
more  transactions  had  to  take  place 
before  the  tenant  could  buy,  wbich 
meant  additional  detailed  work  by 
the  commission ,  The  vast  amount  of 
detail  involved  becomes  understand­
able  when  it  is  noted  that  in  the 
village  of  Aioi  2,000  pieces  of  land 
were  involved  in  purchase  and  resale 
' 
in  Nlkaido 
more  than  11, 000 . 
4,000, 

and  in  Yokogoshi 

The  clerks  of  the  commissions 
played  a  most  important  part  in  the 
whole  p�ogram,  It  was  they  who  cal­
culated  bow  mu�h  lsnd  wss  to  be  pur­
chssed ,  and  frOID  whom;  they  kept  the 
records  of  the  transactions  and  re­
ceived  and  first  studied  the  instruc­
tions  that  came  to  the  commission ' s  
office,  In  many  villages ,  the  clerks 
were  literally  the  teachers  of  the 
commission  member s ,  

The  land  commie.ion  at  Aioi,  a8  else­
where,  is  composed  of  five  farme�  tenants, 
landlords  (farmers  who  lease  out 
apme  land ) ,   and  two  owner-cultivators .  
three 
The  eleventh  ma n  i s  the  commission ' s   chief 
clerk . 

the  time  agreement  ha d  been  reached 

t o  which  families  could 

which  tracts 

By 
tenant  families  and  families 

phase, of  the  program  would  be  completed  on  schedule. 
from 

whom  land  had  been  purchased  began  to  believe  that 
of 
that  time ,  the  early 
1948,  the  villagers  had  become  generally  aware  of  the  actual  authority  of  the  com­
This  authority  became  especially  convincing  as  the  village  offices  began  arrange­
formal  entry  of  the  sales  in  the  land  ledger  in  the  registry  office  under,  the 

buy 

B.Y 

8 S  

'-.u.Cl��O'D  of  the  Attorney  General ' s  

� ... 

Office, 

Others,  in  addition  to  tenant  members  and  clerks ,  who  received  valuable  new  trsining 
the  execution  of  the  land  reform  program  were  the  buraku  representatives  who  took 

part  in  the  work 
the  Commissions,  especially  when  the  land  in  question  was 
their  particular  part  of  the  village,  Each  commis sion  had  an  average  of  at 
three  clerks  and  perhaps  not  les8  than  a  half  dozen  buraku  representatives.  Thus 
' 
1-5  to  20  men  in  each  village  had  unique  first-hand  leadership  training  wi thin  two

at  lesst  one-third  of  these  were  from  the  farm  tenant  grouP.  who  Within  the  old 

of 

in 

system  could  hardly  have  hoped  to  play  such  a  role. 
'and 

December  1948,  there  were  1l, 025  local  land  cO:mmiSeiODS. 

of  the  perhaps 

200  In 

'� persons  who  received  leadership  training 
serving  on  these  commissions,  no  lese 
were  from  the  farm  tenant  group ,  So,  quite  aside  from  the  many  benefits  which 
by 
tot. :- owner-operators  are  obtaining  from  the  land  they have  purchased  under  the  land  re­
' 11   ,000 
the  transfers  has  in  a  very  short  time  produced  a 

the  method  used 

Thus, 

e 
�blrogr�m, 

group  of 

potential  new  leaders  in  rural  Japan , 
in making 

tense  moment  accompanied  tbe  activities  of  the  local  land  commissions, 
government ,  the  commission-half  of  whose  voting  members  were  tenants  tradition­
leadership  experlenoe--was  purchasing  land  that  established,  and  oftentimes 
households  had  owned  for  years ,  land  which  these  households  looked  forward  to 

� a 
1,  -1  the 
thout 
'lell 
t1al , 
;,«  I..n 
Plt 
activity  with  which  they  were  identified,  had  the  assurance  of  the  government  that 
_� 
bOh�e eXpec�ed  to  represent  the  interests  of  the  tenants  while  the  commis8ion--ect1ng 

the  families  for  years  to  come ,  The  tenant  members ,  aware  of  the  PTecedent-

of  the  .gove'rnment--bour,ht  and  resold  the  lsnd 

by  lew . 

the 

In 

f 

as  designated 

aring 

Tenant  members  played  a  new  and  undefined  role  in  the  village .  SOllIe  of  them 

in  their  powers}  some  seemed  i

na
tioned  as  the  agents  of  their  landlords . 

reckless  and  overbe
ever;  and  now  and  then  some  few 
func
families,  too,  behaved  in  different  ways :  Sollie  seemed  to  cooperate 
were  neutralJ  others  did  .hatever  they 

The  la 
the  progr8ll\' 
sual  circumstances,  to  disoredit  the  work  of  the  collllDissions  and  to  ridicule  the 
a
ID  the  Villages  visited,  however,  there  had  been  no
ge  some  persons  thought  the  land  reform  had  done  1D0re  harm  than 
�o .. 
The  rivalry  tor  oontrol  bet1r
e  gOOcl, 
it 
8: th, 
18
� .. 

unu
tivities  of  the  tenant  members . 
lence.  ID  every  v
but 
commisaions--especlally  the  tenant  members  of  the  commissions-and  the  traditional 
ship  of  the  villages  was  the  factor  whioh  made  the  land  reform  activities  such  an  1m�e
adult  educational  enterpris e .  

,lie 
llded 
ways,  within  the  limits  �rso� 
the 
.. 

had  Ilone  more  good  than 

.8 
as  sUbservien�

illa
IIIOre  thought 

d  in  their 

rticulate 

harm .  

� 

coul

an� 

in 

own 

e 

a 

Village  Leadership 

���ta� 

The  question 

of 

in 

tull 

Chapter  4.  SUffice  it  to  say  here  that 

leadership  in  relation  to  land  reform  legislation  and  otper  agraria 
programs  will  be  discussed 
pl'aoti 
cally  all  of  the  village s ,   the  lea�ers  estimated  that  from  10  to  40  percent  of  the  peopi 
II. 
now  in  leadership  positions  would  not  be  ocoup
them  had  it  not  been  for  the  land  1'e.' 
form 
ying 
related  agrarian  programs.  Some  of  this  new  leadership  emerged  around  the  new 
ed  f
esale  activities  of  the  local  agri­
r
practicall;y  all  instances,  the  villagers  estimated  that 

operatives.,  which  are  discussed  later  in  this  chapter,  but  the  largest  part  emer
the  vital  experienoes  involved  in  the  purchase  and  r
oultural  land  c
10  years,  one-third  to  one·halt  of  all  local  leaders  would  be  coming  from  the  new 
operator  households. 

ssions . 

ommi

and 

in 

in 

ID 

g

o!) Co .. 

in 

owner­

in 

VfYr1 

The  effects  of  the  land  reform  prograDI  upon  local  leadership  lIere  continually 
A  discussion  on  this  subj ect  beld 
Yokogoshi  was 
illuminating .  A  meeting  was  held ' 
evident 
in  the  village  hall  assembly  room.  Looldng  up  at  the  large  portraits  of  six  of  the  tonG' 
headmen,  the  present  officials  stated  that  not  one  of  the  officers  in  the  village  hall  at 
that  time  could  have  held  office  under  conditions  prevailing  when  these  earlier  mayors 
in  authority.  These  six  mayors  were,  a  brother  of  the  head  of  the  large  l
famil;y,  a  relative  of  the  same  family,  an  owner  of  52  cho,  an  owner  of  10  cho,  an  owner 
30  cho,  and  an  owner  of  10  cho.  The  present 
owns  no  land.  He had  been  a  clerk  in 
the  village  office  for  more  than  30  years  until  he  became  deputy 
in  1947,  he  was 
elected  mayor.  He  has  long  been  identified  with  the  tarmers '  union.  His  back
mayor ; 
ound  18 
similar  to  that  of  the  majority  of  the  present  assemblymeD,  nearly  all  of  whom 
gener
are  nell  owner-operators  who  were  te
nts  a  couple  ot  years  ago .   Under  the  previous  seven 
1118)'ors , 
that  just 
before  the  land  reform  program  lIaa  launched, 
percent  of  all  farmers  rented  90  percent 
more  of  the  land  they  cultivated,  and 

actically  all  of  the  assemblymen  had  been  landowners ,  despite  the  fact 

percent  rented  half  or  more  of  their  land. 

were 
al  latidownu. 

aJ.ly 

mayor 

46 

gr

pr

of 

na

oc

or 

72 

Great  changes 

landowner  group  that  had  come  into  control  in  1946-47  bad  been  effectively 
put  out  of  office 
village  was  keen,  and  old  and  new  leaders  in  these  and 
probably  be  busy  for  some  time  learning  to  live  and  work  with  one  another . 

leadership  had  also  occurred  in  Oble  and  Aioi .  But  in  each,  the  n.­
challenged  and 
the  more  traditional  leadership  elements .   Political  rivalry  in 
8Il9h 
of  the  other  villages  will 

in  many 

by 

in 

Proepects 

of  Completion 

In 

December  1948,  the  land  reform  program  generally  was  considered  practically  com­
the 

p1ete �.  But,  as  mentioned  already,  only  a  tf1fl  of  the  sales  had  yet  been  r ecorded 
land  registry  book 
the  di,strict  otfice  of  the  Attorney  General .  Tbe  g eneral  expeota
was  that  the  records  ot  these  sales  would  be  made  in  the  village  ofrice  and  that  they  W 
be  certified  by  the  prefectural  officials  and  then  entered  on  the  Attorney  General ' S 
d 
laD 
r egistry  book .  The  new  owner-operators  received  repeated  assurances  that  an  appl1C8ti
0
� 
tiled  with  the  local  land  commission  for  registration 
land  purchases  would  be  acoe 
pt
by  the  representatives  in  the  registry  ottice,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

8S 
Attorney  General ' s   otfice ,   until  actual  registration  is  made . 

binding 

in 

of 

in 

o
D
� 

all 

,t\JOflll 

re�orded  in  the  land  regist

the  new  owner-operators  with  whom  discussions  were  held,  in  assembled  groups 
homes  only  two  expressed  serious  misgivings  about  the  completion  of  the  land 
O�e  said  that  he  would  be  certain  that  the  land  was  really  his  only  when 
book;  that  even  yet  he  thought  there  lllight  be  a 

Of 
1.r 
e  raUl 
rog 
d  at  tb
p
I't,  tl8d  bien l1cy  in  ToJcyo .  The  other  said  that  he  would  feel  that  his  purchase  of  land  was 
�ge  0  � binding 
the 
.,ote11Y  �  He lias  glad  to  have  the  land  but  thought  that  he  had  obtained  it  too  oheaply 
go'l8rJ11D:n therefore,  it  did  not  belong  to  him  as  truly  as  if  the  tormer  owner  had  received 
Jtld 
• 

�ore  nearly:  commensurate  with  its  value. 

the  owners  of  the 

adequate  prie� 

of  the  members  of  the  village  land  oommissions  felt  that  they  had  nearly  com-
n  so  busy  with  the  purchase  and  resale  of  the 

I&�:heir  assignment ,  for  they  bad  b

been  paid  a 

land  bad 

price 

bJ 

.ore 

ry 

it 

tIl

a 

t 

mall  tracts  that  they  regarded  these  transactions  as  their  maj or ,   and,  in  some 

ee

h

S 

pl.ud 
1JIlII8toUB s 
�aDoe
'
'tI1 term  p 
1P
o
o
cust
01' 
ulD�amUies  f'rom  the  forest . 
�eil' 
ase
�cb
.tslion 
e

ot

their  only  responsibility .  For  example,  in  two 

ages,  complaints  were  made 

most  of  them  new  owner-operators ,   to  the  effect  that  they  had  lost  their 

er8tors, 
aCcess  to  the  forest  tor  tuel  and  oompost .  In  neither  village  did  the  cha
marYmembers  of  the  commission  see�  to  know  that  their  group  was  responsible  tor  main-

el'intact  the  traditional  rights  of  farmers  to  gether  compost  and  firewood  Deeded  by 

irman 

vill

one  instanoe,  the  forest  land  had  been  sold,  and  the 

In 

lalmed  that  he  had  not  been  advised  of  any  forest  rights  of  villagers .  The 
�8�bers  seemed  willing  enough  to  have  oomplaints  brought  to  them,  for  they  con­
themselves  primarily  a  referee  agency,  or  a  court  ot  reliet.  land  retorm  legisla .. 
e
dowever  makes  it  olear  that  the  local  oommissions  have  the  active  responsibility  for 
1d
• 
tion ,   \hat  n�  rights  are  violated .   In  short ,  it  i s   the  commission ' s   responeibility  to  see 
aeeiDg 

oom-

r

one  has  grounds  tor  oomp

disposition  of  the 
tha\:�ts  that  aris e .   Commission  members  generally  seelDed  to  be  unaware  that  t!:ley  lIere 
�ged 

the  additional  responsibility  of  approving  rental  contracts  covering  such 

t,  rather  than  I118re�  to  Eke 

lain

80119 

tenanted  land  operations  as  remained . 

with 

December  1948  is  illustrated  in  Figure 

i onship  between  OlInership  of  arable  land  a.nd  forest  land  in  Yoshida  in 
t

The 

ela

r

42 .   (.Q/ 

n

d 

tr

42 

by 

nal 

indicate  the  home 

'IDle  two  small  s  uares  in  the  uppe.r  and  lower  parts  of  Figure 
sites  of  two  f�f)r8  and  the  l ines  radiating  from  them  show  tqe  pieces  of  arable  l�
the  tarmers .  In  a  few  instances  the  farmers  have  to  trave 
and forest  land  owned 
cousiderable  distances  to  cultivate  small  traots  of  paddy  land.  Traditional  forest  is 
forest  land  whioh  is  traditionally  associated  w ith  tracts  of  paddy  land .  The  culti­
right  prior  to  land  reform  to  gather 
vator  of  a  partioular  paddy  bad  the  traditio
:o 
pine  needles  and  leaves  from  a  stated  tract  of  forest  land  and  apply  this  compost
T
Be  also  had  the  right  to  gather  tuelwood  from  the  forest  tract . 
the  rice  land 
Agricultural  land  Adjustment  Law  empowers  the  local  land  commission  to  require  the 
aditional  forest  land  to  permit  the  new  owner  of  the  paddy  land  to  con­
owner  of 
tinue  to  gather  compost  and  firewood  in  the  traditionally  associated  forest 
If  the  traditionally  associated  forest  land  bas  b
�
used  mainly  for  forest  purposes  and  not  for  grazing  the  purchaser  of  the  paddy  lan 
paym
1  d 
buy  the  forest  tr'act  only  if  the  owner  is  lIilling  to  sell .  Should  the  forest  an 

ent  of  proper  c ompensation. 

e  land  commission  must  b�  obt
�
e 

c� 
have  been  used  mainly  for  gra.zing ,  the  approval  of  t
befol'e  the  sale  can  be  completed.  If  the  owner  of  such  a  piece  of  forest  l�n 
�P 
1  d 
�bll
Rrlmarl1y  for  grazing  does  not  wish  to  sel l ,   the  purchaser  of  the  associate
Bh
Can apply  to  the  local  land  commission under  Article  2  of  the  Owner-Farmer 
Es
Special  Measures  Law  wi thin  one  year  to  have  the  government  purchase  t 
he  tract  of 
tnent 
ind�re�k  or
forest  land  for  resale  to  him. 
f 
land the  purchaser  of  the  paddy  land  can  apply  to  the  local  land  comm  ss  on 
cle  15  of  the  Owner-Farmer  Establishment  Special  �easures  Law  within  one  year 
s
the  government  purohase  for  resale 
and
���  ;�:�:
o��w
l�
The  gov errunent  is  required.  to  make  the  purc  ase  an  se 
Windbreak 
et������l  Land  Se
�  in�:rprAg
bl'eak  for;st  land  to  the  owner  of  the  paddy  land .  The
r
om · e 
Adjustment  Lall 
er-Farmer  Law  .ere  obtained 
tion,  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry. 

him  the  piece  of  �orest  �

a  traot  of  forest  serves  as  a 

dd 
d�  A;ti­

the  Land 
­

land  upon 
en 

un to  have 

and  the 

ln�_ 

ined 

Own

to 

If 

th 

�

e 

f 

b

w

h

c

166 

167 

 
RELATIONSH I P  B ETWEEN  OWN ERSHIP  OF  ARA  . 
LAND AND  FOREST  LAND IN  YOSHIDA, DECEMBERB��

a 

• 

L E G E N D  

�  PADDY  F I E LD 
/ 
///� 
/ /,  U PLAND  F I E L D  
" . 

G R A S S   LAND 

F O R EST 

. " 

= 

R OA D  

"  .

.:::

....

. 

I R RIGAT I O N   CANAL 

0 

H O U SE  S I T E  

50 
� 

S C A L E  

50 

100  YO 

. NArURAL  RESOURCES  S[CTION 

168 

Figure 

42 

leaders  generally  believed  that  the  land  reform  program  would  be  beneficial. 

e 

1jlla�ed  out  that  some  of  the  larger  landowners  were  worse  off,  but  that ,  even  so,  the 
�1 pO� as  a  wbole  would  benefit .  The  same  general  opinions  were  given  in  interviews 
�1 1age  leaders  as sembled  in  the  village  office,  in  interviews  with  farmers  in  their 
�tb "�d in  the  returns  received  from  1 , 300  questionnaires  a
ered  in  the  vill ages 
Results  of ' Sections  1-3 ,  which  deal  with  the  farmer s '  reactions  to  various 
b�" diX 
B) .  
(�e�a  of 
the  land  reform  program,  showed  noticeable  difference  in  responses,  wi�h  more 
�peOtS  than  landlords  thinking  the  program  was  good  and  pre-land  reform  owner -operators 
�Y ocoupying  a  middle  pOSition • • 

reported  in  the  villages  that  large  landowners  did  not  obj ect  to  the  program 

dJnin
i

t

s

It  waS 

cb  The  explanation  is  perhaps  six-fold: 

' 
The  land  reform  program  was  supported  by  a  military  occupation,  which  left  lit tl e 

&DO  1111 

(1) 
choice , 
(2) 
urrence 

OCC 

of 
whereby  t ena
f.P1  for 

a

s

le, 

The  general  stoical  outloo

as  more  or  less  inevitable ,  

k 

of  the  people  is  such  that  they  s ee

to  accept  any 

m 

Evidence  exists  that  the  Japanese  themselves  had  given  much  thought  to  the  matter 
landlord-tenant  relations ;  permissive  legislation  had  already  been  worked  out  years  ago 

(3) 

nts  could  buy  land  under  reasonably  equitable  conditions,  if  they  could  find 

nsmen 
(4)  In  the  more  rural  villages ,  a  great  proportion  of  the  farm  tenants  were 
landlords  or  long-time  residents  on  family  lands ,  and  over  the  year s--whether  the 
!fas  tenanted  by  kinsmen  or  not-considerable  ritual  had  developed  in  connection  with 
In  short,  in  many  of  the  villages ,  the  tenants  were  in  effect 

or  tbe 
laud 
�t-landlord  relations . 

ki

houses  or  sub-families  of  the  landad  household,  and  rel igious  traditions ,  as  well 

�oh 
..  economic  and  family  arrangements ,  fostered  this  relationship .  As  a  result ,  many  of  the 
landownsrs  seemed  willing  to  ac�owledge  tbat  t enant  families  were  not  wholly  without  claims 

to  the 

land  they  c

t i

ul

v

ated, 

(5)  The  opportunities  of  the  larger  landowners  to  make  money  from  their  leased-out 

�Dds 
rents 
ln  1946 
torfeit 

had  already  been  undermined  by  legislation  which  shifted  the  basis  of  rent  from  fixed 
in  kind  to  a  relatively  low  cash  rent  per  unit  of  land,  and  by  special  tax  legislation 

and  1947  which  suboj ected  landowners  to  beavy  tax  levies  causing  ma.1Y  of  them  to 
their  land  for  ta

es

x

. 

Large  landowners  generally,  through  their  relatively  wide  range  of  economic  con­

(6) 

tacts , 

have  opportunities  to  enter  types  of  bus iness  other  than  agriculture . 

Most  of  the  former  large  resident  landlords  still  occupy  leading  positions  in  the  vil­

Some  have  extensive  forest  holding s ,   Bome  have  ind

str

al  and  commercial  invest­

arranged  for  his  house ,   which  contained 

lages ,  
aenta,  and  80me  are  professional  people ,  Since  the  sale  of  their  arable  land  to  the  govern­
lent,  80me  have  experimented  witb 
as  sawrnilling  or  mercbandis­
business  ventures , 
�, or  with  some  kind  of  service  to  the  community , 
oonsiderable  number  of  art  obj eots,  to 
�ord 
CODle  a  branoh  of  the  National  Mussum ,  He  seems  to  relish  this  arrangement  and  boasts  of 
be
�e tens  of  thousands  of  people  who  each  year,  for  a  small  fee,  go  through  his  museum ,  He 
t 
':d1t1onal  s eignorial  service  to  the  community.  As 
eum  to  the  local  people,  soms  75  assembled  villagers  were  asked  how  many  of  them  had 
through  tbe  MUseum.  Almoat  every  hand  went  up , 
en 
e 

a  means  for  maintaining  his  prestige  and  a  means  for  performing  a 

test  of  the  possible  meaning  of  this 

aOhieved  two  ends 
I 

one  instance ,   in  Yokogoshi ,   a  large 

such 

new 

1.  e 

In 

u

i

b

s 

S 

_ 

few  of  the  large  landlords  reported  that  their  positions  bad  definitely  declined  in 
th  A 
to e cOllllnuni ty  and  that  they  had  no  means  for  maintaining  their  customary  way  of  li fe  and 
r  Continuing  their  customary  oontributions  to  the  community ,  This  fact  waS  mentioned  by 
• 
tbe  head."  of  the.  households  affected,  sometimes  by  village  leaders ,  and  rather 
� taw  of 
0Irn 

eqUently  by  priests  of  shrines  and  temples  whioh  had  been  supported  rnalnly  by  large  land­
ing  families ,  

169 

::r:
::-:-
..
..
in 

A s  

to  sell 

rioted  above ,  theirs  were 

s ome  la nd  under  the 

the  village s .   The  reoords 

The  greR test  overt  oppos ition  to  the  la nd  reform  program  c�me  from  the  med

a nd  sme ll  re sident  owners  a nd  owner-opera tors  who  ba d  
Many  of  them  compla ined  of  losing  their  la nds .  
purchased  for  the  government  by  commissions 
most  lends  owned  by  households  in  excess  of  retention  limits  were 
cultivated  by  the  family.  Some  families ,  espe oially  those  few 
oes s  of  their  retention  righte ,  c ompla ined  of 

Um_ 
Site<l 
st  �114; 
the  ls �o�, 
out  ra th  that 
indica te  
la n�\!�!1 
a t   home  would  need  to  f ind  a  live l ihood  elsewhere ,  or  t ha t   it  would  not  be  POssible  a  80n 
nO!! 
planned ,  to  give  the  children  an  upPe r  secondary  or  college  educa tion ,  or  tha t  the ' 
'
they  ha d
not  estAblish  for  the ir  s on  or  da ughter  o r   oousin  a  separate  household 
hCOUld 
lf  cho  Wa a  reported  to  ha ve  II\.!I de  little  dl�Pe<l , 
To  others ,  the  loss  of 
ence ,  for  the  land  still  held  has  been  used  more  intens ively ,  s nd  the  family  members  1'el'_ 
t i nue  to  be  employed  pr ofi�bly.  Elderly  couples  living  mostly 
the  rent  from  thet!°n­
fa 1"llls  were  reported  to  h/lve  been  espe cially  h!lndica ppe d ,   be� use  ca s h   rent  ceilings 
of �l'fI 
kept  un cha nged  in  spite  of  the  mounting  inflation  .!!I nd}  a t   the  ssme  time ,  the  area 
ownership  has  been  reduced .  

who 
this  los s  in  concrete 

terms - -tha t  

cultivated 

ta n   or  even 

rented 

II  hA

8S 

lIlt_ 

on 

8 a  

i

II 

lI<l 

BrO!ldly  spe!'lkin g ,  

re form  ha s   ra ised  the  status  of  the  ma j ority  of  sma ll 

a nd  ha s   lowered  the  status  of  s ome  of  the  middle  a nd  smaller  la ndowners . 
tra ditional  differences  betwe en  these  groups  have  been  reduce d .  

!.R nd 

In  short ,   the 

fa rmers 

Tenure 

Ope

ra tion 

a nd 

a 

in 

The  changes  tha t  occurred  between  e.pril  1947  and  De cember  1948  in  the  ow nership 
three  villa ge s   a re  shown  in  Fip.:ures  43 , 

sm9 1 1   repre senta tive  farming  area  in  each  of  three  villages  a re  pre sented. 
( They  tenanted  land  prior  to  the  land  reform ,  bought  it ,  and  became  owner­

operation  of  the  la nd 
facts  for 
Yoshida  (Fi gure  43 ) ,   pr'1 cticlI lly  a ll 
cultiva tors . 
cuI tivators . )   The  households  wh i ch  own  and  operate  the  same  amounts  of  lend  can  readily 
Ile 
seen  on  the  figure ,  for  such  households  a re  '1 t   the  point  of  intercept  between  th
e  ownership 
a
xie 
cember  1948.  The  one  farmer  w h o   i n   e.pr l l   1947  owned  s lightly  more  lend  than  h e   cultivated 
ha d  s old  the  difference  by  De cember  1948 . 

a nd  the  culti"M tlon  a xis .  There  were  22  pure  tell!lnts  in 

e  farmers  who  were  temnts  have  become 

n one  In De­

e nd 
deta i led 

a nd  4 '5 .   The 

�pril 

owner­

1947 

a nd 

44 , 

of 

Iu 

t

h

se cond  type  of  s ituation  is  illus tra ted  (Figure 

for  a  loca l ity  in  NikAido. 

A 

COlI" 
pered  w ith  A.pril  1947 ,  the  amount  of  la nd  owned  by  most  operators  in  December  1948 
WII S  more 
nearly  the  s'lme  a s   the  amount  that  they  cultiVl'lte d ,   but  c ompara tively  few  a chieved 
tull 
ownership.  Seven  of  the  e ight  operators  in  April  1947  who  owned  le nd  in  exces s   of  what 
tenants  ha d   bought  J..g nd ,  before 
they  opera ted  themselves  had  s old  land ,  a nd 
December  1948.  Even  s o ,  only  seven  house hold s  were  pure  owoer-cultiVll tors  at  the  end 
1948,  a nd  four  of  these  hRd  been  s.uch  before  the  lAnd  reform  progrsm 
In  this 
CA lity ,  the  ga p   between  the  erea  owned  a nd  the  a rea  oulti"Mted  wes  narrowed  for  bot/:) 
owners  a nd  temlnts . 
a mount  they  culti vated;  a fter  the  tena nts  bought  la nd ,   their  ownership  more  neArly 
mated  the  size  of  their  operations . 

H'ter  the  owners  sold  land  the ir  holdings  only  slightly  exce eded 

of 
lo­
lilt'&, 
the 
A pproxi­

begs n .  

of  the 

44) 

16 

22 

In  the  loca l ity  in  Suye  (Fi gure  45) ,  the  fa ctors  mentioned  above 

The ' s ize  of  operations  of  one  of  the  largest  opera  tors  decrea s e d   and  the  s ize  of  opera.t!ons 
C8 i�: 

of  the  sma llest  operators  increa s e d ,   leaving  fewer  farms  in  the  smallest  and  larfe st 
gories  a nd  more  in  the  medium-s ized  ca tegorie s .  
le ge s ,   a s   shown  in  Ta ble  17 . 

A.  s im ila r  s ituation  exists  in 

l  13  v 

are 

l

a

e ga  in  evident. 

Fi gures  43-45  ITIIl ke  two  points  cle� r z  

tg:. 
. 
o\pril  1947  to  De cember  1948,  but  (2)  the  size  of  the  fsrm  ma na gement  units  chA nged 
or  s� 
By  way  of  summery ,   es  shown  in  Tebles  C  end  D  ( p   175 ) ,  most  farmers  either  bought 
ld 
64  a:., 
Of  the  89  f arm   h ous ehold s  in  the  three  l oc a11 ties  in  the  th ree  villages ,  
land . 
m ore  land  in  December  1948  tha
s am e .   O n   the  other  hand ,  84  f a�   mena gement  operations  remained  tbe  s ame ,  2  increase , 
d 
and  3  decreased. 

they  had  in  April  1947,  11  owned  leas ,  and  14  owned 

(1)  Ownership  of  fa rm  la nd 

changed 

Irl'eatly

11 

n 

Cha nge s  in  the  land  s itua t i on  .!le o  mllY  be  seen  in  Fi�e s   46  a nd  4 7 ,   wbich  S O"n 
(e�  eta 
r:nd 

the  lOCA lit ies  s tudied  intens ively  in  Obie  and  Nikn ido l 
fields)  which  were  opera ted  by  owners  in  4pril  1947  A nd  in  December  1948 ,  (2)  the 
wh ich  had  been  pu rdssed 

opera ting  tenants  between  April 

(1)  the  trqcts  o f   le nd 

ann  J;€ ccr-:ber 

for 

h 

by 

1947 

lS'48 , 

e�--

e2 --

I--

2 1  

20 -

19-

18:--

1 71"-

16f-

1 5  

0 14 III 
Z 
� I  

Z 
"' 1- 1 2 

LI. 
0 ffi l l 

III 

2 :> z lO 

9 

8 

6 

5 

4 

31-

21-

I t-

LAND  OW N � D   A N D   L A N D   C U LT I VATED 

BY 

3 7  

FAR M   HOU S E H O LDS  IN  YO S H I DA 

I N   A P R I L  

1 9 47 

. 

A N D   I N   D E C E M B E R  

1 9 48 

, 

L 

/!/ 

/ 

/ 

� 

/ 

/ 

/ 

V 
/ 

L E G E N D  

7-

0  A P R  

•  D E C  

1 9 4 7  

1 9 4 8  

V 

� 

/ 

1/ 

-

� 

/ 

1/ 

/ 

// 

10 

o� 

0 

1 

'I"TUft 

2 

3 

4 

6 

) 

7 

5 

9 

8 

1 0  

I I  

1 2  

1 3  

1 4  

1 5  

1 6  

NUMBER  O F  TAN  CULT I VAT E D  

43 

F igure 

171 

5.Jl  � 
: r-
___ r-...:

� 

29 

f 

52 

IT 

37 

2 5  

24 

2 3 

2 2  

2 1  

20 

1 9  

1 8  

1 7  

1 6  

1 5  

1 4  

1 3  

1 2 

' "  

1 0 

9 

8

0 
w 
z 
� 
0 
z 
<t 
f--

u. 
0 

a: 
w 
Ol 
� 
:::l 
Z 

f---

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

1 45 35  1 
I 
I T  

r 
I 

1 
1 
' I  II 

1 
I 

1 
I 

L AND  O W N E D   A N D   L AND  C U LT I VATED 

BY  34  FAR M   HO U S E H O L D S   I N   N I K A I D O  

I N   AP R I L   1 947  A N D   I N   D E C E MB E R  

1 9 48 

L E G E N D  

A PR 

1 9 4 7  

D E C  

1 9 4 8  

BOTH  PERIODS 

o 

• 

X 

f 
1 

---

r--

r-

-... 

-

-

-

t-

r-

r-

r-

1/ 

-

1/ 

V 

1/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

, 

)( 

1/ 

[7 

1/ 

V 

1/ 

X 

i 

}; 

v 

-

-

-

-

I--

---

V 

-

/ 
L/  X 

:7k 

• 

3 

1 

I 

2 

°0 

NATURAL  RESOURCE'S  SECTION 
172 

.i 

Z�r 

2 7 --

26 -

-

2 �  

24 

23 

zz 

2 1 

20 

1 9  

1 8 

1 7  

6 

r 1
�  1 5  --
It 
c 
... 
� 
c 

14 

3 

1

i 

12 
I I  

1 0 

·9 

a 

71-

I 

at-- - -

LAND  O W N E D   A N D   L A N D   CULT I VATE D  

B Y   1 8   FA R M   H O U S E H O LDS 

I N   S UYE 

IN  APR I L   1 9 47  AND  I N   D EC E M B E R   1 948 

1/ 

V 

1/ 

V 

/ 

x 

L E G E N D  
APR 

1 9 47 

0 

D E C  

1948 

• 
X.  BOTH  PERIODS 

/ 

V 

I". 

/ 

/ 

/ 

[7 

1/ 

1/ 

1/ 

1/ 

i' 
\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 

.\ 

-

V 
1/ 

51--.  -

_. 

4 

'/ 

Ie- (v 
;/ 

/ 

1 _ 

3 _ 

2_ -p � 
' 
,ki
.00  � 

2 

I 

oJ 3 

4 

6 

� 

8 

. 
1 0  

1 1  

1 

1 3  

1 4  

1 5  

5 

A- 7 

!'lUMBER  OF  TA N  CULTIVATED 

__ v 

1 1 

1 6 

·"'II'.I.!. 

Figure  44 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

8 
10 
NUMBER  OF  TAN  CULTIVATED 
1 2  

I I  

Figure 

45 

1 4  

1 5  

16 

17 

I B  

1 9  

2 0  

1 3  

173 

::
C H A N G E S  

I N   OW N E R S H I P   O F   T R A C T S   OF  L A N D   I N   A  L O C A L I T Y 

I N   N I K A I D O ,   A P R I L 

D EC E M B E R  

1 9 47  -

1 9 4 8  

,--

!--

L E G E N D  

· 

L a n d   o p e r a t e d 
, n  Ap
r  47 a

d 

b 

Y Owner 
eC 4a 

In  D 

n

L a n d   opera t e d 
In  Apr 

a nd 

· 

47 

enonl 
ec 4a 

by t 
i n  D 

· 

L a n d   opera t ed 
I n  A pr 
I n .Dec 48 
47 

and 

by , 
by oWner 

enam 

H o u se  site 

N t 

S C A L E  

�o , 
..  �,��I .!------.!----�! 

50 

0 

IOO VAROS 

NATURAL  RfSOtJRC£S  SEer/ON 

46 

Figure 

C H A N G E S  

I N   O W N E R S H I P   O F   T R A C T S  OF 

L O C A LI TY 

I N   O B I  E,  A P R I  L 

L A N D 

D E C E M B E R  

I N   A 

1 9 4 7  -

1 9 4 8  

L E G E N D  
:::':'.1  L a n d   opera t e d  

1-:';::;:

owner 

i n   A p r   47  and  Dec  48 

by 

c=J  L a n d   o p e ra ted 
i n   A p r  47  a n d 
i n   D e c  48 

by 

by 

tena n
t 
o w n e r  

�  H o u se  s i t e  

N \ 

SG  A L E  

5 0  

0 

I  I  I  I  I  I 

50 

I 

1 00  YARDS 

NATUR.H  R�SOURCfs  SECrJON 

174 

igure  47 

F

TABLE  C .   - FARM  TENURE;  STATUS  OF  89  FARMERS 

IN  THREE  VILLAGES,  APRIL  1947 

LOCALITIES 

1/\  THREE 

1948 

�n  DECEMBER 

Apr 

47 
89 

39 

32 

4 

status 
...-Total  number  of  farmers 

Pure  tenants 

all  land 

cultivated ) 
(renting 

Part  owner s  and 
part  tenants 

O

wn

er

farm

rs 
e
cultivating  own 

-

land 

OWner-farmers 

cultivating  own  land 
and  in  addition 
leasing  out  some  land 

Total 

Yoshida 

Dec 
48 

Apr 
47 

Dec 
48 

89 

2 

37 

22 

37 

0 

N
Apr 
47 

ika

ido 
Dec 
48 

34 

10 

34 

2 

SUI e 

Apr 

Dec 

47 
18 

7 

48 
18 

0 

42 

27 

14 

18 

14 

17 

12 

17 

0 

1 

19 

1 

4 

8 

7 

8 

6 

0 

5 

8 

1 

9 

TABLE  D .  

CHANGES  IN 

OWNERSH IP 

SIZE 

FOR  89  FARMERS,  APRII.  1947-DECEMBER  1941'l 

FARJ!. 

AND 

-

OF  OPERATION 

Nun,beJ'  of  Farmers 

Total 

Who  bought  land 

Who  sold  land 

Who  neither  bought 
nor  sold  land 

Whose  farm  operation 

remained  the  same  size 

Whose  farm  operation 
increased  in  size 

Whose  farm  operation 
decreased  in  size 

Total 

Yoshida 

Nikaido 

Suye 

89 

64 

11 

14 

84 

2 

3 

37 

35 

2 

0 

35 

0 

2 

34 

16 

7 

11 

34 

0 

0 

18 

13 

2 

3 

15 

2 

1 

by 

were 

tenant s ,  

tenant.ed  i n   both  ) 947  and  }L'48 .  

d  by  tenants  at  both  dates . 

In  Obie,  out  of  a  total  of 
tenant s ,   and  8  were  owner-opersted  at  the  beginning 

!!! !he tra c ts  whi ch 
�e:' 16  had  been  purchased 
__ aede
�Od.by 
(1)  Farm  operations  are  carried  on  with 
t"et-� p
aSSing ,  two  points  should  be  noticeds 
racts  of  land  in  Obie  than  in  Nikaido ,  even  though  the  size  of  the  total  farm  oper­
Obie  is  larger  than  in  Nikaido ;  and  (2)  the  shapes 'and  siz es  of  the  fields,  on 
1n
'�on 
���
evel  land,  differ  greatl,.,  those  in  Obie  being  generally  rectangulAr  in  shape  but 
l
ering  Sizes ,  whereas  most  of  those  in  Nikaido,  outside  of  the  re sidential  areas , 

In  !\i h i (' o ,   out  0:  a  t o1 8 1   cf  S('. 
were  owner-operated  at  both  dates,  and  7  were 
33  had  been  pur­
the  end  of  the  18-month 

41  tra
and 

JJ 

ct s

, 

or  dirt 

17 5 

are  oblong  and  highly  regular  in  ehape  and  siz e .   This  type  of  plot  arrangement 
still  found  in  Nikaido ,  was  borrolled  from  the  Chinese  a  thousand  years  ago ,  fol" 
veniences  as  tax  collection ,  and  has  not  changed  a  great  deal. 

whi 

SUch 

ch 
1, 
cOb_ 

Land  Purchases 

Of  the  5 , 858  cho  of  land  purcha sed  through  the  land  commissions  in  the  13  villa 
(Table  10) ,  39  percent  was  paddy,  40  percent  was  cultivated  upland ,  and  21  percent  .:ee 
pa sture  and  forest  land  suitable  for  reo lamation  and  therefore  subject  to  land 

a 

ref' 
The  village  commi ssions  purchased  land  tor  the  government  from  3 ,000  owners  1 

Ol'la. 

whom  "ere  resident . owners  and  1 , 360  absentee  owners .  Of  the  total  area  p
sed  6)40 
paz.­
cent  was  from  resident  owners  and  37  percent  from  absentee  o'lfllers .  The  average  a� 
purchased  from  the  resident  owners  was 
cho  and  from  the  absentee  owners  1  8  ch�t 
2 .4 
greatest  number  of  res ident  owners  from  whom  purchases  were  made  was  in  Nikaido  (346)  Th, 
Yokogoshi  had  the  largest  number  of  absentee  owners  (210)  from  whom  purchases  were  �d 

urcha

as  shown  in  Table  E ,  

" 

or 

6 

TABLE  E. 
FROM  WHOM  LAND 

- NUMBER 

OF  RESIDENT 

WAS  PURCHASED , 

ABSENTEE  LANDOWNERS 

APRIL  1947-DECElffiER  1948 
AND 

Resident  Owners 

Absentee  Landlords 

Village 

Number 

( cho) 

Land  Purchased 
Through 
Commis sion 

!I 

Land  Purchased 
Through 
C ommission  !I 
(cho) 

Numb er 

Total  13 

1 , 640 

3 , 264 

1 , 360 

11  rural 
2  urban 

1, 376 
264 

Ebetsu 
Mizuwake 
Yok
g
o s
o
Nobuta 
Karako 
Futomi 

hi 

Kawashiro 
Nikaido 
Yoshida 
Obie 
Aioi 
Honami 
Suye 

193 
128 
58 
130 
60 
12 

201 
346 
�l 
60 

114 
71 
186 

1 , 310 
1 , 954 

1 ,/392 
65 
610 
87 

ND 
3 

ND 
180 
124 
122 
69 
62 
50 

1 , 032 
328 

173 
103 
210 
25 
70 
59 

91 

99 
11 
109 
104 
155 
151 

2 , 108 

544 
1 , 564 

1 , 468 
70 
200 
10 

ND 
5 

ND 
19 
5 
109 
75 
96 
51 

!I  These  amounts  are  less  than  those  shown  in  Table  10  b ecause  breakdown 

a ccording  to  resident  or  absentee  purchasers 

not  available  for 
do  not  include  land  paid  to 

was 

and  Kswashiro. 

K a rako 
the 
land 

government  in  lieu  of  taxes 

Als o ,   these  data 

nd  reform  program . 

whi ch  was 

a cquired 
No  data  available 

the  l e

under 

i ncluded 

Table  10  eS 

in 

ND :  

The  largest  amount  of  hnd  purchased  from  one  person  in  any  village  was  110  cb�s.:b­
Yokogoshi  from  a  resident  owner;  the  second  largest  amount  was  50  cho  in  Obie  fro:  as1 
aho  in  YOShida  from  a  resident  owner ,  and  16  cho  in  :"  10 
f  arable 
0 

s entee 
In  Nobuta ,  the  largest  amount  bought  trOll  a  single  owner 
44 
from  an  absentee  O1'Iner . 
cho  bought  from  a  resident  owner ,  but  this  owner  previously  had  forfeited  35  cho 

tol101'led  by 

owner , 

commiSSion , 

hsd  already  s old 

the  government  in  lieu  of  unpaid  taxe s .  

In  Yoshida ,  the  large  resident  owner ,  who 
pre­
in  a  special  transaction,  which  stood  unchallenged  by  the  village  land  commis sion. 
theSe  earlier  transactions  to  those  of  the  COmmi ssion,  the  resident  owner  in  Yoshida 
a  single  owner  in  any  of  the 

JI!Id 11 ebO  to  the  local 
'
,old  1 
jddSll81d to  the  government  137  cho ,  the  largest  amount  sold 
��� 
,  ,0 �gee . 

These  data  on  changes  in  land  ownership  resulting  trom  the  land  reform  program  show 
most  of  the  farmers  were  affected  in  the  red1str�bution  of  land;  therefore,  any  dis­

tI18\OJl of 
�ss  enehip  and  democratic  behavior  concerns  the  vast  maj ority  of  farmers . 

the  sign1.ticance  of  the  initial  phases  of  land  reform  in  relation  to  leadership, 

cho  of  e reble 

yea rs 

land 

tw o 

by 

93 

eitil 

, 

By  design,  however,  Bome  local  land  was  continued  under  tenant  operation. 

In  addition 

the  former  owner  some  remaining  land,  th ese  retentions  allow  for  payment  of 

assuring 

ional  new  householder .  The  proportion  ot  the  arable  land  rented  out 

to  t frOID land  as  aupport  for  elderly  people  and  others  unable 
:: alSO provide  leeway  for  future  land  transfers  so  as  to  permit  the  establishment 
�ed  11 
!:t to  25  percent 

December  1948 
percent  for  the  villages  as  a  whole.  The  range  was  from  one  percent  in  Yokogo­

operate  their  olin  fields 

Bonami . 

in 

of 

in 

an 

to 

Ten  of  the  13  villages  had  land  recls.tion  projects  (Table  18) .  The  largest  project 

RECLAMAT ION  PROJECTS 

LAND 

of  work  on  these  projects  vs·ried  from  one  vill a ge  to 

w
as 
270  cho f  the  largest  amount  in 

d
ol
working  o n   sollie  projects  and  other  projects  sti11  in  the  early  planning  stag e .  

in  Ebetsu  and  involved  about  5 ,000  cho ,   In  the  other  nine  villages,  projects 
one  village  being  85  cho  in  Karako .  The  prog­
a 1 -

_  tar 
towed 
,.,8 
,..4: 
�, 
praotically  all  of  which  is 
Used  tor  new  households}  in  the  other  villages  88  of  the  270  cho  of  reclamation  land  are 

relatively  little  real  headway  has  been  made  in  the  extensive  proj ected  reclamation, 

peat  bog  area s .   Here  all  the  reclamation  land  is  to  be  uti­

anothe r ,   with  new 

any 

in 

In 

us

s 

h

h

o

e

used  to  enlarge  the  holdings  of  present  farmers ,  and  182  cho  are  to 

t;o  be 
99 

new  households . 

used  for  about 

be 

Reclamation  projects  are  not  possible  in  Yokogo shi,  Futomi ,  and  Nikaido  because  full 
all  the  land  for  forests ,  reservoirs,  and  house  sites . 

is  being  made 

In  nine  of  the 

10  villages,  there  is  little  possibility  of  further  reclamation . 

In  Ebetsu,  where 
of  this  nature  might  be  done ,  it  is  not  yet  known  whether  the  peat  bog  reclama­

of 

efforts  can  be  successful . 

If  they  are,  further  reclamation ,  in  addition  to  the  5 ,000 

now  under  consideration,  is  pos sible .  On  the  other  hand,  not  all  of  the  reclamation 
tentatively  planned 

be  carried  out . 

use 
otber 
lOre  work 
tion 
cbo 

!lOll 

III&Y 

� 

f.at  bog  reclamation  aeems  to  be  a  ma j or  hope  of  the  leaders  in  Ebetsu,  and  it  has 
discussed  a  great  deal  in  recent  month s .   Exploratory  efforts  t o   start  another  recla­
on  project,  tor  settling  about  500  Christian  fam1l1 es  in  a  peat  area  in  Ebetsu  and  an 

�!l
� 01n1ng 
�  Can  be  felt  for  success  of  these  and  other  tentative  projects  only 
�t bog 

an  effective 
clay  is  applied  to  the 
In  December  1948,  vil­
held  little  bope  for  either  of  these  things  being  done  in  the  months  just  ahead. 

village  al so  have  been  made  in  recent  months ,  Apparently ,  however ,  a  reasonable 

if 
in  considerable  quantity  to  make  it  usable  for  farming . 

drainage  system  is  provided  in  each  settlement  area  and 

-.for 

if 

�'re 

the  182  aho 

the  villages  other  tha.n  Ebetsu  to  be  used 

lOa  Ot 
i o
\be ttered  small 
h..,��-1n1ng  112  aho  are  in  larger  proj ects  and  are  being  administered  by  prefectural 
·--.-tion  official s .  

by 
the  local .agricultural  land  commi

aacrunts  are  b9ing  administered 

by 

in 

ss

n

new  settlers ,  70  aho  in 
s ;  

�t1on  proj ects , 

tec'.� December  1948  the  village  people ,  except  in  Ebetsu,  were  pleased  with  the  local 
d ... 
�·�tel1 

thOUght  the  new  land  would  be  made  available  only  to  new  settlers .  They  felt  there 

objeoted  to  the  reclamation  projects.  They  seemed  to  resent 

v1ilagers  had  been  noncommittal  or  had 

In  June  1947,  however, 

propos als ,  for 

maDY 

the 

Il1 

own 

Dn 

land 

operators . 

ones  on  the  ne" 

were  already  enough  farm  households,  and  the  addition  ot 
would  lessen  the  chanoes  for  the  long. established  households  to  increase  their 
la  llot  Ob�_ 
ings  but  would  also  cut  dOlfll  on  the  amounts  of  fuel  and  compost  the  latter  wOuld  �d  hOl� 
to  procure .   Most  serious  of  all,  in  their  thinking,  was  that  if  the  land  "ere 
for  new  settlers,  the  enlargement  of  their 
Ilbl, 
woUld  be  f'orever  precluded.  The  change  in  attitude  toward  land  reclamation  by  D  II  PIIOj, 
� 
1948  seems  to  have  turned  upon  the  fact  that ,  a s   mentioned  above,  more 
the  reclaimed  land,  except  in  Ebetsu,  is  to  be  uS!3d  1:0  enlarge  the  holdings  of  re  1 
The  positions  occupied  by  the  new  residsnts  in  the  life  of  the  villages 

e
farms  by  means  ot  local  reClamati�

In  the  older  localities,  most  of  the  new  residents  are  people  who  had  been  born  tb:reatl), 
had  moved  to  Formosa ,  Manchuria,  or  sOnte  other  colony.  These  families  are  readily  re  'lid 
absorbed  into  the  life  of  the  community,  beoause  of  their  family  and  pe rsonal  OOnne��· 
In  Karako,  a  long.established  village,  the  new  settlers  on  the  abandoned  airport 
Ill'  �Ol\e, 
ing  forward  to  establlshIng  their 
Ebetsu,  the  lDaj� 
of  the  new  settlers  are  not  kinsmen  of  local  families,  but  people  who  had  moved  into  it, 
reclamation  areas  in  small  groups  £loom  baokgrounds  that  differ  both  from  the  lOCal 
lagers  and  from  each  other ,  
the  scattered  peat  bog  reclamation  areas  1n  Eb
VUthe 
t
cally  all  of  the  settlers  were  "outsiders"  who  had  moved  there  in  small  groups . 
, practl_ 

buraku.  Here,  however,  as 

one.��b� 
s 

d 
Of 
d�t 

vny 

than 

oak. 

llBd 

in 

In 

own 

su 

e 

0 

. ­

e

THE 

NEW  AGRICULTURAL 

COOPERATIVES 

In  Deoember  1948, 

12 

of  the  villages  each  had  one  �illage-wide  general  purpose  agri_ 
In  the  13th,  Ebetsu,  which  is  large  in  area  and 
POpul� 

cultural  cooperative  association . 
there  were  two,  so  that  farmers  could  have  more  convenient  access  to  one  or  the  other. 
13  villages  as  a  whole  had  29  speoialized  agricultural  cooperative  aSSOCiations,  also 
the  village  level ,  One  of  the  most  important  specialized  activities  is  sericulture, 
many  of  the  sericultural  cooperatives  were  therefors  also  organized  on  the 
Special  cooperatives  lIerve  looal  groups 
In  addition,  villagers  partioipate  in 
or 
such  activities  as  the  marketing  ot  livestock,  dairy  products,  fruits ,  and  poultry, 

on 
and 
t8lldlles  on  the  larger  recla1l8tion  projects. 
buraku  level. 
or  prefectural  cooperatives  which  center  arOUDd 

gw'l 

n-' 

Mizuwake  had  seven  local  cooperatives ,  the  largest  number  of  this  type  in  any  ODe 
lage .  Six  villages  had  only  a  village..."ide  general  purpose  cooperative. 
vUe 
In  eight  villa, .. , 
some  of  the  farmers  were  members  of  gun-wide  cooperatives,  and  in  one  village ,  some  fanMrl 
belonged  to  a  prefectural  cooperative. 

General  Purpose  Cooperatives 

In  December  1948,  the  membership  in  general  purpose  cooperatives  in  the  13  village8 
farm  house­
nonfarm  people  who  are  perJdtted a 

totaled  11 , 179  and  included  one  or  more  members  from  about  95  percent  of 
hold s .   About 
limited  type  of  membership  without  voting  privileges .  Further  facts  about  membership, 
bosrds  of  directors,  and  informal  neighborhood  groups  are  shown  in  Table  38. 

percent  were  associate  members, 

!  !, 

all 

12 

1'be  present  agricultural  oooperative  assooiations ,  established  under  the  terms  of  • 

have  as  their  purpose  rendering  maximum  serv; 
law  which  became  effeotive 
ice  to  the  membership .  They 
democratioally  controlled  and  are  operated  by  the  member 
for  their  own  benefit .  A  statement  about  the  oreation  of  the  new  s.gricultural  cooperati.' 
a ssociations  and  a  description  of  the  conditions  which  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the 
time  agricultural  assooiations  (Nogyokai)  are  contained  in  Appendix  E .  

December  1947, 

war­

in 

arc 

As  shown  in  Table  38,  of  the 

members  of  the  boarde  of  direotors  of  the  new  .� 
oultural  cooperative  associations,  only  39  were  formerly  officers  in  the  Nogyokal .  Tb·
election  of  directors  without  prior  experienoe  to  73  percent  of  the  posts  was  a  ch� 
o
real  importance  in  most  villages . 
majority  of  the  board  members  of  the  farmers '  organization 

(Actual  farmere,  for  the  first  time,  constituted 

144 

the  village . )  

.... 1 .. 
! 

• 

in 

Board  of  Directors 

A  new  and  distinctive  oharao­

to 

ter  has  been  given 
the  whole  co­
operative  framework  at  the  village 
level  by  the  election  of  farmers  t9 
virtually  all  the  positions  on  the 
boards  of  directors . 
In  six  of . the 
nine  villages  for  which  detailed  in­
formation  on  this  subj ect  i s   avail­
able ,   more  than  four-fifths  of  the 
direotors  were  farmers  who  had  not 
been  directors  of  the  government­
controlled  Nogyokai;  the  remainder 
had  been  former  Nogyokai  directors. 
This  use  of  at  least  a  few  Nogyokai 
offioials  was  in  many  instances  belp· 
in  enabling  the  oooperative  to 

ful 
funotion  effectively,  because  these 
' officials  were  aoquainted  with  the 
functions  and  proJects  of  the  Nogyo­
kat ,  Some  of  the  properties  of  the 
Nogyokai  were  acquired  by  the  new 
c ooperatives  under 
suthorized 
properti es.  Capital  i nvestments  of 
the  genersl  pu�ose  coor�ratives  in 
each  village  are  shO'Nn 

to.  take  over  such 

law  which 

Table 

them 

th� 

in 

r. 

More 

than 

tour-fifths  ot  the  board 

agrioul tural  co­

members  of  the 
operatives  are  actual  tarmers ,   Here 
the  board  ot  direotors  at  Karako  holds 
a  meeting. 

DeW 

TABLE  F.  _  CAPITAL  INVESTi4ENT  IN  COOPERATIVES 

• 

(yen) 

FEDERATIONS ,  DECEMBER  1948 

AND 

Name  of 
AS80ciation 

Total  14 

11  rural 
urban 

3 

Ebetsu  £I 

Mizuwake 
Yokogoshi 
Nobuta 
Karako 
Kawashiro 

Futomi 
Nikaido 
Yoshida 
Obis 

Aioi 
Honami 
Suye 

Paid.Up  Capital 

of  Village 
Cooperatives  !I 
4,056,700 

2 , 377, 000 
1 , 679, 700 

651 ,000 
713,000 
128 , 000 
360,000 
285 ,000 
301, 900 
97, 000 

116 ,700 
511 , 800 
186, 800 
108 , 600 
239 , 200 
315 ,700 
42 ,000 

Capital 
Subscriptions 
in  Federations  Q/ 

Unpaid  Subsoriptions 
in  Federatiqns  21 
as  of  Dec  48 

1 , 865 , 450 

1 , 5 68 , 450 
297 , 000 

,

135 ,000 
62 , 000 
200
000 
3 5 ,000 
91,000 
6
, 000 
5
000 
300

,

43 ,000 
300 ,000 
130 ,000 
80, 450 
284 ,000 
100,000 
40 ,000 

584 , 500 

584, 500 

° 
0 
0 
150,000 
0 

° 
° 
225 , 000 

0 

° 
67 , 500 

° 
142 , 000 

0 

° 

!I  Most  village  agrioultural  cooperative  associations  plan  to  increase  their  paid.up 

capital  stocks  in  the  near  future,  some  as 

as  11,000,000. 

W  A  federation  is  a  cooperative,  the  members  of  which  are  l.ocal  cooperative  associ-

much 

ations . 

�  Ebetsu  has  two  general-purpose  cooperatives .  

y 

The  fact- that  a  ma j orit

of  the  directors  were  farmers  without  previous 
spe

adm1nist 
experience  was  clear  in  many  villages .  They  were  not  nearly  so  ready  of 
abou
e
"8th, 
cooperatives  or  affairs  in  ·general  as  had  been  the  directors  of 
t 
Nogyoka i ,  
18  mOnth�e 
earlier .  Thsse  farmer-directors  of  the  new  agrioultura1  cooperative  as sociati
on
s  Wer  a 
l ibera te ,  and  their  thinking  was  centered  on  the  village  cooperative  itsel f .   They  dl: q� 
or  care,  muoh  about  over-all  cooperative  matters ;  rather  they 
seell  to 
bot 
e� 
know, 
ttention  primarily  to 
the  cooperative  could  make 
tioo  ot  such  purely  local  problellB  as  expanding  looal  processing  of  farm products. tna�\l� 
and  Belling  more 
grc8te� t  1be 
limitations  in  the  outlook  of  t
h
strength  in  relating  the  new  agricultural  cooperatives  to  local  conditions . 

obtaining  supplies,  and  marketing  farm  products 

new  £armer-direotors  might 

handiorait  produets , 

prove  to  be  the� r  

tb 
in  the  s 

oontributions 

onorete 

devoted 

the  o

the 

ch 

�� 

e 

a

_ 

waa 

percent . 

each  of  the  Villages  there  were  some  instances  in 

In 

12 
erviewe
wite  were  member s .   In  most  of  the  villages,  persons  in
t
women  would  ever  j oin  the  cooperatives,  though  'they 
t

s 
nd  and 
vely 
of  women  would  gradually  increase  over  a  period  or 
was  that  the  husband  is  the  head  of  the  family  and  hence  its  natural 
in  the  cooperative .   In  two  of  the  villages--those  with  the  fewest  women  mem­

belieVed 
years .  The  general 

d 

h

repre­

at 

of 

leaders 
given  in  Appendix  B,  Section  4. 
s 

farmers 

he 

r

laughed  when  the  question  was  asked  whether  women  were 
on  the  desi

women  officials  in  the 

abilit

of 

y 

having 

village
hu

sba

few 

13 
lot  .11  th 
�cb ��t relati
tilt  .berehlp 
�  �o!  view 
�lnt
t1�e 
the  a.sembled  village 
�nt4 
�tf-;'  A
:rat1ves are 
::::

tti tude

t

The  new  agricultural  cooperatives  are  generally  reported  by  farmsrs  to  be  a  real  i� 
­
ents  are
t

provement  over  tbe  earlier  agrio.ultural  as
mentioned,  particularly  the  faot  that  the  delivery  quota s   need  not  be  turned 
e  n� 
b
in  at 
em 
agricultural  cooperatives  unless  the  farmer  elects  to  do  ao.  Under  the  present  sys
t
s  an  officiai 

Various  concrete  improvem

iations , 

oc

s

dealer  who 
has 
handler  can  re
c

a 
been  designated 
'l1 
a
eive  quota  deliveries ,  and  almost 

dealer  can  be  designated  as  such 
any 
if  enough 
farmers  certify  their  desire  to  deliver  to 
him 
Al so ,   the  farmer  can  usually  obtain  payment  fo; 
the  crops  delivered  on 
the 
or  on 
the  followillg  day ,  whereas  under  the  Nogyoke!  • 
week  to  a  mont.l;1  often  pas sed .  Farmers  obvioual,. 
like  to  receive  their  payments  promptly--best  ot 
all 

the  same  day  that  they . deliver  their 

day  of  delivery 

00 
quotas. 

Anotber  improvement ,  as  the  farmers  see  it, 

to 

mueb 

is  that  the  new  ooopera tives  are  much  closer 
the  farmers .  They  report  that  they  feel 
more  as  if  tbey  were  coming  to  their  own  organi­
zation  tban  they  did  under  Nogyokai  cond i tione. 
This  .feeling  was  most  noticeable  among  the  small 
farmers ,  including  thos e   with  the  fewest  contac�, 
who  pointed  out  that  they  received  their  cheek. 
promptly  and  that  the  Ill8nagement  and  of ric' ere 
seemed  to  have  mo
eir  own  farm  problems .   Not  all  farmers 
t
h
these  viElils ,  but  a  maj ority  seemed  to  have 
faith  in  the  new  cooperative s   than  the 
tarmers 
had  had  in  the  Nogyokai  when  the  villages  were 
visited  lB  months  earlier . 

re  time  to  talk  with  them  about 

shared 
mGti 

A  farmer 

starts  ou·t  for  the 

cooperative  to  deliver  hi s  
crops,. 

done  in 
m

��ch  of  the  field  work  for  this  report  was 
fe� 
onths  after  most  of  the  new  agricultural  coop�: 
ative  asaociations  were  established .  Some  o�an 

er  and  December 

1948 ,  just 

Novem
b

her 

a 

less  informed  villagers  seemed  to  know  little  or  nothing  about  the  cooperatives  ot
that  the  Nogyokai  bad  been  dissolved  and  that  the  cooperatives  had  been  orga
nized . 
villages ,   spe
tra

In 
ial  buraku  meetings  were  held  in  which  the  membership  of  the  Nogyokai  W8 8. 

sferred  en  masse  to  the  new  cooperatives . 

c

roafI1 

n

Woman ' s   PartiCipation 

The  legislation  creating  the  new  agricultural  cooperative  assooiations 

women  who  qualify  as  farmers  to  become  vottns  members  on  a  basis  of  equality  with  me�d8 in 
otic e ,  h
pr
of  all 
a
h  there  was  no  adult  male  head.  In  eight  villages ,  five  percent  or  less 
whi
were  women.  The  highest  proportion  of  women  in  any  village  was  30  percent,  and  th e 
c

to  hou8eh°memb�' 
v�age 
a 

was  almost  entirely  limited 

,  actual  membership  of 

authorized 

owever

women 

1n 

�8r;. 
�e8'der 

period.  More  of  them  have  been  appealing  their 

new  Olmer-operators  were  somewhat  fearful  that  they  lnight 

through  higher 
of  the  gains  that  they  made  during  the  relative�  prosperous  illlDlediate  post­
assessments  than  ever  but 
vll­
' 

}1s 
'f  80m8 
8  a tedioUS 
¢'  �al1 to  get  records  of  their  crop  yields  and  other  pertinent  facts  to 
:'peDdiX B, 
� district  tax 

offioel' • .  For  a  discuseioD ·of  the  farmers '  attitudes  towards  taxes  see 
place  before 

time-consuming  procedure  which  often  requires  that  they  go  to  the

Seotion  5 .   For  information  about  the  use 

appeal  procedures  see  Seotion  6. 

loee, 

tax 

of 

Chapter  2 

IlIFLA.TION  AND  THE  DECLINE  OF  THE 

B

C
lA

K  EARlE'!' 

The  problems  of  which  the  farmers 

Villages  were  most  keen�  aware 

cember  1948  were : 

13 
heavier  delivery  quotas J  and  (4)  limited  supplies  of  rationed  cotton  goods,  rubber  atl 

(1)  increased  taxes J   (2 )  inflation  and  the  decline  of  the  blaok 

in  De_ 
lllark 

in 

( 3 )  
shoes,  and  fertilizer  (particularly  potash  and  phosphate ) .  

PROBIEMS 

FARMEP.B 

OF  THE 
the 

II£REASED  TAJiliS 

Increased 

were  a  principal  problem  everywhere . 

In  June  1947,  taxes  were 

tax8S 
tioned  ae  just  one  among  several  rroblems ;  in  �ece�ber 
talked-about  problem. 

1948 ,  t a xes  had 

become  the  most 

men­

in 

Taxes  and  public  imposts 

the  1947  fiscal  year  increased  sharply  over  those  in 
1946  fiscal  year  as  shown  in  Table  A,  Part  II.  One  of  th�  most  noticeable  increases 
in  the  national  income  tax,  which  is  now  the  biggest �ing1e 
increaae ,  in  spite  of  considerable  variation,  was  IIIOre  pronounced  in  the 
(622 
waa 
first  year  that  most  farmers  were  subj ect  to  inoome  taxation,  tax  assessment  procedure I 
were  at  first  not  standardized,  and  the  size  of 
assessments  sesmed  to  be  influenced 
in  varying  degrees  by  such  factors  as  the  availability  of  nonfarm  income  tax  s
the  area,  the  po1Hicsl  strength  of  local  farmers ,  and  the  local  tax  collection  goal  fixed 
by  the  government. 

tax 
rural 
ges  (355  percent ) .   However,  because  1946 

the 
wa. 
for  farmers .  The  average 

than  in  the  two 

urban  villa

c
Per

Villa," 
the 

tax 

ces 

nt

in 

11 

our

) 

e

Special  or  one-time  taxes  represent  a  substantial  part  of  the  taxes  collected 

of  the  villages .  However,  these  taxes  are  not  part  of  the  regular  taxing  program  an
affect  only  a  few  of  the  wealthiest  farmers .  

in  some 
d  80 

and 

Prefectural 

village  taxes  are  imposed  within  the  framework  established  by 
are  levied  at  standard  rates .  The  land ,  house ,  and  business  taxes  in 
and 

natioM 
legislation 
the 
1946  fiscal  year  were  changed  into  local  taxes  to  provide  additional  revenue  sources  for 
Increasing  costs  of  local  government  and  legal  limitations  on  local 
local  governments . 
taxing  possibilities  have  necessitated  a  substantial  increase  in  informal  public  imposts 
to  defray  expenditures  which  are  essentially  of  a  public  nature .  Most  of  these  imposts 
were  assessed  on  the  basie  of  local  customary  concepts  of  ability  to  pay,  determined 
auch  factors  as  soale  of  farming,  amount  of  property 
circumatances .  Although  these  levies  have  no  legal  basis,  social  and 
are  sufficient  to  make  payment  compulsory. 

bf 
social  prestige,  and  familY 

cOmmunity  pressures 

awned, 

public 

The  principal 

i"post  is  for  the  construction  of  the  new  schools  needed  to 
. 
aC-
commodate  the  increased  enrollment  caused  by  the  extenaion  of  the  period  of  compulsorY
1 
education  to  nine  years.  The  1948  outlay  for  this  purpose  is  larger  in 
of  the 
vi  -
lages  than  it  was  in  1946  or  1947.  Because  of  differences  in  local  construction  and 
fi­
nancing  schedules,  however ,  in  other  villages  the  principal  part  of  the  burden  fell  in 
1946  or  1947.  The  increased  costs 
permanent
increase  in  local  levies .   In  some  villages,  the  pressure  of  staple  food  co11ect1.on 
,aS 
t
imposts  for  finanoine  irrigation  projects  aimed  at  increasing  rics 
qUO 

education  have  generally  resulted  in  a 

many 

tctr 

inc

ea

haa  caused 
production. 

r

sed 

h

W8to 

prob

em  of  inflation  was  on  the  tongues  of  villagers  everywhere.  Aocording 
l

villagers,  inflation  entered  into  di8oussions  of  farming  operations  and  in
fhe 
t

er  or  not  their  ohildren  went  to  high  8chool,  it  determined  the  upkeep  of  the 
temples ;  and  it  affected  the  outlook  for  the  future .  Frequent  references  were 

t
whe
�p{nes  end 
�;  to  the  phenomenal�  large  amount 
er-driven  thresher,  or  a  calt. 
� 
ptI'  Althougb  farm  pricss  are  established  on  a  parity  with  official  prices  of 
eel  by 
::: it  necessary  to purchase 
tibe  other  hand,  the  improved  food  situation 

farmers ,   farmers  pointed  out  that  scarcity  of  theee  items  at  official  prices 

substantial  portion  ot  commodities  at  black-market  prices . 

yen  now  needed  to  purcbase  a  pIa..,  a  bicyo1e ,  a 

stringent  oontrols  resulted  in 

� 
lei' 
tbat  inflation  was  not  hurting  tbem  eo  much  as  was  the  imbalance  between  farm  in

farm  produots  at  black-market  prices.  Again 

again  farmers  mentioned 

o  deoie1ons 

lelling 

and  1II0re 

items 

pur-

and 

s , 

to 

of 

of 

a 

are  recei ved  inoreas1ng�  frOID  the  sale  of  farm  products  tlu;ough  official  prices , 
ving  expenses,  which  still  involve  the  purchase  of 
sources. 

necessities  tbrough  unoffi­

1Iflny" 

come

tb1ch 
and  11 
cial 

Villagers ,  naturally  enough,  were  loath 

acknowledge  that  they  personal�  had  sold 

to 
tars  products  on  the  black  market,  but  they  would  talk 
UT.lties  of  villagers  "in  general " .   They  inBisted  that  they  s1mp�  had  to  purchase  neces­
on  the  black market  becauee  not  enough were  available  in  rationed  supplies  and  that 
selling  on  the  black  market  was  necessary  to  obtain  enough  money  for  unavoidable  black 

about  the  black  market  ac­

freely 

tities 
.� 
-.rket  purchase s .   The  farmers  felt  it  wo

much  easier  to  sell  within  official  chan­

if  the  ·supply  of  essential  consumer  goods  at  official  prices  were  more  abundant. 

uld  be 

nels 

The 
idaq1lAte  food 

reaSODS 

for 

decline  of  the  blaok  market  were  discussed  in  Part  II : 

(1)  1II0re 
(2)  larger  yields ,  resulting  partly  from  more  fertilizer;  (3 )  ear­

the 

deliveries  resulting  from  an  increase  of  incentive  goods  and  better  publicity 

imports ; 

quotas;  and  (4)  more  use  of  the  courts  to  prosecute  black  market  offenders 

delivery 

.aer  rood 
lor 
1n  lome 

of 
localities . 

DELIVERY  QUOTAS 

HEA VIER 

Some  farmers  in  all  of  the  villages,  and  practically  all  the  farmers  in  some  villages , 
la1ned 
the  heavy  delivery  quotas  and  said  that  they  are  getting  even  heavi er.  This 

OIIp
o 
t 
•  ter 

seemed  to  be  of  great  ooncern. 

of 

o

e

r

e 

of 

ntag

�
4111 

tween  farm  households  cultivating  s�milar  crops . 

The  pe
8  varied  great� as  shown  in  Table  20.  Apparent�,  no  uniform  method 

the  1948  orop  locally  estimated  as  needed  to  satisty  the  delivery 
assessing 
IIId  �ery  quotas  was  followed.  They differed  markedly  between  generally  similar  village
those  villages  where  orop  yields  were  ehort  for  one  reason 
�n general  among  the  particular  farmers  everywhere  whose  quotas  required  the  largest 
IiIlt1 nothing,  whereas  the  farmers  who  were  bothered  complained  loudly.  For  further  infor­

s 
naturally,  the  complaint. 
another , 

the  people  who  were  not  bothered  about  their  quotas 

farmers '  attitude  toward  quotas , 

Appendix  B,  Section  5 .  

In  ahort, 

crops. 

Quite 

fer 
IIId 

on  of 

the

tes

It1d 

gre

in 

of 

ir 

or 

t 

a

a 

a88 

Oil  On 

LIMITED  SUPPLIES 

PROBLEMS 

OTHER 

. 

Shortages  o f   clothing  were 

en 
viUag tiotled 

m
residents  of  praoti cally  all 
of  the  greatest  local  problems .   C
has  been  especially  scarce,  and 
ber-soled  boots  and  shoss
olothing  was  evident 
ev
the  tarm  people  were  we
h
a
garments .  Moreover 
of  the 
arti cles  of  olothing  which  were 
to  be  ripped  up  and  remade 
could  not  get  the  sizes  needed,  and 
bol t  cotton  was  Wlavallable  for 
ing  that  was  sorely  needed 
another  of  the  household .  

� 
o:� all  0llt 
IK)  ha on  c.l.� 
The  need ;8 � 
01'  !lot. 
as 
l
eavi
y
b,y  Of 
rea  patclt'4 
aval�b;:-de 
because  Pur  , � 
��I�. 

be
IDllking 
for  one  membClo� 
81'  01' 

erywhere, 
r

J  many 

ing 

aile, 

lll&

Farmers  listed 

of 

lot

ing 

c

h

seeo 

lack 
in  answer  to  the  question,  "What  are  the  I1d 
eatest  difficulties  in  your  living 
gr
ditions  at  the  present  time ? "   Thirty-one 
con_ 
percent  specified  income  tax,  25  percent 
clothing ,  19  percent  bigh  prices , 
12  percent 
food,  11  perc
lack  of  cash,  4  percent  shortage  of  fert1_ 
percent 
lizer,  1  percent  shortage  of  labor ,  and 
p

nt  delivery  quotas ,  6 
e

roent  other  difficultie s .   � 

4 

e

The  lack  of  fertilizer  and  compost  ... 

mo

t  or  work . 

no

s 
ot  oritical  importanoe
'
, 
yield  is  lower  when  he 
ot 
either ,  and  yet  he  must  perform  the  same 

too  litt

for  the  farm

r
e
has 
le 
ed  in  Part  II, 
age s   had  as 

Wl

a
t
As 
three-fourths  of  the  vi
nitrogen  fertilizer  as  needed,  but  not 
enough  phosphate  and  potash ,  espeoially 
latter
. 
ward  to 

n.ull 
� 
he  time  when  they  will  have  all  till 
t

Farmers  are  hopet'ully  looking  fCtr­

ommercial  fertili�er  they  want . 

.bQ� 

much 

ll

c

The  amount  of  compost  that  is 

-

a

ng

used  bJ  • 

th. 
oonsuming  work  of  colleoting  material' 

farmer  is  determined  largely  by  the  aGount 
of  family  labor  that  can  be  devoted  to 
time
for  making  it  because  in  most 
areas  fore,t. 
containing  co�post  material  are  within  reecb• 
Broadly  sp
e
sulted  in  no  s i
righte  of 
ial,  although  in  three  of  the 
aeveral 
their  r
aDd  grass land  for  compost. 
every  inatanoe  these  handicaps  were 

lJ  vilJagel 
had  trouble  in  exercieinS 
tram  t� 
�. 
rellO 

the  land  reform  has  re­
fioant  changes  in  the 
to  colleot  oomp

ht  to  gather  materiale 

gni
far�r8 

In  praotlca 

tarmers 

1IIIlte2"" 

st 

1g

,t 

ki

o

, 

ge

s  add 

rce nta

These 
pe
to 
peroent,  because  a  total 
ers  (92 
sample ) 
1,)64  answers  to  this  partion 
questionnaire . 

percent 

the 

of 

mare  t� 

].00 
f8l'V 

of  1(19  va 

gs tbB 
of 

New  c lothes 

scarce  indeed 

in  some  of  the  poorer  homes . 

are 

8laple  hot  bath  is 

luxury 

A 

when  one 

II 
in  from  the  lields 

CODeS 

neaty. 

tired  and 

l'oblems  of  great  importanoe  exist  in  rural  Japan :  

Otll�rs�attered  fields ,  

Alao  significant  are  the  small 

(

am

)  population  dens

( 1 )   limited  arable  land, 
ty ,  and  (4)  inac cess ibility  of  ruel  and 
ount  of  livestook  and  machinery  and  the  great 

i

(�)  8�1 
�8:f buman 
� 

labor . 

_  AVERAGE  S IZE 

�;�. Sw.LIElt  THAN  ONE-HAlF  CHO

, 

OF  FARrAS  AND 

PERCENTAGE 
DECEMBER  1948 

OF 

Average  Size  of 
Farm  Operation  Unit 
(cho) 

Percentage  of  All  Farm 
Households  Operating 
Less 

than  One-Half  Cho 

1 .6 

5 .6 
1 .6 
1 .4 
0 . 8  
0 . 8  
0 .4 

O . ?  
0 .8 
0 .9 
0 .6 
0 . 5  
0.6 
1 . 5  

34. 8  

6 . 5  
8 . 9  
45 .8  
23 . 1  
36 . 3  
79 . 6  

32 .0 
45 .9 
31.5 
29 .3  
52.7 
46 . 8  
18 .9 

Farmers  are  willing 

1n order  to  enlarge  the 
small 

amount . 

move 

lot  of  dirt 

ot  a  field 

a 

ery 

to 

area 

a  v

ted  Arable  Land 

L1m1 

a

r 

ll

bas  limited 

The  small  size  of  the  farm 
operation  units  is  indicated  in 
Table  G.  Farms  are  8118llest  in 
c�ntral  and  southern  Japan  where 
double  cropping  is  possible  be­
cause  of  the  warme
climate  and 
where  cultiv
tion  is  intense  be­
a
cause  the  area  bas  been  settled 
longer .  Futomi ,  where  farms  are 
smalledt  of 
, 
arable  land ,  and  the  villagers 
supplement  their  incomes  by 
fishing  and  gathering  seaweed . 
F�s  are  largest  in  the  three 
northern  villages  and  in  the 
treme  southern  vill
Ebetsu,  with  the  largest  farms 
of  all,  is  on  the  more  recently 
settled  island  of  Hokkaido  where 
more  land  18  available.  Alao, 
the  climate  is  more  severe  so 
that  the  operation  of  more  land 
is  necessary  to  oftset  the  at­
tendant  risks,  and  the  possj:­
bility  of  double  cropping  is 
eliminated  beoause  of  th�  sbort 
growing  season

ex­
ge  of  Suye . 

a

. 

Small  Scattered  Fields 

Althougb  brietly  mentioned 
in  Part  I,  the  problem  inherent 
in  farm  management  when  fields 
are  widely  scattered  requires 
further  attention. 

Figures  48 ,  49 ,  !lDd  50  show 

ge 

Suye 

the  location  or  70  plots  of 
seven  farmers  in  Sure,  35  plots 
of  seven  farmers  in  Yokogoshi, 
and  19  plots  of  one  farmer  1n 
Karako .  The  farmers 
10  plots  in­
ver
have  an 
side  the  selected  locality  and 
one-halt 
area; 
have  an  average  of  five  plots 
inside  and  16  outside  the  area . 
The  farmer  in  Karalco  has  "even 
paddy  and 
12 
are  widely  sc

a
plot  outside  that 
n  Yokogol!h1 ,   the - farmere 

upland  plota 

ttered . 

ot 

in 

which 

a 

i

a

a

c 
)-
o 
o 

N U M B E R   A N D  LO CAT I O N 

O F   70  P L O TS  O P E RAT E D   BY  S E V E N   F A R M E R

S 

I N   S U Y E .   D E C E M  B ER  1 9 48 

I  M O R E  
F I  E LD 

I  M O R E  
F I E LD 

0:: 
W 
(0 
� 
W 
o 
cJ)  w 
.....  0 

.. 
g a..  I 

Cf) 
0 
lO 
rO  (!) 
o 
� 
lJ... 
o  0 
>­

Z 
o  Z 

Cf) 

� O
0 0:: 
-1  W 
� 
o  0:: 
Z  « 
« 

I..L. 

L E G E t-I  D 

H O U S E   S I TE 

• 

R O A D  

50 

S C A L E  

50 

o 

1 00 

YO 

. .

. 

I R R I G AT I ON  D I T C H  

�J  �!��!  ±I���I���� 

NArUR,u  ItCS()URCII  SEcnDN 

Figure  48 

186 

w (/)  
Il: a  
O ..J  
:!E w  
<:1" ­_ LL  

a::  Z 
W W  
en >  
�  W 
::J Cf)  
Z 

>­
CD 

a 
z 
w 
t.!) 
W 
-l 

.I 

-

z 
0 
(j) 
!;i 
w 
(f) a t.!) 
::::>  <t 
o  0  a::: 
:I:  a:::  � 
I I   M 

• 

--------------�--------------� 

lS? 

§ 
i 

L O C AT I O N   O F   1 9   PLOTS  OPERATED 

'
BY  O N E   FA R

M E R   I N   K A RA KO,  DEC E M BER  1 9 4 8  

House 

site 

plots 
per 
intensive . 

1J  108  of 
�  oat 
,pi!  II 

The  average  number  of  plots  per  farm  in  the  looalities  studied  intensively 
illages  ranged  from  3  1/2  in  Ebetsu  to  20 

Yokogoehi .  Broad4r,  the  number  and  eoat-

in  the 

farm  were  greatest  in  the  localities  where  paddy  tarming  ie 

it) 

olde.t 

noted  earlier  in  this  report ,  little  change  has  oocurred  in  the  nUlllber  and  lo-

plots  as  a  r esult  ot  the  land  reform  program .  The  "amelioration"  project,  in 

described  at  some  length  in  Part  III,  is  slow  and  expensive ,  but  it  does  attord 
enlarging  the  plots  and  tor  consolidating  the  land  cultivated  by  a  farm  house­

}.S 
cet1  oshi ,  
on  of 
fokO�n8  for 
, ID�  This  type  of  approach  was  thought 
1l01i�va  consolidation  and  enlargement  of  plots . 
,ob 

by 

the  villagers  to  be  the  only  feasible  way  to 

• 

slack  S88sons  to  pre-
If 
in 
even  smaller  than  it  is . 
fj elds  are  made  on  extremely  s teep  slopes  by  oonstructing  b ench  terraces .  Generally, 
and  shovels  e re  the  only  equipment  used  in  the  construction  of  euch  terrace  fields , 

it  were  not  for  the  great  outlay  of  work 
by 
a  raW  land  for  cultivation,  the  amount  of  arable 
� sOIDetilJ1es  the  8011  is  moved  wi th  a  slnaIJ  cart  on  a  movabl e  track. 

farm  families 

�y 
•• nj; 

would 

l..:md 

be 

Population  Density 

POPULATION  DENSITY 
PER  SQUARE  MILE ,  DECEMBER  1948 

H. 

-

"--TABLE 

P A D DY  FI ELD  7�  R O A D  

UPLAND  FI E L D  

B A N K  

I-"" 

VUlage 

Total  13 

'rural 
urban 

11 
2 

Ebetsu 
II1zuwake 
Yokogoshi 

larako 
Hobuta 

Futomi 
lawashlro 
kaido 
1I1
toeh1da 

I' I 

Obi. 
Aloi 
HOIlam! 

Su7e 

Population  per  Square  Mile 

Total 

793 

602 
1 , 062 

496 
368 
1 , 597 
516 
1 , 216 
1, 529 

976, 
2 , 334 
87 
2 , 02 5  
415 
7 , 811 
498 

, 

Farm 

300 

417 
159 

117 
324 
1 , 209 
475 
970 
702 

778 
1 , 300 
57 
1 , 209 
282 
696 
347 

The  population  is  large ,  but  resources  are 

limited .  The  total  population  density  for  the 
13  villages  as  a  whole  is  793  per  square  mile, 
and  the  farm  population  deneity.  is  300  per  square 
mil e ,   as  shown  in  Table  H .  

The  total  population  density  1 8   heaviest  in 

Honami,  a  coal  m1ning  community .  Also  densely 
populated  are  N1ka1do,  Yokogosh i ,   and  Obie,  which 
are  old  settlements  where  much  intensive  culti­
vation  of  paddy  land  is  done  in  the  flat,  open 
country. 
lation  denSity,  96 · percent  of  the  land  area  is 
in  forest ,  Other  villages  with  extensive  forest 
lands  in  rugged  mountain  areas  and  oorrespond­
low  density  of  population  are  Aio

Yoshida ,   which  has  the  lowest  popu­

In 

i ,  141Bu­
Ebeteu,  where  settlement  oc­

ingly 
wake ,  and 
curred  relatively  late 
used  peat 
ti

S\ve.  In 

bog 

land ,  denB1ty 

and 

e
v

where  there  is  .ugh  un­
is  rela­

or  population 

ly  low. 
The  negative  aspects  of  a  high  populati on 
density  and  of  small  scattered  fields  are  obvious, 
but  there  may  be  positive  aspects  too ,  Scattered 
tiny  fields  consume  muoh  of  the  family ' s   time 

o 
I 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 

1 88 

Fig\ll'e  50 

aOing 

froll)  one  field  to  another ;  the  other  side  of  the  pioture  is  that  floods  are  /ileldom 

til 

�a1ly bad 
all  aoross  a  valley,  pests  usually  are  worse  1n  some  places  than  others ,   spring 
ate 
seldom  affect  the  young  plants  in  all  fields  alike,  and  autumn  frosts  do  more  damage 
II8turing  crops  in  some  parts  of  a  cultiv8.ted  area  than  in  another .  Fur thermore,  because 

� 

e

lds  are  small  and  scattered, 
ty  to  talk  and  exchange  news  with 

tU:/l
�f1 Scattered  field  system  is  therefore  considerable;  the  frequent  meetings  have  incalcu­

farmers  are  automatically  provided  with  an  oppor- . 
other  farmers .  The  social  signifioance  of  ths 

e  effects  upon  politic s ,   religion,  and  sO"cal  life,  as  well  as  upon  the  d1ssetidnatlon 
8tandardization  of  agricultural  techniques .  

busy 

many 

IZId 

11111 �1blll ty  of  Fuel 
Kath!n  30�e  mountain  villag e s ,   such  as  Nobuta ,  Yoshida,  and  Suye,  the  arrangements  for 

,,:�'d  compost  are  quite  simple .   The  farmer  and  his  family  gather  compost 

Bnd  C ompost 

at  some  nearby  wooded  or  grassland  area ,  

busy 

other  work . 

when  not 

with 

�tE!  rii1C"  ruel 

rials ,  usually 

189 

At  their  convenience, 
from  the  Idtohen ,  and  throw  a  bucket  of  water  on  it  now  and  ,then .  After  a  few 
will  have  rotted  and  can  be  hauled  or  carried  to  the  field s .  

haul  or  carry  it  to  a  point,  near  their  dwe.lling ,  mix 

they 

in 

lIIont�e�1I 
II  it 

In  other  village s ,   obtaining  compost  is  a  major  operation.  This  is  especial ly 

in  v1l1ages  like  Nikaido  and  Yokogoshi ,  in  which  there  is  no  forest  and 
meadow  tand  is  scarce.  In  Yokogosbi,  some  grass  is  available  from  the  banks  of  the  :anent 
t9nsive  levees  on  either  side  of  the  Aganogawa .  Many 
have  no  cboice  but  to  go  long  distanoes  for  fuel  sticks  and  oompost  materials  or  to  b 

and  N i�i 
charcoal  and  rely  on  farm  waste  for  compost .  The  result  is  that  full  use  is  made  of  � 

straw  and  other  crop  and  animal  residue . 

from  �okogoshl 

families 

do 

in 

a 

t 
whioh  per

�. 

In  Nikaido,  groups  of  local  feJnilies  form  fuel-gathering  Wlits  and  arrange  for 
stlcks  of  specified  SUes  in  designated  wooded  areas  in  forests  outside  the  Village 

orillfl 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  their  en 
home s .   This  fuel  IllUBt  either  be 
Carr! 
bome ,  or  delivered  by  hired  truck
b
, 
ause  there  are  so  fell  draft  aniJroale 

Cutt 

e.'d 

c
the  vill�ge . 

in 

they  bought ,  particularly  since 
many 
�ssentials  had  to  be  purchased  on  the 
black  market . 
felt  t
them  into  harder  times .  

In  short ,  the  farmers 

t  the  basic  trends  were  leading 

ha

. 

Clearly,  psychological  factors  were 

widespread 

involved.  The  farmers 
I 
have  turned  upon  the  fact  that  urb&n 

fear 
may 
conditions  were  relatively  imprbved  and 
farmers  no  longer  oocupied 
and  unique  position  in  the  national 
economy .  For  analysis  of  the  farmers ' 
attitudes  towards  general  economic  prob­
lems  see  Appendix  B,  Seotion  7 .  

preferred 

a 

FOR 

DESIRE 

MORE  

TECHNICAL  ASSISTA�E 

In  Mlzuwake,  an  intermediate  type 

i

paddy 
Village 

accea_ 
areas .  8�e 

of  village  from  the  standpoint  of 
ty  of  ruel  and  compost 
sibil
families  living  in  the  extensive 
areas  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
gather  compost  materials  near  at  hand 
while  others  go  far  into  the  mountai� 
The  rights  to  fuel  and  co
forest  are  some
wha
of 
Mizuwake  farm  households  to  water 
for 
their  paddy--first  come ,  fi.rst  sel'ved. 
The  later  a  household  was  establi shed 
in  an  area ,  the  farther  away  their  fuel 
oompost  area  1s  likely  to  be. 
n
a
In 
many  village s ,   much  coulc  be  learned 
about  the  time  of 
io
the  v
of  their  forest  and  fuel 

establi shment  of 
households  by  the  position 

t  like  the  rights 

post 

the  • 

the 

u s 

in 

d 

ar

m

right  area . 

Fuel  is  gathered 

taineide  and  carried  to  a 

tar 

up  on  the 

road  where  it  is  loaded  and 

tSllporary 

moun­

taken 

cart 
to  the 

highway. 

main 

AN  AGRICULTURAL  DEPRESSION 

FEAR  OF 

The  villagers  generally  assumed  that  an  agricultural  depression  was  just 

faDJ 
the 
of  their  comments  could  well  have  been  preface
hard  times  to  be  caused  by  the  forthcoming  depression" .  Yet  leaders  also  pointed  out  t�t 
farmers  Qad  borrowed  relatively  little  more  money  than  usua l ,   that  practically  all  of  � 
borrowed  money  would  be  repaid ,  and  that  farmers  were  not  going  into  debt  very 
everywhere  the  tear  was  expressed  that  they  would  soon  have  to  do  so . 

some  such  phrase  . as : 

ahead . 
f 

" In  view  o

d  by 

much . 

In 

maw 

v1l1ages,  savings  of  farmers  in  Deo

villages  larger,  than  they  were 

to.  the  actual  value  of  savings  when  infl&t1on  has  been  take

80me 
in 
few 
savings ,   that 
8ideration  not  to  the  yen  amount .  The  poInt  should  be  made  that  the  second  visit 
made  just  doter  harvest  time  and  that  much  of  the  savings  were  scheduled  to  be 
wi 
later  whereas  the 
Harve�t  time  however  is  not  a  t ime  of  unusual  pessimism  if 
care  of  such  outstanding  debts  as  have  been  incurred  in  produc ing  the  crop . 

in 
JWle  1947 .  Reference  1s  mad.e  here  to  real 
n. 
into  � 
.8  wn 
theil'S 
visit  was  made  a t   the  ti.lI'Ie  of  the  seasonal  low  in  farm  depo 
to 

sufficient 

yields 

earli er 

ber  1948  were  about  as  lar�e ,  and 

are 

18 , 

em

, 

n 

, 

slt e •  
. 
e 
W

Reasons  for  the  pessimistic  outlook  were  not  clear,  but  among  them  certa 

oreasing  taxes ,  heavier  delivery  quotas ,  and  the  widespread  belief 
ere  re-ceived  for  their  produots  had 

rapidly  than  the  prl ce  of 

that 

inl 

.-ere  ill' 
1  b  f8�-

prices  Whi�8t 
suppl ies 

ri s en  less 

190 

Everywhere  farmers  talked  of  hard 

ahead . 

times 

In  all  of  the  villages  the  farmers 
were  anxious  to  have  additional  teohni­
cal  a s sistanc e .   They  wanted  it  badly-, 
tor  they  need  higher  yields .  The  dis-
solution  of  the  Nogyokai  di srupted  the 
In  December  1948,  the  new  Agricultural 

technical  as sistance  previously  provided  by  them. 
£rlension  Service  was  first  being  discussed  in  most  of  the  village s .  

IndicatioDs  were 

farmers  would  take  most  readily  to  the  new  extensioh  system  if  it  functioned 

that  the 
.eparate  and  apart  from  enforcement  of  delivery  quotas  and  other  regulations  imposed  upon 

tbllll . 

The  new  owner-farmers,  espeoially,  were  eager  to  find  80me  source  of  technical  as­

.1stance  that  met  their  immediate  need s .   They  were  not  inclined  to  go  to  their 

for  cOWlsel ,  for  they  feared  that  to  do  so  might 

leinillords 
Itatus.  a
OIIJIerlibip  of  the  land  they  bad  bought .  

s  new  owner8 .  As  pointed  out  earlier,  they  wanted  above 

in 

all 

some  way  j eopa.rdize  their 
else  to  retain  the 

former 

The  whole  matter  of  teohnical  assi s
8eem  to 
extension 

ce  WBS  i n   a  period  o f   change .  V'illagera  did 
what  to  expect .   In  80me  villages,  as surances  had  been  given  that  the 
stem  woulc  take  care  of  the  need  for  farm  guidanoe,  While  in  other  vil­

tan

not 
De. 
lagea 
experts . 

know 
sy

the  farmers  had  been  told  that, 

necessary,  the  village  would  employ  ita 

if 

own 

I 

Chapter  .3 

VILLAGE 

COMMUNITY  ORGANIZATION 

AND 

In  the  organization  of  the  Japanese  rural  village,  the  socio-eoonomic  entity  of  t. 
village  a8  a  whole  is  as  important  as  the  nUlllerous  spatial ,  eoonomic ,   social,  and  re11 he 
groupings  within  i t .   Practically  all  nation-wide  aotivities ,  such  as  the  collection  o�iOU8 
in. 
oome  taxes,  the  collection  of  crop  �uotas.  and  the  operation  of  the  land  reform  program 
' 
utilize  the  village  as  the  local  adndnistrative  uni t .  

Villages  generally  ,re  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  a  number  of  semi_ 

V ILLAGE  ADMIN ISTRATION 

autonomous  local  units,  usually  designated  by  the  terms  ku, 
of  the�e  terms  have  been  employed  since  prewar  times ,  but  the 
designation  only  since  the  war  years .  Each  local  unit  is  headed  by 
whose  primary  function  is  to  ma1.ntain  11aison  between  the  village  office  and  t
residents . 
to 
all  types  of  local  administrative  units  in  the  villages ,  whatever  their  legal  designation 
may  be . )  
t  decisions  concerning  buraku  affairs  are 
tended  by  all  heads  of  household � .  

or buraku .  The 
used 
elected  official 
' 
e  buraku
as  a  convenient  term  for  referring 

(The  term  buraku  will  hereafter  be 

last  has  been 
an 

made  at  assemblies 

Many  imp

oaza , 

first  t 

as  a  leg:l 

used 

orta

at­

n

h

The  buraku  is  the  basic 

or  all  economic� 

The  mora  important  community  organizations ,   such 
association,  the  youth  associ&tion,  the  wome.n ' s   as

unit  f

social  activities 
general  agricultural  cooperative 
and  the  fire  brigade, 
i
established  looally  on  a 

the  community. 

in 

usualq 
buraku 

a"  t
oc
s

and 
h
e 
a
on , 
t
basis. 
are 

i

i s  

,  ",ho 

elected  for 

The  administrati on  of 
affairs  is  the  responsibility  of 
village 
the 
mayo
four-ytC 
term  in  a  general  village  election. 
r
He  is 

by  a  deputy,  appointed 
o
ppr
va
village  assembly.  All  local 
by 
lation  is  enacted  by  the 
whose  membel's  also  are  elected 
four-year  term. 

legls­
assemblY, 

the  JllB.yor  wi tb  the 

asslsted 

fer  a 

of  the 

l 

a

a 

Village  assemblies  today 

and  more 

lord  members  than  did  the 
!argar  mem.bership 
before  1947 . 
In 
ElXC(1pt  Honami  and  fbetsu,  the 
of  assemblymen  was 
Looal  Autonomy 
Under  the  law,  villages  with 
latioll  of  1es8  than  5, 000  have 

have  a 
non-l.6lId­
assemblie• 
of  the  villDg: 
)tUlC Il8 
of  17  April  1 �  : 
increased  b.Y  9tl� 
a  l6pU 

all 

law 

The  village  hall  at  Obie 

typical 

i.s 

in  the 

of 

office  buildings 

th

government 

e 
villages . 

13 

blyllen  rather  than  the  12  of  the  old  syetemj  villages  of  5 , 000-10,000  have  22  11lBtead 
remains  30  iJl  villages 

The 

" '�J villages  of  10, 000-20 , 000  haye  26  instead  of 

24. 

m.ax1mum 

o! It  20,000 . 
6f 

• 

friOI'  to  the  land  reform  program,  aasemb111llen  generally  were  elected  from  the  landlord 
�er_operator  groups .  The  village  assembly  elections  held 

decrease  in  the  mIlllber  of  landlor.ds  elected  and  a  proportionate  increase 

ntation  of  owner-operators,  tenants ,   and  non·farmers .  Table  I  compares  tbe  pre-land 

,tJJ  °)cad 
'
�s
r:fotJll cOlIIPositlon  of  the  vlllage  assemblies  before  and  after  the  1947  elections . 
e
landlords  on  the  assemblies  decreased  by  27,  and  the  number  of  owner-operators ,  
�nts,  and  non-farmers  !.ncreased  by  .32 ,   22,  and  13  respectively .  Tenants  appeared  for 
�irst  time  in  the  village  assemblies  in  Karako,  Futomi,  Kawashiro,  and  Nikaldo ;  in  Yo. 
:ollbi,  their  n\lDlber  inoreased  so  greatly  that  they  completely  dominated  the  village 

1947  resulted  in 
the 

The  mun· 

in  April 

in 

of 

8S-

t 

,..blY· 

TABLE  I .   -

OF  VILLAGE 

BY  LAND  TrnuRE 

MEMBERS 

ASSEMBLIES 

STATUS  !I 

Village 

Total  1.3 

rural 

11 

2  urban 

Ebetsu 

Ilizuwake 

Yokogoshi 

Nobuta, 

Karako 

Futollli 

lawashiro 

N1kaido 

Obie 

Aioi 

YOshida 

HOllam! 

�e 

Year 

Total 

land-
lords 

Owner-
Cultivators 

Tenante 

Non-
farmers 

1942-47 
1947-

1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-

1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-

1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942·47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-
1942-47 
1947-

213 
253 

159 
194 
54 
59 

24 
.30 
12 
16 
18 

22 
12 
16 
18 
22 
12 
16 

15 
22 
24 
16 
12 
16 
12 
16 
12 
16 
.30 
29  !V 
12 
16 

44 
17 

42 
17 
2 
0 

J 

1 
0 
5 
3 
8 
1 
0 
0 
5 
2 
0 

0 

9 
5 
8 
5 
1 
0 
2 
0 
2 
1 
1 
0 
.2 
0 

92 
124 

78 
109 

15 
14 

10 
9 
5 
9 
5 
6 
12 
16 
12 
13 
6 
5 

5 

4 
1.3 
2 
7 
9 
10 
16 
4 
9 
4 
6 
8 
11 

12 
.34 

10 
31 
2 
.3 

0 
0 
1 

5 
4 

14 
0 
0 

. 

0 
5 
0 
1 

0 
4 
0 
1 
0 
0 
0 
0 
.3 
0 
2 
.3 
1 
.2 

65 
78 

29 
.37 
.36 

41 
1.3 
' 21 
1 
0 
0 
1 
0 
0 
1 
2 
6 
10 

1 
0 

8 
12 
4 
7 
0 
0 
.3 
6 
2.3 
20 
1 
.3 

I.-. 
!I  As  of  December  1946 . 

in  land  reform  legislation.  See 

! !! ,  pre-land 

W  The  BODami  &8sembl1  now  has  one  vacant  seat . 

Part 

ref'Ol"III 
II. 

Definitions  are  thoee 

atatus . 

ued 

prewar  times ,  except  in  Honami,  Ebeteu, 

YOilhida,  residente  of  the  variOUS 

In 

nominated  the  assemblymen  in  the  number  that  had  been  allocated  to  them  according 
lation.  The  formality  of  an  election  was  then  held  to  satisfy  legal  requirements .  A.�OPII. .. 
to  leu. 
Honami  and  at  Ebetsu,  where  the  population  was  considerably  larger  and  more  heterogeneo 
th  us, 
different  oc cupational  groups  elected  the  number  of  assemblymen  as signed  to  them  on 
basis  of  proportional  representation.  At  Yoshida ,  where  strong  feudalistic  traditions a he. 
persisted  to  the  present,  the  largest  landlord  had  sufficient  influence ,   until  1947 ,  t
'le 
lect  two-thirds 
the  Villa  8a .. 
taxes . 

the  village  assemb:Q',  beoause  he  paid  about  70  percent  of 

ge 

of 

o 

_ 

and 

During  the  war, 

the  maj ority  of  the  villages,  residents  had  little  choice 

1ecting  their  assemblym.en .  Nominations  for  the  assemb:Q'  were  made 
groups,  suoh  as  the  10081 
lagers  had  to  aocept  their  selections . 

the  IlIpBrial  Rule  Assistance  Association,  and  the  ��ll 

nationalist  poli tl 

branoh  of 

by 

-

in  Se 

in 

Under  the  Local  Autonomy  !aw  of  1947 ,  &8semb�n  are  legal:Q'  considered  to  be  repr 
still  generall1
vi llages  except  Ho 

sentativss  of  the  entire  village.  However, 
regarded  as 
Ebetsu,  and  YOilhida. 
rather  than  buraku,  and  i n   Yoshida,  they  represent  either  the  interests  of  the  leading 
landlord  or  of  various  community 
association. 

In  Honami  and  Ebetsu,  the  &8semb�en  represent  occupational  grOU�" 

representatives  and  are  nominated  as  such 

the  farmers '  union  and  the 

aotual  praotice,  they 

P 
WOlnenl 
• 

organisations , 

buraku 

in  all 

euoh 

e .. 

in 

Il8 

are 

Before  the  Locar AUtonomy  law,  the  _yor  was  elected 

the  Tillage  assembly  and 

rman

.  He  was  alao  responsible  for  the  appointment  and  di811issa1  of  all 

8erved  as  its  chai
public  of Ii cia Is  in  the  village.  U�er  the  provisions  ot  the  raw,  the  lIII1yor  is  e lected 
the  villagers  and  is  prohibited  trom  pre8iding  at  ses8ions  of  the  assembly. 
directly" 
The  ohairman  of  the  assemb� 
the  JD&yor  IlUBt  obtain  the  appro\'al 

by 
dismissal 
the  assembly" 
iIIportant  village  oi'ficiala,  particul.ar�  the  deputy  _yor  and  village  treasurer . 

trca uong 
tor  the  appointment  and 

it.  lIeabership. 

now  e lected 

that  boc:1y 

Aao, 
or 

by 

ot 

is 

by 

all 

the  annual  budget 
cept 

drafted  by 

Unti l  1947,  the  village  as semblie8  convened  three 

tour  t1aes  each  year  to  approve 

or 
the  _yor  and  to  authorize  payment  ot  village  expenses . 

these  duties,  all  local  administrative  functions  were  performed 

tor 
Since  1947 ,  the  village  assemblies  have  been  meeting  in  regular  session  six  times  aD­
and  in  ext.raordina.ry  sessions  IIOre  frequent17.  Before  and  during  the  war ,  special 
nua� 
now  the  assemblie8  convene  in  emergency  sessioD 
sessions  were  rarely", 
in  some  villages  as  otten  as  once  a  week.  Unti l  1947,  the  assemb�n  received  only"  token 
payments ,  such  all  " lunch  fee s " ,   but  at  present  they  are  paid  a  small  annual  8alary. 

ever,  called , 

but 

if 

b,y 

the  mayor. 

Ex­

A  considerable  portion  ot  the  administratiTe  work  formerly"  performed 

i. 
now  delegated  to  three  or  four  committees  within  the  aS8emb17.  The  .ost  common  committeei 
In  Yoshida, 
in  the  villages  are  general  alfair. ,  social  weltare ,  economic ,   and  education. 
a  finance  committee  was  formed  in  1947  to 
the  a8sembly"  i8  held 
the  aS8emb4'men  80und  out  public  opinion  t
call  buraku  meetings  after  the  se8sions  to  inform  their  constituent8 

the  annual  budget,  and  a  special  meeting 
to  approve  the  final  draft .  Furthermore,  in  most  village. 

at 
d  ma.j or  issue8  before  emergency  8�ss10ns  and 

action  taken. 

ann\.lll.l

the  mayor 

dratt 

by 

owar

ly 

Unti l  1947 ,  the  mayor,  as  chairE.n  of  the  village  assemb:Q',  introduced  all  bills  aD� 

. utilized  his  position  to  lIee  that  they  were  enacted ,  particularly"  in  the  urban 
Ebet8u  and  Honami,  where  the  mayor8  represented 
Local  Autonom;y  !aw,  the.  mayor  may  .till  introduce  bills ,  but  in  actual  practice  most  o,rigi­

villageS 
political  factions .  Under  tbe 

powerful 

of' 

nate  in  the  various  cOlllJlittee 8 .  

BURAKU   ADMINISTRATION 

Before  1940,  the  villages  were  divided  tor  administrative  purposes  into 

these  ku  had  been  autonomou8  unit.  until  l.888,  when  s_ll  communitie8  were  groUped  into 
large  units  in  accordance  with  the  Regulations  tor  Cities ,   Towns,  and  Villages. 
was  appointed  tor  a  temll  of  two  to  four  to 
U8ua� 
by  the  village  _yor,  with  the  approval  ot  the  village  a88embly.  Bis  primary  duty W�.pute' 
maintain  liaison  between  the  village  oftice  and  the  ku  resident s .   H e   also  mediated 

The  head  ot  the  ku  prior  to  1941 

1·�· 

lru. 

y�t  ot 

and  supervised  the  construction  and 
repair  of  roads ,  bridges,  and  irriga­
tion  works  within  the  ku. 
lages  where  there  were  no  tax  payment 
unions ,  he  was  also  held  responsible 
for  the ·  collection  ot  taxes. 

In  vil­

On  11  September  1940,  the  Home 
Ministry,  in  Instruction  No  17 ,  or­
dered  a  neighborhood  a8sociation  sys­
established  in  all  Cities ,  towns , 

·Buraku-ks.i"  (hamlet 

tem 
and  village8 . 
association8 )  were  ordered  organized 
villages  and  Ifchonai-ks.i "  (town 
in 
associations )  in  towns  and  cities .  
Each  association  was  t o   be  headed  by 

chief  to  be  elected  by  the  members , 
a 
with  approval  of  the  head  of  the  city, 
town,  or  village.  The  instruction 
further  ordered  the  establishment  of 
lIrilllpohan"  (neighborhood  groups )  to 
function  as  executive  neighborhood 
groups  under  the  hamlet  associations , 
and  "tonarigumi 
ciations )  under  the  town  associations . 
to  be  formed ,  a  federation  of  these  groups  was 

(neighborhood  asso­

1/ 

. 

Clerks  in  the  village  oftice  at  Aioi 

work  on  the  budget  in  preparation  for 
the  next  meeting  of  the  assembly. 

areas  where  a  number  of  as sociations 

In 
permitted . 

had 

April  1941,  all  of  the 

By 
ku 

the 
neighborhood'  group  replaced  the 

13 

the  hallllet  associations . 

at 

or  one  of  its  subdivisions  tormed  the  basis  for  the  hamlet  a8sociations  and  the 

villages  had  adjusted  to  this  system. 

In  most  villages , 

and  lD-household  associations  as  the  subordinate  organ 

5-

\ 

In  addition  to  assuming  all  of  the  duties  previously  performed 

the  head  ot  the  ku, 
chief  of  the  hamlet  ass ociation,  under  Instruction  No  17 ,  was  charged  with  certain  war­

responsibilities ,  the  most  important  being  food  rationing  and  the  di stribution  of 

the 
� 
olothing.  Registration  for  food  rationing  and  the  issuing  of  ration  books  were  handled  by 
the  hamlet  associati,oDB ,   although  the  actual  distribution  was  perfol'llled  by  the  local  of­
tloes  of  the  prefeotural  ration  offices  in  each  village.  Scarce  commodities  other  than 
such  as  charcoal,  clothing,  and  tobacco,  were  rationed  directly  through  the  hamlet 
addition,  many  neighborhood  groups  bought  unrationed  foods  in  bulk  for 

b7 

tood , 
18800iat10I1s. 
In 
di.tribution  to  their  members . 

Attar  the  Surrender,  the  neighborhood  groups  continued  to  function  much  as  before  ex­

:ept for  the  elimination  of  specific  wartime  functions.  On  22  January  1947  the  Home  M1n­
�r.r,  through  Instruction  No  4,  rescinded  the  1940  Instruction  establi shin�  the  neighbor-

a8sociation  system.  All  hamlet  and  town  associations  were  ordered  to  dissolve  by 

1 
Apri l 
�l1cie8 . 

1947 ,  and  their  administrattve  functions  were  transferred  to  local  governmental 

� 
\1 

In  the  ensuing  period  of  transition,  however,  many  of  the  neighborhood  groups  contin­
unchanged  with  the  same  officials  and  the  same  function8 ,  except  for  a  few  administra­

� 

iog  all  individuals  who  had  served  as  chiefs  or  assi stant  chiefs  of  the  neighborhood 

��� tasks  that  had  been  transferred  to  the  local  government .  To  effect  the  complete  abo­
�bl�n  of  the  systems ,  the  Cabinet  on  3  May  1947  issued  Government  Ordinance  No 
h:;ciation8  from  holding  similar  pOSitions  within  the  same  area  for  the  succeeding  four 
�e orders  to  the  neighborhood  aSSOCiations ,  and  all  heads  of  neighborhood  groups  were 
tb  8 .  
t:�18e  barred  from  giving  orders  to  their  former  constituents.  The  Ordinance  also  stipu-
�
e  by 

that  all  organizations  similar  in  function  to  the  neighborhood  groups  were  to  be  dis-

Furthermore ,  national  and  local  officials  were  prohibited  from  issuing  administra­

3 1   May  1947 . 

101.  d

pro-

15 

, 

the

With  the  issuance  of  this  Ordinance,  the  government  instituted  the  system  of 

ing  staple  foods  ana  clothing  directly  to  individual  households  rather  than  to 
associations . 

�at1o�� 
ha�et 
In  effect,  these  government  directives  brought  about  a  revision  of  the  admin.1 
systems  in  10  of  the  13  vil1ag�s  to  a  condition  approximating  their  prewar, statue  8t1'at1". 
for  changes  in  the  titles  of  the  officla1� .   In  the  majority  of  these  10  villages'  e�Ce�t 
the  tet'1l 
"liaison  official"  has  been  Bubsti tuted  for  the  ,"hamlet  association  bhief" ,  and  the 
"assistant  liaison  official "  for  the  "neighborhood  group  ohief" ,  The  duties  a
changed  very  little,  except  for  the  relinquishment  of  oertain  wartime  responsibilit  to 
r  tel'ln 
Liaison  officials  today  are  in  charge  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  their  buraku  at  iG8, 
hal 
• 
1age  office,  while  assistant  lia1son  officials  serve  as  agents  between  the  liaison  the  .� 
ofr1� 
cials  and  the  buraku  residents ,  Because  liaison  officials  function  only  when  the 
arises,  most  of  them  hold  other  full-time  jobs  and  reoeive  very  little  compensatio�eed 
the  village  office  for  their  work .  There  is  no  buraku  office  for  transacting  off!  i 
al 
business,  so  all  of  the  work  is  performed  at  home  or  at  the  village  office,  In  th� 
fl'Ota 
jority  of  the  villages ,  the  officials  are  elected  annually  by  the  buraku  residents - mae 
areas  where  people  are  reluctant  to  assume  this  responsibility,  buraku  residents  t�k� 
at  being  liaison  officials ,  However,  in  three  of  the  villages  the  government  direoti  turn, 
had  more  far-reaching  effects ,  The  most  conspicuous  change  in  buraku  administrati 
curred  in  Nobuta,  where  all  of  the  administrative  functions  performed  by  the  neigh�
�Q. 
associations  have  been  taken  over  by  three  organizations.--the  welfare  association  ��  004 
sumers '  union.  and  the  tax  payment  association--which  bave  branches  throughout  t�  �lcon. 
age, 
In  Nikaido,  in  addition  to  the  liaison  officials ,  there  are  statistioal  educational 
' 
fare ,  and  food  adjustment  commissions  and  tax-payment  associations  with
village-wide' 
sentation . 
In  Kawashiro,  besides  a  buraku  liaison  official,  several  other  officials  �:r� 
some  of  the  administrative  matters  whioh  in  most  of  the  other  villages  are  handled  by 
liaison  official,  such  as  those  pertaining  to  health,  welfare,  public  works  education  e 
rationing . 

th Iil, 

e
a

vea 

weJ.. 

pp

n 

' 

,  anc! 

,  Both  before  and  during  the  war ,  official  notices  from  the  village  office  generally 
were  transmitted  dir�ctly  to , the  villagers  by  the  heads  of  the  neighborhood  groups ,  At 
present,  important  notices  are  still  transmitted  orally  to  the  buraku  residents  by  the 
aison  Officials.  but  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  use  bulletin  boards  for  disseminating 
li­
official  information.  In  all  of  the  13  villages,  the  number  of  bulletin  boards  has  in­
creased  considerably  since  the  Surrender ,  In  addition  to  the  village  offlQe,  certain 
munity  organizations,  notably  the  agricultural  cooperative  and  the  youth  association, 
liz e  this  means  for  disseminating  information  to  their  members . 

uti­

C� 

Prior  to  the  war,  the  management  of  such  local  affairs  as  the  distribution  of  tax 
bills  and  the  repairing  of  roads  in  the  majority  of  the  villages  was  delegated  to  heade 
the  ku  who  often  acted  upon  the  recommendations  made  at  meetings  of  heads  of  households, 
During  the  war ,  major  decisions  on  these  matters  (as  well  as  on  rationing)  were  made  by 
officials  of  the  hamlet  as sociations .  Since  the  dissolution  of  the  neighborhood  associ­
ation  system,  all  important  matters  concerning  the  buraku  are  decided 
by  the  heads  of  all  households  in  the  buraku .  A  general  buraku  aesembly  is  called  at 
once  a 
convened  from  time  to  time  as  occasion  demands , 

to  elect  officials  and  to  determine  the 

budget ,  and  speoillt  meetings 

meetings 

annual 

� 

at 

attended 
lea.t 
� 

ot 

In  villages  where  there  are  buraku-owned  fore sts .  as  ir. i'Utomi ,  Aioi ,  and  Yoshi�, 
the 
disposition  of  forest  use  and  products  is  deoided  at  buraku  assemblies.  Generally  spsakiDl, 
a  ce:rt'aln  portion  of  the  forests,is  reserved  for  oommunal  purposes ,   and  residents  are ptuti­
bibi teft  from  felling  trees  there  exc�pt  on  spec11'ied  ocoasions .  Community  profits  are 
�ized  for  j oint  undertakings  or  distributed  equally  to  each  household  in  the  burakU. 
wooded  seotions  are  either  assigned  in  equal  shares  to  all  of  the  households  in  the  bul'� .. 
or  used  freely  by  all  buraku  residents .  In  some  villages ,  grassland  is  divided  among hO�,� 
holds  according  to  the  acreage  of  their  cultivated  fields,  while  in  others,  access  to � 
land  is  restrictad  to  specified  days  in  the  year ,  at  which  time  all  buraku  residents  t 
out  to  cut  grass  for  fertilizer. 

othlS' 

The  construction  and  repair  of 
roads ,  bridges,  sobools,  and  other  pub­
lic  works  continue  to  be  the  joint  re­
sponsibility  of  buraku  reSidents,  as 
' 
in  prewar  times ,  At  least  twice  a 
year  volunteer  labor  is  required  for 
the  construction  of  roads  and  similar 
In  some  instances,  this 
public  work . 
laoor  is  obtained  by  calling  upon  the 
services  of  one  member  of  each  house­
hold;  in  others ,  the  work  is  performsd 
with  or  without  payment  by  the  youth 
association.  The  cost  of  construction 
and  repaire  is  borne 
idents ,  except  in  large-scale 
under­
takings ,   in  which  case  the  village  of­
fice  usually  grants  a  subsidy,  as  in 
prewar  times ,  The  irrigation  repairs 
are  generally  performed  by  the  fami­
lies  who  utilize  them , 

by  buraku 

ree­

COOPERAT IVE  LAbOR 

Neighbors  as sist 

planting  time . 

neighborhood  group .  Members  aided  each  other  in  planting  rice,  weeding  paddy  fields , 

In  prewar  times ,  assistanoe  in  farming  was  exchanged  in  most  villages  between  members 
:oril18 wheat ,  fertilizing  fields ,  and  harvesting .  The  members  of  an  extended  family  also 
r  the 
belped  each  other ,  particularly  if  they  lived  close  to  each  other,  but  mutual  farming  aid 
In  villages  where  the  buraku  were  re­
latively  small,  as  in  Suye ,  all  of  the  buraku  residents  partiCipated  in  the  rice 

carried  on  primarily  by  the  neighborhood  group . 

ft' 

planting 

harVesting , 

IDCl 

In  Mizuwake .   where  cooperative  labor  was  partioularly  well  developed,  a  special  type 
wtual  aid  group  existed  for  every  farming  aotivity,  tbe  size  depending  on  the  nature 
the  work ,  Thus,  the  group  partioipating  in  rice  planting  generally  oonsisted  ot  six  or 
ot 
.. veD  households,  t.hat  for  weeding  paddy  fields  was  made  up  of  four  or  five ,  and  those  for 
or 
beans  and  wheat  and  for  transporting  fertilizer  were  lim.1ted  to  two  or  three  house­
Generally  speaking ,  membership  in  a  work  group  consisted  of  neighbors  and  relatives 

depended  upon  one  another  for  mutual  aid,  but  partieipation  was  not  neoessarily 

o

o  iamediate  neighbors.  Thus ,  in  planting  rice 
he 

ed  of  those  who  utilised 

tbe8\  mutual  aid  groupe  was  not  reetrioted  to  one ' s  

mpos
farmers  living  at  the  outskirte  of  a 
in 
neighboring 
aid  groups ,  memberShip  in  each  being  determined  oy  the  nature  of  the  work , 

�o­
par­
local  adminietrati'ftl 
t
frequent:Qr  exchanged  labor  with  residents 
own 
household,  therefore,  participated  in  a  number  of 
buraku. 

in weeding  paddy  fields ,  tbe 
irrigation  eystem.  Aleo, 

Militlftke 

buralru. 

Each 

e8llle 

and 

cem­

lOWing 
bolda. 
tho 
t.bMd  t
.... at.in€  group was  o
Uoipat1cn 

Il'tIlJ 
of  the 
lUtual 

In  all  the  villages,  neighbors  extended  farming  assistance  to  families  whose 
were  ill ,  or  to  aged  couples  without  sons , 

In  such  instances ,   villagers  did  not  ex­

bers 
pect  that  the  aid  would  be  reciprooated  in  the  form  of  return  labor . 
extended  family  system  was  we11�developed,  as  in  Mizuwake,  Nobuta,  and  Yokogosh1,  uni­
lateral  aid  in  farming  also  was  extended  by  branch  famUies  to  their  head  family.  In  tbe 
lajority  of  the  villages,  however ,  head  families  always  retUrned  the  labor  given  them  by 
their  branoh  families ,  

In  villages  where  the 

mal. 

' 

mem­

During  the  war  mutual  aid  in  farming  was  generally  oonducted  on  a  large-scale  co­
O�erative  basis  un�er  the  aegiS  of  the  neigbborhood  aS80ciations .  Since  the  dissolution 
Of these  aS80ci�tion8  in May  1947,  the  traditional  mutual  aid  groups  have  been  revived  only 
In  the  other  10  villages ,   two  or  three  neighbors  as  w.ll 
Ie  & few relatives  assist  eaoh  other  during  the  planting  and  harvesting  seasons .  Except  1n 
�  Karako, 
�'uwake ,  where  the  traditional  work  groups  have  been  fUlly  revived,  labor  excbang� appears 

Nikaido,  and  Mizuwake . 

196 

l� 

to  be  restricted  to  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  ric e .   Certain  tasks  formerly 
erf
by  the  mutual  aid  groups ,  suoh  as  weeding  paddy  fi elds,  sowing  wheat ,  and  fertilizing 
fields ,  are  now  done  by  individual  households . 

p

l'lll 

o

8� 

The  post�Surrender  trend  toward  a  decrease  in  size  of  the  mutual  aid  group  i s  in 
all 
probability  the  result  of  the  increase  in  the  family  labor  supply  brought  about  by  the 
increased  use  of  livestOck 
flux  of  civUian  and  military  repatriates ,  as  well  as  of 
1 
and  farm  machinery  (see  Part  II) .  Food  shortages  and  inflation  also  appear  to  have 
had 
some  effect ,   becau.se  providing  the  food  for  the  many 
aid 
which  was  a  traditional  obligation,  1s  extremely  difficult  under  current  economic  condi. ' 
tion s .  

who  gathered  for 

mutual 

workers 

the 

tI­

Assistanoe  a t   weddings  in  prewar  times  generally  was  exchanged  between  close  r
ti
and  friends .  All  other  relatives  residing  within  a  reasonable  distance  and  all  member s 
the  neighborhood  group  usually  were  invited,  but  only  as  guest s .  

a

e

l

ve 
ore 

The  group  participating  i n   funerals  was  a lways  la.rger  than  the  wedding  gr�p  and 

quently  included  several  neighborhood  groups .  Relatives  attended  funerals  but  did  not 
ticipate  in  the  attendant  arrangements ,   whioh  included  the  feeding  of  guest s ;   these  were 
performed  by  the  neigbborhood  groups .  C ertain  tasks,  such  as  escorting  the  pri.est  to  the 
ceremony,  cremating  the 
neighborhood  group  of  the  deceased. 

and  digging  the  grav e ,   were  traditionally  assigned  to 

body, 

the 

fl-e_ 
Par. 

tl!  d 
!'S
pB

Local  units  of  the  Japan  Farmer s '  Union  also  have  been  e stablished  in  the  maj ority  of 

organ� 
only  on  the  village  level .  Buraku  chapters  exist  only  in  Yokogoshi  where  the  Union 
rticularly  strong . 

8 villBge s ,   but  beoause  their  membership  i8  relatively  small ,  they  are 
�!!i1iated  wi tb  n.ational  organizations . 

In  some  of  the  villages ,   there  are  local  farmer� '  unions  which  are 

Chapters  of  the  south  association  and  the  women ' s   a s sociation  6l!  have  been  organ� 
almost  every  buraku  in  villages  where  these  orga niZations  exist .  Meetings  of  the 
i
il1age  associations  occur  only  once  or  twice  a  year,  so  most  of  the  activities  are  con­
zed  in 
" 

generally 

ted  on  the  buraku  level. 

dUc 

brigades ,   which  function  under  the  direct  supervi s i on  of  the  local  police  office 

Fire 
al�o  estab1 isbed  on  a  buraku  basis .   Although  definite  personnel  are  assigned  to  the 
brigade,  all  able-bodied  men  in  the  buraku  between  the  ages  of  25  and  45  are  expected 

' 

are 
fire 
to 

assist  in  the  event  of  a  fire. 

The  size  of  the  groups  participatl.ng  in  weddings  and  funerals  decreased  considerab11 

in  all  the  villages  in  recent  years.  Villagers  attributed  this  directly  to 
and  to  the  high  cost  of  entertaining  guests.  Attendance  at  weddings  in  most  villages 
now  restricted  to  close  rel.s.ltives  and  friends .  In  the 
group  is  still  invited ,  the  size  of  the  group  has  decreased .  Thus  in  Xarako.  all  members 
of  the  " kasumi"  (a  neighbQrhood  group  consisting  of  five  five-household  as sociations)  were 
traditionally  invlted  to  weddings ,  but  since  the  Surrender ,  participation  is  restricted 
to  the  s ingle  five-household  associ.ation  to  which  the  family  belongs . 

food  sbortage! 
villages  wbere  the  neighborhood 

rew 

18 

Funerals  continue  to  be  conducted 

neighborhood  groups  in  all  villages,  but  the 
ber  of  participants  has  decreased  at  Karako,  Nobuta,  Futomi ,  Honami .  and  Suys .  Funeral 
rangements ,  which  in  the  past  were  carried  out  by  several  neighborhood  groups ,  are  now 
formed  by  one;  where  the  entire  buraku  once  turned  out ,  attendanc�e  is  now  restricted  to 
neighborhood  group  of  the  deceased. 

by 

nUll­
ar­
per­
the 

COMMUNITY  ORGANIZATIONS 

Since  the  dissolution  of  the 
government�contro1le�  Nogyokai  in 
August  1948,  its  local  brancbes  have 
been  replaced  in  all  villages  by 
formal  local  agricultural  service 
groups .  W  In  the  transition 
the  agricultural  as sociations  to the 
coinoide  more  01o8el1 

cooperatives ,  local  cbapters  have 
rearranged 
wi th  natural  locality  groupings . 

£%,011 

to 

in­

the  course  of  this  readjustment,  th.tp 
In 
number  of  such  groups  has  increased 
most  of  tbe  villages .  At 
informal  agricultural  service 
the  cooperative  is  located  in 
raku  in  the 

least  oXil ot 
grouPbU• 
eaOb 

Villages . 

b� 

13 

The  funeral  proces8ion 

for  a 
special  ceremony  before  cremation  of 
the  body . 

ha1ta 

See  Chapter 

1  tar  dete-ill  on 

agr:l,cultural  oooperaUvee . 

til' 

See 
Chapter 
IlSBociations . 

7  tor  further  details  concerning  the  youth 

associations  and 

ths  women ' s  

. 

. 

199 

Chapter  4 

LEADERSHI P   AND  POLI TI CAL  PARTICIPATION 

The  Occupation  encountered  a  s i tuation  in  which  rural  l eadership  rested  largely  1 

hands  of  a  small  class  of  landowning  famil i e s .   This  cl a s s ,   by  virtue  of  its  econollliQ  Xl the 
was  abl e  to  exercise  le,on­

trol  of  the, lal)d ,  its  educati on,  and  i ts  traditional 
l eader s h i p   in  pol iti cal  as  wel l  as  in  general  agricultural  affairs .  Since  the  Me1ji 
t oration ,   Japan  has  had  mal e  suffrage,  and  the  landed  classes  have 
power  a s s ociated  with  that  of  some  of  the  landed  aris tocrac i e s   of  Europe . 
landlords  unquesti onably  have  been  the  dominant  l eadership  force  in  rural  l�e .  

status
However,  tbeand 

authority, 

held  the 

R 00a.l. 
es-

not 

. 

The  post-Sur:ender  r eforms  in  Japan  attacked  many  o f   t h e   legal  and  ec onomic  bases 

th1s  landl ord  dOm1nation .   The  l and  r eform  program  i t s elf  substantially  reduced  the  eco­
of 
nomic  pow er  of  rural  landl ordi sm  by  e ither  wiping  i t   out  entirely,  reducing  it  to  modes t  
dimenSions,  o r   restricting  i t   to  for e s t ,   rather  than  arabl e  land,  holdings .  The  extensio 
of  s uffrage  to  the  entire  adult  population  ( including  women) ,  the  inauguration  of  a  syste: 
of  direct  electi ons ,  and  the  strengthening  of  l ocal  autonomy  all  had  far-reaching  effecte 
The  most  dramatic  s ingl e  measure,  which  at  one  stroke  removed  from  l eadership  c ontrol  lar�e 
persons 

numbers  of  the  pre-�urrender  ruling  group,  was  the  exclusion  from  public  office  of 
a s s ociated  "i th  " military  nationalism  and  aggression" .  This  was  the  action  known  as  the 

" purge" .  The  d evel opment  of  democratic  and  voluntary  organi zations  to  replace  the  compul­
s ory  wartime  organizations  al s o   all owed  s c ope  for  the  emergence  of  new  leadershi p .   The 
increasing  as sumption  of  responsibility  by  f ormer  tenants  in  land  c ommi s sions ,  farmers ' 
unions ,  agricul tural  c ooperatives,  and  other  organizations  al s o   was  a  notabl e  phenomenon . 
Finally, '  the  rapid  d i s s emination  of  a  new  democratic  atmosphere-- through  the  radio,  the 
press ,  and  civic  organizations  of  all  �inds-- played  an  important  rol e .  

Thus,  with  the  tremendous  w eakening  of  the  pow er  of  the  l ocal  ruling  groups ,  the 
small  farmers  themselves  had  t o   a c c ept  more  and  more  positive  l eadership  res ponsibilities . 

In  many  areas  they  were  ill-prepared  to  a s s ume  thes e   responsibilities ,  but  they  rapidly 
l earned  thr ough  the  actual  exercise  of  authority . 
I n   other  areas,  which  had  a  greater 
tradition  'of  small  farmer  organization,  the  transition  was  easier .  This  transition  to 
broader  and  more  democratic  base  of  rural  l eadership- - i n   the  small  farmers--is  far  from 
pl ete,  nor  is  it  inevitably  guaranteed  by  the  �egal  and  ec onomic  changes  which  have 
taken 
place  since  the  Surrender .  The  various  reform  measures  whi ch  bear  directly  or  indirectly 
rural  l eadership--the  land  r eform,  the  new  Constitution,  the  revised 
upon  the  structure 
Civil  Cod e ,   , extension  of  suffrage  to  women  and  to  young  men,  voluntary  organizati ons--pro­
vide  the  c onditions  within  which  a  firm  n�w  l eadership  of  small  independent  farmers  can 
devel op. 

of 

a 

c� 

CHANGES  IN  VILLAGE  LEADERSHIP 

The  changes  in  leadership  can  be  s een  most  olearly  in  the  changes  in  official 

d 
�. 
an  s 
official  pOSitions  in  the  13  villages  since  the  Surrender.  The  most  conspicuous  change: 
a� � 
have  occurred  in  the  ra��s  of  mayor s ,   assemblymen,  and  the  officials  of  the  varioUS 
a1�d. 
orflci
cul tural  organizations . 
�' 
c ooperative  were 
a pprOXimately  one-half  of  the  direc t or s   of  the  village 
h 
ing  their  present  positi ons  for  the  first  tim e .  This  shift  toward  a  new  l eadershiP 
e 
chi efly  to  be  the  result  of  the  " purge  directive"  and  the 
r emoved  many  of  the  former  l eaders  from  their  posts,  whereas  the  latter  prepared  a 
group  of  peopl e  to  function  as  l eaders . 

In  Dec ember  1948,  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 

reform  program; 

forme 
ne'J 

agricultural 

public 

ap  r 

land 

tb

The  " purge 

i s sued 

January 

directive " , 

the 

4 
Supreme  COFI­
mander  for  the  Allied  Powers  W, 
r e sulted  in  a  Japanese  Government 

1946  by 

Imperial  Ordinance  which  ordered 

the  removal  from  public  office  and 

the  exclusion  from  eovernrnent  ser­
vice  of  the  following  categor i e s   of 
persons  active  in 
individual s :  

( 1 )  

military  national i s m   and  aggr ession 
and 

influential  members · of  ultra­

nationalist i c ,   terroristic ,  or  se­

( 2 )  

The  largest  landlord  in  Yoshida 
enjoys  working  at  hi s  pottery  wheel . 

,  The  mayor  of  Nikaido  affixes  h i s  

" han " (pers onal  s eal )  to  a  document . 

cret  patriotic  s o c i e�ies. 

Spec i a l  
reference  was  made  t o   the  Imperial 

Rule  Assistance  As sociation,  the 
Imperial  Rule  Assistance  Political 

Society,  and  the  Political  Associ­

ation  of  Greater  Japan .  Because 

most  of  the  influential  individuals 

in  the 

villages  usually  held  re­

13 
tic>rls  in  the  Imperial 
sponsible 
Rule  Assistance  Association  or  simi­

posi 

lar  organiz ation s ,   the  blanket  order 

removed  much  o� 

former  experi­

the 
enced  leadership  from  active  part ic­

ipation  in  village  affair s .  All  war­

time  mayors ,  for  exampl e ,   were  dis­
qualified  from  holding  any  public 

offi c e ,   because  one  of  their  func­

tions  had  been  to  serve  as  head  of 

the  local  branch  of  the  Imperial 

Rule  A s sistance  Association .  Large 
landowners  were  in  general  similarly 

affected, 
contributions  t o   patriotic  causes 

because  their  substantial 

had  been  rewarded  by  important  posts 

in  the  same  oreanization . 
three  largest  ltmdlords  in  the  13 
villages  had  held  the  chairmanship 

Thus ,  the 

of  their  prefectural  chapter  of  the 

Imperial  Rul e  Assi stance  As sociation . 

The  extent  to  which  the  purge 

directive  affected  local  leadership 

may  be  estimated  from  the  fact  that 
of  the  39  individuals  characterized 
by  farmers  as  most  influential  be­

fore  the  Surrender  �, 

were  pro­

the  directive  from  hold­

28 

hibited 
by 
ing  public  offic e .  

January  i946;  Imperial  Ordinance 

550  Removal  and  Exclueion  o f   Undesirable  Personnel  from  Public  Offices , 
109 ,  27  February  1946 ;  amended  by  Imper is.l 

SCAPIN 
4 
Ordinanc e  No  1,  4  January  194 7 .  
In  the  qUestionnaire  submitted  to  100  heads  of  households  in  every  village ,  the 
the  three  most  influenti al  men  in  their  cor..­
re spondents  were  requested  to 
munity  before  the  Surrender  and  the  three  most  influential  in  the  post -Surr �nder 
period . 

list 

•  r 

No 

. 

At  the  eam�  time  that  many  of  the  established  leadere  were  being  excluded  from 
office  a  new  group  of  leadere  was  emerging  in  connection  with  agrarian  reform  progrs�e 
As  not�d  in  Chapter 

pUbl1 
many  of  the  tenant  and  owner-operator  membera  (especially  the  lstt 

of  the  local  land  commissions  have  become  recognized  8S  leaders, 

1, 

c 

sr-) 

by 

1947, 

TUlage  88sembly  rather  than 

The  boyor,  Until  the  Lacs!  Autonolll)'  Law  of  April 

the  mayor  was  elected  by  th 
direct  popular  vote ,  Except  in  Honami,  Ebetsu,  and  FutO:1 
which  are  not  wholly  agricultural  communities,  the  mayor  generally  '1188  drawn  from  the  111.  d' 
lord  or  owner-operator  group.  Large  landlords  usually  were  able  to  exert  pressure  on  th: � 
village  88seJllbly  to  have  themselves  or  their  nominees  elected  as  mayor  to  insure  that  tb 
1 
polioies  would  prevail.  In  Yokogosbi,  for  example,  the  largest  landlord  frequently  had  :h: 
heads  of  hie  branch  families  installed  as  mayors,  and  at  one  time  the  eecond  largeat  land� 
lord  In  the  village  assumed  the  mayoralty  himself.  In  Yoahida,  the  large  landlord,  who 
percent  of  the  village  taxes  and  so  had  sufficient  influence  to  select  t"wo·th1rda 
paid 
of  the  village  8888mbly,  had  no  diff'iculty  in  persuading  the  assembly  to  accept  mayOrs  ot 
hie  choice,  When  he  was  diesat1sfied  with  local  candidates,  he  had  sufficient  authority 
bring  about  the  appointment  of  nonvillagere  of  hie  choice,  Finally  in 
he  h1mse1t 
came  mayor. 

1945, 

70 

to 

be� 

The  first  general  eleotion  for  mayor  in  April 

witnessed  a  complete  turnover  among 
the  uyora  because  of  the  categorical  elifll1nation  ot  tormer  1lI8yors  by  the  "purge  directive"' 
' 
Extept  in  "bunke,  where  a  prewar  mayor  wee  elected,  all  of  the  new-ly  elected  mayora  had 
never  held  the  office  before.  However,  sll  of  them,  except  the  IMyor  in  SUye,  had  held 
some  sort  of  officlal  position  in  the  village  prior  to  their  election  All  mayor,  �oat  of 
them  had  lIerved  All  deputy  mayors,  assemblylllen,  or  officisls  of  the  Nogyoks1  or  of  its  pred. 
eceesors. 

1947 

The  tirst  genersl  mayoralty  elections  alao  resulted  in  the  election  of  six  landlees 
(or  almost  landless)  indhiduale,  who  undoubtedly  would  never  have  beeollle  lNlyor  prior  to 
had  been 
the  land  refol'lll  program.  In  Obie  and  Aioi,  the  mayors  were  tormer  tenant.s,  Wh
elected  largely  through  the  efforte  ot  the  local  chapters  of  the  Japan  Farmers  Union,  or 
which  they  were  chairlllen.  In  Yoshida,  the  �yor  was  a  repatriate  trolll  Manchuria  who  bed 
returned  to  the  village  All  a  llmall  tenant .  In  Yokogoshi,  the  mayor  had  been  a  village  or. 

� 

fice  employee  for  more  than  30 yesrs  prior  to, his  election,  and  he  owned  no  land ,  In  �e, 
the  fll8yor  waa  a  repatriate  from  Formosa  snd  therefore  claesified  s s   an  abaentee  lalJdlord 
and  disqualified  trom  owning  land  under  land  reform  legislation,  In  Ka'llashiro,  the  �yor 
had  owned  only  five  tan  of  lend  before  the  land  reform;  he  wss  the  poorest  mayor  in  tha  hie­
tory  of  the  village. 

The  Village  AsselllblJl  Prior  to 

AlIsemblymen  in  the  purely  sgricultural  village. 
generally  were  nominated  trom  the  landlord  and  owner_operstor  groups,  In  villages  with  a 
mixed  econoD!,)'  such  as  Futomi  Ebetsu  and  Honaad,  nontan,ers  constituted  more  thsn  one­
hal!  of  the  a�sembly,  Of  a  t�tal  of  213  8aeemblYDIen  in  the 

villages  immediately  before 

nonfarmera, 

1947, 

13 

owner_operators,  12  tenants,  and 

were  landlords, 

the  election, 

44 
Tqe  elections  of  April 

1947 

elected  and  a  corresponding  increase  in  owner-operators  and  tenants .   at  a  total 
aemblymen  elected  at  that  time,  landlords  numbered  only 
creased  to 
curred  1n  Yokogoshi,  Ksrako,  and  Ka'llallhiro,  villages  in  which  the  local  farmers  Ufi
campaigned  actively ,  The  farmera  unione  of  Yokogoshi  and  Kawaehiro  have  acquired 
able  organhationsl  experience  through  their  long  history  ot  conflict  with  the  l�n 
In  Yokogoshi,  for  example, 
22 
Japan  Farmers '   Union, 

witnoesed  a  marked  decresse  in  the  number  of  lsn�o�; sa" 
d  in" 
�s  oc' 
te�ons  hed 
onaider" 
�lordS, 
of  the 

(Table  I ) ,   The  greatest  ntunerical  increase  in

whereas  owner_operators 

assemb1ymen  elected  in 

snd  tenants  to 

were  mem  ere 

out  of  the 

1947 

124 

17, 

J4 

17 

, 

92 

65 

by 

their  own  huraku  rather  than 

asemblymen  authorized  by  the  Local  Auton�  ta_.  In  MOst  villages,  the  aeeelliblymen  in 
'
rsctice  are  elected 
the  village  as  a  whole.  Therefore, 
P
he  incresse  in  the  number  of  authorized  assemblymen  is  reallocated  proportionately  to  the 
t  pulation  of  each  bUraku,  In  this  reallocation,  the  Eta  bur.leu  in  Itarako  was  allotted 
�re  assemblyman,  Because  the  Eta  � are  aegregated  in  special  buraku  or  are  limited 
POe 
o� •  certain  sect.ion  ot  a  bur.ku,  it  ill  usual  for  an  Eta  to  repreeent  hie  commun1ty  when­
!'1
another  indication  ot  the  general  improvement  of  the  Eta  position  in  this  community ,  Aa 
tloted  in  Chspter  6,  the  Eta  have  also  been  allowed  since  November 
to  become  parish_ 
ionars  of  the  Shinto  shrine  locsted  in  their  burakuj  until  that  time,  they  had  been  pro­
hibit.ed  trom  worshipping  at  the  shrine. 

r  representation  ie  on  a  buraku  baeis . 
e

The  election  of  an  Eta  to  the  village  assembly  1n  Aioi  in 

for  the  first  time  1a 

1947 

1948 

� 

Women  were  first  elected  to  the  village  assembly  in  tho 

,ere  elected,  one  in  Ka'lluhiro  and  one  in  Yoshida.  Before 
officials.  Their  election  was  coneiderably  helped 
ried  on  by  the  village  women' s  aesociations . 

by 

villages  in  April 
two 
Japan  had  no  elected  women 
the  intense  and  active  campaigns  ear­

13 
1947 

1947J 

Since  the  enactlllent  of  the  Local  AutonolllY  Law,  the  powere  of  the  assemblymen  have  in­

oreased  greatly,  particularly  in  villsges  tormerly  dominated  by  lsrge  landlorde ,   Under 
the  old  system,  the  mayor,  88  cha1n.an  of  the  88aembly,  introduced  all  bills  and  utllized 
his  poSitIon  to  torce  their  paesage,  particularly  in  village8  where  he  was  backed 
pow_ 
erful  political  tactione  or  by  influential  lendlorda.  Under  the  new  law,  the  1I'4yor  may 
stUl  introduce  bills  into  the  assembly,  but,  in  actuality,  the  majority  ot  them  originate 
the  vsrious  coznm1ttees  of  the  88sembly ,  Because  the  chairman  ot  the  88sembly  is  now 
in 
eleoted  from·  among  its  membership,  the  mayor 1s  relat.ion  with  the  assemblymen  is  lass  inti­
.. te  than  formerly,  and  he  can  no  longer  intimidate  them  into  pass1ng  bills  favorable  to 
or  to  his  sponsors,  Furthermore,  he  must  now  obtain  the  approvsl  of  the  aasembly  for 
bim 
the  appointment  and  dismissal  of  all  importsnt  village  officiala,  especially  the  deputy 
Nyor  snd  the  tressurer. 

by 

. 

In  Ka: 'lko,  Yokogoshi,  Kawashlro,  Nlka1do,  and  Honam!  the  village  a88embly  sppears 

•• 

ry  active  and  resdy  to  assume  all  of  the  responaibilities  thruat  upon  it  by  the  Local  Au­

ton�D!,)'  Law,  In  80me  of  the  other  villagos,  the  new  system  does  not  yet  appesr  to  be  f1mc­
Uoning  very  effectively. 

LEADERSHIP  IN  THE  AGRICULTURAl.  COOPERATIVES 

Since  the  diasolution  of  tho  government-controlled  agricultural  asaociatione  in  AUguat 
at  leaat  one  cooperative--a  general  agricultural  cooperative  association--haa  been 

1948, 
establiehed  in  each  of  the 
villages;  in  six  of  the  villages,  one  or  more  specialized  ag­
13 
ricultural  cooperatives  have  boen  orgsnized ,  A  number  of  gun�wide  agricultural  cooperative 
aesociations  also  have  been  organized  since  the  dissolu
tion  ot  the  Nogyoksi. 
,

One  of  the  most  important  aspects  ot  the  change  to  the  agricultural  cooperatives  hae 
baen  the  emergence  of  large  numbers  ot  new  leaders  who  had  had  little  a�sociation  with  the 
eanagement  of  the  government-cont.rolled  N0fokai,  This  grest  change  in  leader,ship  compo­
lition  came  about  prinCipally  because I 
In  most  of  the  villages,  sorae  persone  felt 
that  because  the  goverDlllent  no.  looked  with  dillfavor  on  lohe  Nogyokai,  the  assumption  or 
leadership  in  the  new  democratic  sgricvltural  cooperatives 
persons  who  had  held  poei­
tions  or  responsibility  in  the  Nogyoksi  would  be  improper. 
People  to  undertake  positiona  of  responsibility;  in  the  new  cooperatives ,  lI10et  officials 

The  tendency  i8  tor  younger 

(2) 

� 

(1 

Tbe 

1947 

resentation 
village  assellibly  elections  alao  aa'll  a  slight  ncrease  n 
in  Kuako  and  Honam1.  Before  the  war,  a  total  ot  four  Eta had  been  aaSemblyllle�!:tione, 
the  villagee:  two  in  Karako  and  one  each  in  Nikaido  and  Honam .  In  the 
1947  ikaldo  arid 
three  Eta  ass&mblYllien  were  elected  in  Ksrako,  two  in  Honam1,  and  one  each  in  N 
Aioi,  The  increaee  in  Karako  resulted  auto&8tically  from  the  increase  in  the  num 

bar  of 

.1  Et 

a  rep 

i 

three  of 

202 

"<6/ 

The  Eta  popu1.atlon  is  considerable  in 
Hikaido,  Hone.n:d,  and  Aioi.  Yoshida,  Nobuto.,  and  CIlie  have  slll8ller  Eta.  pop.U.at.10118. 

fO\U'  of  the  villages  studied l  Karako, 

onl,y 

, 

20) 

are  in  their  thirties  or  forti e s .  

( 3 )   The  new  cooperatives  generally  have  a  lara 

of  officials  than  did  the  old  Nogyoka!  so  that  a  larger  number  of  farmers  are  abl:

ticipate  in  the  management  of  their  c ooperatives . 
barred  from  office  under  the  proviBion�  of  the  "purge  direc1;ive" 

(4)  Some  of  the  N ogyokai  Offici al� 

r
thllJnbSl' 
Pal', 

WSl'e 

en 

in  the  new  agr:umltural  cooperatives . 

The  most  striking  excention  to  the  general  trend  was  in  Ebetsu,  where  most  of  th� 
ficials  of  the  old  �o�okei  continued  to  hold  positions  of  c onsiderable  responsibi lit  of_ 
ev
persons  who  were  di rectors  of  t�' 
Nogyokai  immediately  prior . to  its  dissolution,  six  beeame  directors  of  the  new  Ebetsu 
Machi  Agricultural  C oooerative · Association,  one  a  director  of  the  Nopporo  Agriculturai 
operative  Association,  and  t h.e  other  five  were  electfld  to  the  town  assembly.  Even 
than  one��alf  of  the 
directors  of  the  old  NOg'Jokai .  In  the 

So  Co_ 
directors  in  the  present  general  agricultural  cooperatives  h  d  lese 
. villages  as  a  whole ,  well  over  one�half  of \' bean 
directors  of  the  coo,)eratlves  are  serving  as  officials  in  agricultura l  orga ni zations  r"a 
the  first  time.  The  greatest  shift  in  agricu.J.tl.U'a.l  leadership  occurred  in.  villages  Vlh:%" 
the  Japan  Farmers '  Union  is  especially  strong,  aa 
Yokogoshi,  and  Kawash:l!ro  {B 
the  last  villags ,  for  example ,  out  of  19  directors  of  the  vi llage  cooperative  on ly· t  n 

had  served  as  officials  in  the  vi llage  Nogyokai . 

in  Aioi , 

44 

the 

Of' 

12 

13 

e 

' 

Wo 

The  chairmanship  o f   the  ar,ricultural  cooperatives  also  showed  evidence  of  new  lead 
In  !3ight  of  th�  villages ,  'tohe  cooperative  association  chairlllen  w·ere  men  who  had  e%,,_ 
ship . 
never  beld  positions  of  leadership  in  the 
tsu,  and  Suye �.thG  chairmen  Vler�  formerly  Nogyoka i  directors . 
wake ,  had  the  chairman  of  the  N ogyokai  become  chairman  of  the  villase  c oopera ti ve , 
' 1'10"6:;1' 
throu_hout  the  13  village s ,   many  of  thc  former  Nogyokai  ohail'men  still  held  inflUential  . 
posts ,  Although  aome  of 
others  are  s erving  as  mayors ,  village  assemblymen ,  land  COmmis sioners ,  and  officials  �f 
portant  community  organizations , 
In  five  vil18ge.s- �Kawashiro,  Nikaido ,  YOShida ,  Ebetsu 
ana  Mizuwake�-the  present  mayors  were  formerly  chairmsn  of  the  Nogyokai ,  
• 

were  barred  from  public  office  by  the  "purge  directive" 

In  four  v111ages-�KaraI!:0  Nobuta 

Eb 
In  only  one  in�tance  hz 

[�ogyokai . 

them 

im­

a­

, 

CHJiNGE� 

IN  VOTIiiG  BEHJ1VIOR 

In  the  years  before  the  war ,  Japan  had  a  number  of  political  parties  and  a  parliamen_ 

tary  cabinet  system .  Most  of  the  prewar  cabinets  were  coalitions  in  which  the  relative 
strength  of  the  various  parties  changed  from  election  to  election .  The  pritlcipal  prewar 
parties  were  the  Seiyukai  and  the  N.insei�to ;  on  the  left  various  minor  parti e s ,   such  as 
Socialist  pa :·ty. ,  the  Social  Mas ses  party,  and  the  Proletarian  party ,  appeared  intermit­
tently  on  the  political  s cene .  The  small  Communist  party  was  an  illegal  organi zation 
throughout  the  preViaI'  period. 

the 

During  the  war ,   the  activities  of  political  part ies  virtually  ceased ,  aIid  the  tradi­

ciety .  

tioLal  partie :!  were  replaced  by  the  patriotic  front  Imperial  Rule  i'ssistance  Political  tio­
tary  men  and  some  minor  representation  from  the  civilian  party  factions .  �arly  in  the Oc­

c �pation,  the  restrictions'  upon  the  activities  of  political  parties  were  rmwved ,  and  in­

elections  were  held ,  and  the  cabinets  were  composed  prirr,arily 

nonelected 

Qf 

1'0 

mUi­

tense  political'  activity  commenced  in  preparation  for  an  election  held 

A�rll 

in 

1�46 , 

For  the  most  part ,  cont inuity  existed  between  the  prewar  and  the  immediate  post-SW'l'en­

dar  parties ,  The  Seiyukai  hecame  the  post�Surrender  Liberal  party ,  eventua lly  renamed 
Democratic  Liberal  party .  The  l.insei-to  hecame  the  Progress1 ve  party ,  later  retrained 
Democratic  pa�'ty ,  The  various  left  factions ,  except  for  the  C ommunis ts .  became  the 
Surrender  Social  Democratic  pa�ty ,  and  the  Communist  party  became  a  legal  party  for 
first.  t i,me  in  Japanese  history. 
the  most  important  o f   these  was  the  People ' s  Cooperat�ve  party  which  appealed  prim�.ril Y  
farr.!  support . 

large  number  of  minor  parties  also  ceme  into  exlster,ce, 

the 
post­
the 

, 
for 

the 

A 

The  April  1947  Diet  elections  resulted  in  a  coalition  �overnment 

the  Democratic ,   Social  Demoprat i c ,   and  People ' s   Cooperative  parties ,  although  the 
vative  Liberal  party  received  a  slight  plurality  of  the  popular  vote  for  the  House  of 

c onS er­

representntives 

of 

of 

p8 

esentatives .  £ZI  In  the  13  village s ,   however  the  Social  D emocrats  polled  the  largest 

Democratic  votes  was  four  perc ent  greater  than  the  national  averag e ,   wherea s  the 

�8P�er of  vot e s ,   followed  by  the  D emocrats  and  the· Liberals  (Table  3 5 ) ,  The  proportion  of 
��  a1 
soc:!. cratic and  Liberal  votes  were  respectively  two  percent  and  six  percent  less  than  the 
pe:�onal average .  ?:§/ 

Except  for  those  villages  where  the  Japan  Farmers '  Union  had  been  active  in  the  elec� 
campaigns  voting  habits  in  the  first  post�Surrender  elections  showed  little  change 

In  Nobuta  the  largest  landlord  had  been  a  member  of  the  Seiyukai  and  a  member  of 

tj.on the  immediate  prewar  patterns .  Villages  which  had  traditionally  voted  for  candidates 
froID certain  party  because  the  largest  landlord  ha4  supported  it ,  or  because  they  happened 
of :e  located  in  a  given  political  bailiwic k ,  continued  to  vote  ror  the  candidates  of  those 
to tieS 
p8� Rou� e   of  Peers  before  the  war.  The  Villagers  here  had  traditior ally  supported  his 
thrty  and  in  April  1947,  57  percent 
al  �rty .   Similarly,  i n   Yoshida ,  Vlhere  the  largest  landlord  supported  the 
Iyj.nsei�t o ,  
Nikaido ,  which  had  been  a 
� perpent  o f   t h e   votes  were  polled  b y   the  Democratic 
nsei.to  bailiwick  before  the  war ,  gave  a  maj ority  of  votes  to  candidates  of  the  Demo-
tic  party  in  the  immediate  post-Surrender  period .  Even  in  the  January  1949  election, 
��:n the  Demo,cratic  Liberal  party  won  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Representatives ,  more  than 

percent  of  the  Nikaido  votes  remained  Democratic . 

the  votes  �ere  cast  for  the  candidate  of  the  Lib­

party. 

pa 
�1

of 

50 

Social  Democratic  support  was  greatest  in  villages  where  the  Japan  Fa:�ers '  Union  had 
n  active  as  in  Aioi  and  Yokogosh i .   The  Social  Democrats  also  palled  s1�able  votes  in 

In  Honami ,  the  ma j ority  of  the  Social  Demo� 

t::  two  urb�n  villages ,  Honami  and  Ebetsu . 
b 
oratic  voters  were  coal  miners ,  alld  in  Ebetsu,  the  strongest  party  supporters  were  members 
of farmer  and  l�bor  unions . 
vote and  in  the  distribution  of  repres entatives  among  the  parties ,  The  Democratic  Liberals 
a  plurality  of  the  popular  vote  and  a  maj ority  of  the  House  of  Repr esentatives ,  and  or­
ganized  a  single-party  cabinet .  Both  the  Social  Democratic  and  the  Democratic  parties  de­
won 
clined considerably,  while  the  Communist  party  showed  strong  gains .  W 

49  elections ,  a  c onsiderable  change  occurren  in  the  national  popular 
�

January 

In  the 

1

. 

vill �ge s ,   The  proportion  of  Democratic 

The  national  trend  was  reflected  in  the 

Liberal  votes  was  1 . 6   times  what  it 
percent . in 
the  1947  proportion . 
1749. )  Similar  to  netional  result s ,   the  proportion  of  Democratic  and  Social  Democratlc 

(The  Communists  polled  3 . 8  of  the  votes  in  1947  and  9 .1

been  in  1947 ;  that  of  Communist  votes  was  2 . 4   times 

iotas declined ,  The  1949  Democratic  vote  wa s  7<)  percent  or  the  1947  vot e ,  and  the  1949 
Social  Democratic  vote  was  55  percent  of  the  1947  vote ,  lQ/  Although  the  ?ercentage  of 
vdtes  received  by  the  Social  Democratic ,  Democratic ,  and  C ommunist  parties  ln  the  1949  el
�
corresponded  closely  with  the  national  averages  for  those  parti es ,  the  percentage  o� 

had 

, 

c ­

13 

votes  polled  by  the  Democratic  Liberal  party  in  the  13  villages  was 
tiona 

perc ent  l e s s   than 

10 

national  average . 

the 

�

In  the  1947  elect ions  the  nation-wide  Liberal  vote  was  26 . 7   perc ent ;  the  �;ocial 
ople ' s   Cooper� 
perc�nt;  the  DemocratiC ,  2 5 . 1   percent;  and  the  P
Democrat ic , 
percent .  The  r emainder  of  ·the  votes  were  for  minor  part ies  and  indepen-
26.2 
ativ e ,  
6 . 8 
dent  candidates , 
In  the  1947  elections  in  the  13  villages ,  the  Liberals  r e
total  votes ;  the  Social  Democra ts ,  2':1 . 8   p
The  remainder  of  the  votes  went  to  m�nor  part ies  and  lndependent  Can11Qa t e s , 
In  the  1949  election s ,   the  nation-wide  Democrat�c  Liberal  vote  was  �J . S   perc ent � 
the  Social  Democrat ,  13 . 5   percent ;  the  Democratlc , 
9.6  percent.  The  'remainder  of 
candidate s . 
In  the  1949  elections  in  the  13  villages ,  the  Democratic  Liberals  recei
Democrats , 
cent  of  the  total  vot e s ;   Social  Democrats ,  16 . 5   percent ; 
and  the  C ommunist s ,  
and  independent  candidat e s .  

percent .  The  remainder  of  the  votes  were  for  minor  parties 

rc ent ;   and  �h e   Democrat s ,   2� �5  perc ent . 

min"r  parties  nne'  inC!epecdent 

percent ;  ana  the  Commun 1.s t ,  

votes  l1ere 

d  21 . 4  

eiv e

percent 

15 . £  

. 17 . 7  

t h e  

9 . 1  

f0!' 

the 

tne 

of 

ed  3 3 . 6   per-

�

e

c

. 

perc ent ; 

in 

local  elections .  Generally  speaking  except  for  Conununist  party  candidates 

By  contrast  with  the  national  elections ,  political  parties  play a  much  small 
er  rOle 
for  local  office  run  as  individuals ,   rather  than  as  representatives  of  nationai  ca�did&\ell 
parties .  In  only  two  villages ,  Aioi  and  Yokogoshi,  did  the  official  candidates  �� it1c&1 
a 
lcal  party  gain  a  aizable  number  of  votes.  In  these  villages,  the  Social  Democrati
Po11t, 
e 
wi th  the  support  of  the  Japan  Farmers '  Union,  sponso.red  official  candidates  who  had
erable  s1;1ccess  in  the  elections .  Both  villages  are  in  prefectUl'es  that  have  a  10 
Pax-iy 
C°tls1<i: 
h1st
of  agrar1an  unrest  and  of  political  rivalry  between  landlords  and  tenants .  But  e�n
c� 
these  exceptional  cases,  voting  was  not  strictly  along  party  lines  as  evidenced 
the 
ill 
fact  that  although  the  Social  Democratic  party  succeeded  in  capturing 17  seats 
in  ih
b 
man  assembly  in  Yokogoshi,  its  candidate  for  mayor  was  n.ot  elected .  To  reconcile  th! :2<_ 
ferences  between  a  Social  Democratic  assembly  and  a  conservative  mayor  a  Social  D 
emocratic 
deputy  mayor  had  to  be  appointed . 

dit, 

,

POLITICAL  PARTICIPATION  BY  WOMEN 
Japan ' s   new  constitution  grants  women  the  rights  both  to  vote  and  to  hold  pub1i 
fic� .  However ,  feminine  participation  in  politics  in  the  13  villages  is  restricted  �o
VOt1ng .  Except  for  Yoshida  and  Kawashiro,  where  four  women  candidates  were  nominat  d 
the  village  assembly  in  the  1947  elections ,  no  women  actively  campaigned  for  villag:  �r 
fectural,  or  national  office  in  the  1947  or  1949  elections . 
only  two  elected  women  officials ,   both  village  a ssemblywomen. 

f 
P 
In  all  13  villages,  the;e

Of­

e-
were 

,

In  1947,  65  percent  of  the  feminine  electorate  turned  out  for  the  national  electi 
in  1949,  the  turnout  increased  to  70  percent .  Generally,  in  the  13  villages ,  less  fem����e 
interest  in  voting  was  shown  in  the  northern  than  in  the  central  and  western  villages , 
Although  more  women  than  men  were  eligible  to  vote  in  all  villages  except  Honami  i 
all  post-Surrender  elections  ( except  in  Yoshida)  more  men  than  women  actually  voted 
'Thn 
feminine  per�entage  most  closely  approximated  that  of  men  in  prefectural  and  villag�  ele�_ 
tions . 
In  v11�ages  where  men  have  a  keen  interest  in  politics ,   women  usually  show  a  cor­
respond1ngly  h1gh  interest 
voting .  Thus ,  in  Yoshida,  Kawashiro ,  and  Suye,  where  male 
voting  rates  were  consistently  high,  the  women ' s  voting  rates  tended  to  be  high  also . 
thermore,  wherever  the  number  of  male  votes  increased  in  the  1949  elections  (as  compared 
with  1947 ) ,  a  corresponding  increase 
occurred  in  the  n
er  of  women ' s  
umb
votes ,   Thus ,  in  Obie,  where  male 
votes  increased  by  21  percent ,  women 's 
votes  increased  by  22  percent ;  in  Aiai, 
where  male  votes  increased  by  19  per­
cent ,  women ' s   votes  increased  by  32 
percent . 

fur­

in 

activity  of  the  chairwoman  of  the  local  women ' s   association,  who  is  the  well­
energetiC 
ted  wife  of  the  former  great  landowner  of  the  village .  The  women ' s  as sociation  in  Yo­
the  most  active  of  all  the  women ' s   organizations  in  the  13' villages  in  the  politi­

education  of  its  members :  it  publishes  a  monthly  summary  of  local  and  national  news; 

political  meetings  before  elections  to  acquaint  the  village  women  with  the  per-
histories  and  platforms  of  the  candidates ;  it  also  nominated  women  candidates  for  the 

WEi 

9 

�u� i
��i 
oat 
!�18ge assembly  in  the  1947  elections. 

�t  b1 

old9 

if 

with  men,  and  the  maj ority  of  those  who  do  are  young . 

the  women ' s   vote  was  large,  there  was  little  evidence  that  they  took  an  ac­
interest  in  political  af!aira .  Because  Japanese  men  generally  regard  women ' s   voting 
Although 
tlV: some  amusement 
not  with  contempt ,  women  rarely  consult  them  on  political  matters . 
their  pOlitical  discussions  are  with  other  women .  Few  women  attend  political  meet­
11.1\ of 
JlQ,1I a 
ing .. 
Evidence  suggests  that  the  large  turnout  of  women  at  the  polls  was  in  considerable 
art  a  result  of  factors  otper  than  a  high  degree  of  interest  in  political  affairs .  The 
frequently  reported  that  they  voted  because  they  were  afraid  that  their  neighbors 
1I�:d gossip  about  them 
ssure  by  having  the  children  urge  their  parents  to  vot e .   The  large  turnout  at  the  Janu­
�  voting 
e9 
pre  1949  e lections  also  was  stimulated  by  the  villagers '  desire  to  win  radios  and  commenda­
the  government  and  the  Mainichi  newspaper  to  villages  having  a  high  turn-
��ns  offered 

is  very  considerable  in  a  Japanese  community .  The  schools  contribute  to  this 

they  did  not .  Social  pressure  for  fulfilling  such  civic  duties 

by 
at  elections . 

1£ 

n 

P 

out 

Another  factor  of  considerable  importance  is  the  activity  bf  particularly  influential 

or  capable  individuals  in  the  community .  In  some  communities,  women  of  broad  experience 

In  Yoshida ,  the  influence  of  the  chairwoman  of  the  women ' s   asso�ia­

education  had  considerable  success  in  guiding  the  political  education  and  participation 
the  village  women . 

was  strongly  reinforced  by  the  traditional  authority  of  her  family,  which  had  been  the 

aud 
of 
great  landowner  of  the  area  for 
tion 
within  the  traditiOnal  framework  of  the  village  were  virtually  commands--and  her  efforts  at 
political  education  a  turnout  of  98  percent  of  the  women  was  achieved  in  the  JanQary  1949 
eleotions.  This  t�nout  may  be  more  a  tribute  to  her  efforts  than  evidenc e  of  a  rise  in 
the status  or  of  the  political  interest  of  the  village  women . 

generations .  Thus,  through  her  suggestions--whicp 

many 

a

ur

Most  of  the  women  interviewed  felt 
e  for  women  to 
it  was  a  little  prem
t
run  for  public  offic e .   They  were  con­
vinced  that  women  needed  more  education 
to  equip  them  to  compete  successfully 
with  men .  They  f
officials  would  tend  to  show  too  much 
deferenc e  toward  men  so  that  their  ac ­
tivity  would  be  ineffective . 

felt  that  women 

the

ur

r 

The  highest  women ' s   voting  rate 
was  in  Yoshida ,  where  98  percent  of 
the  feminine  electorate  turned  out  to 
vote  in  the  January  1949  elections. 
In  all  post-3urrender  elections,  the 
proportion  of  women ' s   votes  in  Yo shida 
has  consistently  kept  pace  with  the 
highest  percentage  for  men  in  all  of 
the  villages .  This  is  of  particular 
significance  when  it  is  recalled  that 
of  the  13  villages ,  Yoshida  is  the 
most  remote  from  urban  influences  and 
has  the  most  feudalistic  social 
ture . 

struc­

The  voting  interest  of  Yoshida 

women  is  due  in  considerable 

part  to 

Most  of  the  women  seemed  to  be 
aware  that  changes  have  occurred  in 
their  legal  status  under  the  Occupation, 
but  they  are  not  quite  c ertain  what 
these  changes  are .  Officers  of  the 
women ' s   associations ,  exoe.pt  in  Ronam 
and  Yoshida ,  said  tbat  only  about  five 
percent  of  the  women  have  a  working 
knowledge  of  women ' s   rights  as  defined 
in  the  neVI  Constitution  snd  the  revised 
Civil  Code . 
where  officers  of  the  women ' s   as socia­
tion  had  sponsored  several  lectures  on 
the  Constitution  and  the  Civ�l  Code  in 
9very , buraku,  at  least 
the  women  were  adjudged  to  be  aware  of 

In  Honami  and  Yoshida� 

ercent  of 

50  p

N inety-eight  percent  of  the  feminine 
electorate  in  Yo shida  turned  out  to  vote 
in  the  January  1949  election .  Here  wo­
ong  those  registering  and  re­
men  are  a
ceiving  their  election  ballots . 

m

The  ass emblywoman  in  Yoshida  is  one 
of  two  elected  women  officials  i n   the 
13  villages . 

these rights.  Most farm wives work in the fields all day and are busy with 
chores  in the evenin? and  so have  little  oPportunity to  listen to the  radio  household 
newspapers  and magaz�nes  to  keep abreast of current changes. 
t o  r
As�de from voting,  women's rights  are generally regarded in all  13  villa 
ges as 
ical r1ghts--something provided for  in the Constitution and the Civil C d 
about· which there is  little  need  to do anything,  at  least  in the immedi�t:'��!r:��
tQ�::t. 
Although the majority of men have a disdainful attitude toward women's v t 
o ing, 
village  leaders here  and there--whether holding  official positions or not __ e
belie�  that  now that  the women are  becoming accustomed to voting  they will xpresSed  the� 
seaeo 
ot
linqu1sh their rights ,  In this connection,  it  is well to rememb�r that  alth�
hreadilY· r 
are not  taking advantage of their  opportunity to  sue for divorce and to prote� 
mOst .o� 
their 
erty rights under the provisions  of  the  revised Civil  Gode  sooe few wo;'en i 
n the villaD 
had availed  themselves  of these new rights.  What the  Situ�tion ahead  will  b
e remain, 
seen. 
t�'b. 

the 
e

or 

ead 

P1'O 

� 

/ 

Chapter  5 

THE CHANGING FAMILY 
The Japanese family  is  a close-knit  eoonomic and social grouP.  Especially in  the 
areas,  the  sense of  famlly--of  belonging  to  a family,  of acting  in the family name,  of 
�end1Dg the  family  honor,  of doing things  in behalf of the family,  of  being worthy of the 
d�y ancestors--ia very strong.  Until the recent revision of the Civil Code,  famil� prop­
usually  were transmitted as a unit to the eldest  son.  People regard the maint�a�ce 
ancestral  shrines as one of their most important duties.  MemberShip in many kinds of 
o  anizat10ns is on a family basis .  Marri.age is a  family 
usually arranged by par­
� 
::�s ' often with the help of a go-between.  Important questions involving  family members 
a  family council.  Every  child  is  early and permanently recorded in 
�ommonlY  deoided 
:rramllY registry whioh  is kept  in the village office.  Family continuity  is  so important 
when  there is no  male helr,  every effort  is  made to adopt  a  son to carry on  the  family 

affair , 

f tieS 

by 

ru-

e 

that 

.un 

.,..e . This sense of  belonging  is  extended  to a  kinship group larger  than  one ' s  immediate 
The extended family group  is often formally organized, and even in areas where it 
11  Dot,  its  informal  authority  1s recognized.  The formal extended family consists of a 
rudly. 
family and a group of branoh families which have traditional obligations and relations 
each other.  In large extended  families ,  there may be a  "great"  main family and grand­
branch  families as 'Well,  together making up  a very large  number  of' relatives .  The 
to 
relations between  the main  family and t.he br�ch families  are  based upon obedien.ce and 
ohild 
..nee on the part of the branch family,  and protection and patroIl8.ge on tne pa.rt of  the 

family. 
Today,  this  traditional  Japanese family system  is undergoing  great  change .  The war, 
the experiences of young men abroad ,  t·be Occupation,  and post-Surrender legislation are 
a telling effect.  In this  chapter,  some important aspects of this changing situa­

u1n 

will 

having 
tion 

be 

noted. 

\ 

!!!e Extended Family 

ASPECTS 

SOCIAL 

Cant 

Before  the land  reform program,  landlords  and moderately 'Wealthy  owner-operators  cus­
tolllarlly set up branch families  ("bunke" )  for  their yOWlger sons at  the  time of their rnar-
'1'he amount of  land given to  a branch family at the time of its establishment de­
pended upon  the affluence of  its head family  ("honke" )  but generally constituted 10-30  per­
1'1age .  
of the ,head family 's real property,  In addition,  the branch f�mily received a  house, 
fllrniture,  farming  implements,  and other items necessary for an independent existence.  The 
creation of branch families  entailed  a great  finanCial burden on the head family,  as may be 
in the folk saying  that "tne setting  up  of  a branch f'amily means a lifelong famine" . 
:ren before the land reform,  the  establishment  of branch  families  had already  become more 
fficult,  because after the Meiji  era  there was  insufficient land for  subdivision and al-
otment to younger sons. 

'een 

1 

the majority of the  13  villages,  the general prewar practice waB to  est 'bli �h  the 

in the  same locality as its head  family;  this  facilitated reciprocal relations 

In 

b 
ranch  family 

ma

Eb

etsu,  where 

However ,  in  response 

and  strengthened  the  solidarity  of  the  extended  family. 
ditions ,  practices  differed  from  village  to  village .  Thus,  in 

rriage  of  a  younger  son  a  fath

matter ,  even  for  ordinary  farmers .  Upon  the 

to  10 
irgin  cal 
was  still  abundantly  available ,  the  s etting  up  of  branch  families  was  a  relatively  /and 
was  able  to  purchase  a  tract  of  uncultivated  land  for  his  son,  instea d '  of  SUbdi�i��erally 
own  property . 
If  the  land  was  infertile,  the  father  contributed  top  soil  and  permit� his 
son  to  utilize  his  peat  bogs  freely . 
In  lIiizuwake ,  on  the  other  hand,  where  surplus 
was  unavailable,  a  small  farmer  could  rent  land  from  a  landlord  and  transfer  hi  t 
e
right  to  his  younger  son. 
In  this  manner ,  t
latter  became  economically  indep:nd
could  assume  hi s  plece  in  the  community  as  a  full-fledged  tenant  farmer 
ble  Isnd  is  scarce  and  fishing  is  the  major  source  of  income ,  the  cr�ation  of
r
�
�
�l�es  was  relatively  easy.  Because  the  young er  sons  could  achieve  economic  indep  d 
fishermen,  the  father ' s   principal  duty  was  to  provide  a  house . 
In  Nikaido ,  a  far:�r
out  surplus  land  generally  contributed  money  to  help  hi s  sons  establish  themselv
e
nonagricultural  work  in  the  village  or  in  nearby  citi
well,  younger  sons  usually  were  given  more  education 
them  for  earning  a  l iving  out side  of  farming . 

h-
s .   As  is  common  in  other  villa  SOllla 
as 
than  their 

�
In  Fut  �n  and 
�r�nWhe�8 
c
h  fam. 
en
ce 
w
t
1

eldest  brother  to  p 

led  his 
and 
n
cy 

s in

QOIt� 

ssy 

he 

ges 

8S 

e 

o

V

a

repare 

Si�ce  the  land  reform  the  creation  of  the  traditional  branch  family--entailing  t

vision  of  land  and  the  building  of  a  separate  dwelling--has  become  almost  impossibl 
for  former  landlords .  To  meet  the  situation ,  some  younger  sons  are  marrying  into  f
hou seholds  a's 
lIy6shi"  (adopted  sons ) ;   others  are  compelled  to  find  nonagricultural  �

e 
h 
e ,   even 
rm 

di_ 

tions,  usually  outside  of  the  village .  A  few  wealthy  families  are  still  able  to  bui��upa­
houses  when  their  younger  sons  marry,  but  in  the  ma j ority  of  cases ,  married  younger  son:ew 
either  rent  houses  or  continue  to  live  with  their  famil ies . 
In  Suye  and  Aioi ,  in  contrast 
w�th , the  ge�eral  tr�nd,  branch  families  were  increasing  because  the  villagers  were  findi 
d�ff�culty  �n  locat�ng  work  and  housing  in  the  citie s . '  

ng 

The  mutual  aid  activities  and  solidarity  of  the  extended  family  have  been  in  a  process 

of  change  for  many  year s .   This  process,  which  is  in  the  direction  of  les sening  the  impor­
tance  of  the  extended  family,  has  been  accelerated  since  the  Surr ender . 

Before  the  war,  members  of  the  extended  �amily  customarily  a s sisted  each  other  during 
the  busy  farming  season.  The  more  influential  head  families ,   however ,  did  not  have  to  re­
ciprocate  for  aid  which  they  received  from  tpeir  branch  families .  This  practice  of  assist� 
ance  has  been  discontinued  in , most  villages  since  the  Surrender ,  although  groupings  of  two 

or  three  related  households  l�ving  near  each  other  may  exchange  labor  espec ially  if  they 
belong  to  the  same  mutual  aid  grouP . 

' 

The  head  f�ily  and  its  branch  families  still  keep  in  t ouch  with  each  other  on  such 

their 

In  prewar  times  branch  families  used  to 
head  family  on  New  Year ' s   Day ,   during  the  Feast  of  the  Dead 

occasions  as  births,  marriages ,  and  funerals . 
gather  at  the  home  of 
(O-Bon) ,  and  'during  the  Ances t.ors '  Festival  (Senzo-matsuri ) ,  when  they  j oint
the  family  tutelary  god  ann  their  ancestors  and  held  a  family  feast .  During  the  war , 
customs  became  highly  abbreviated  because  of  food  shorta�es  and  the  expense  involved 
changing  presents . 
as  in  Mizuwak e ,   Nobuta ,  and  Yokogoshi ,  all  branch  families  within  a  buraku  gathered  at 
�ouse  of  the  direct  desc endant  of  the  founder  of  the  family  on  New  Year ' s  Day  and  at 
to  pray  to  their  common  ancestor .  This  practice  is  no  longer  observed  as  rigidly  as  it 
and.  branch  families  tend  to  ass emble  only  at  the  home  of  their  immediate  head  family  on 
these  occasions . 

In  villages  where  the  extended  family  system  was  particularly  strong, 

worshipped 

ly 

the 
0-30n 

tl,lese 
in ·ex� 

waS, 

Prior  to  the  war ,   members  of  the  extended  family  in ,all  of  the  villages  Vlere.  obligated 
to 
, 
most  of  th 
for  m 

d 
to  go  to  the  assi stance  of  any  member  in  financial  difficulties,  and  they  were 
t
consult  the  head  of  the  family  about  the  selection  of  brides  for  their  son s .   At  presen
neither  of  these  practices  is  followed  in  about  ha lf   of 
villages ,  the  head  family  no  longer  acts  as  go-between  in 
bers  of  its  branch  famili e s .   To  a n   increasing  extent ,  go-betweens  a r e   nonrelatives . 

le ction  of  spous es 

villages 
.

Also  in 
,

xpect

the 

the 

elll-

s

e

e

e 

e

When  the  extended  family  used  to  ass emble  on  cer emonial  occasi on s ,   a  definite 
s eating  arrangelnent  was  observed.  The  highest  seat  of  honor  was  accorded  to  the  direct 

honorar)' 

of  the  founder  of  the  family,  followed 

succession 

the  branch  families 

in 

by 

back  rather  than  through  the  front  entranoe ,  to  Signify  their  so01al  inferiority . 

in 
order  of  their  establisbment .  Branch  families  separated  directly  from  the  main  family 
d  higher  in  social  status  than  those  separ�ted  from  br�nch  families .  Such  a  seating 

deScendant 
tpe 
nk
t
e
atrangement  i8  observed  at  present  in  only  three  villages : 
a
In Yokogoshi,  members  of  branch  families  often  enter  the  house  of  the  main  family  thro�h 
the 
Since  1945 ,  the  range  of  recognized  mutual  obligation  �ith1n  the  extended  family  has 
�rowed  to  three  generations  and  to  those  directly  separated  from  the  family  (or  second 
family  at  most) .  The  largest  extended  family  encountered,  which  was  in  Yizuwake, 
btanch 
families  had  once  lived  in  this  village . 
oo
Tbst  such  families  once  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  the  community  is  attested  to  by  the 
ns
of  such  terms  of  respect  as  " oyakata-sama"  (literally,  honorable  master ) ,  " oys-sama" 
(literally ,  honorable  parent ) ,  and  "danna-sama"  (literally,  honorable  master,  lord)  towards 
USB 

isted  of  20  families ;  an  extended  family  of 

Nobuta ,  and  YokogQshi . 

Mizuwake , 

60 

main  families . 

the 

In  summary ,   it  can  be  said  that  the  gradual  deterioration  of  the  extended  family  sys­
mid-Taisho  era  (about  1920)  was  considerably  accelerated  by  post­
which  began 
surrender  conditions  and  by  the  land  reform  program;  the  establishment  of  branch  families 
tem, 

beoome  alm.ost  imp.ossible,  and  sons,  who  in  earlier  days  might  have  remained 

in  the 

and  thus  participated  in  the  extended  family  activities ,   n�w  are  becoming  adop
has 
munity 
husbands  or  are  going  to  live  outside  of  their  home  village .  The  land  reform  has  tended  to 
level  the  economic  differences  between  the  head  families  and  their  branch  families  and  is 
reby  weakening  these  traditional  economic  and  social  ties  which  were  based  upon  the  un­

t

the  com­
ed 

in 

the
equal  economic  status  of  the  two  groups . 

!!¥teritanoe 

Traditionally,  land  inberi tance  has  been  based  upon  prj m.ogeni ture  in  Japan .  Further­
y- -but 

the  position  of  head  of  the  household  was  also  passed  on  by  suc ceSSion ,  u

ua

e

ll

to  65  is  common. 

always--to  the  same  person  who  inherited  the  land .  In  some  areas,  formal  retirement  at 

more , 
not 
the  age  of 
management  o�  his  farm  and  transfers  the  headship  of  the  household  and  the  ownership  of  the 
family  property  to  his  eldest  son.  These  inheritance  patterns  were  customary  and  were  a1so 
r  Civil  Code  provides  that 
legally  presoribed  in  the  Civil  Code .  However ,  the  post-Surrend
children  and  relatives  have  the  right  to  share  in  the  inheritanc e ,   including  land .  l!I 

In  the  traditional  praotioe ,   a  man  retires  from  the  aotive 

60 

e

all 
der  the  revised  Civil  Code,  the  acquisition  �f  the  position  of  head  of  the  household  is 
U
longer  dependent  upon  death  or  Ntirement  of  the  previous  head  or  on  the  formal  estab­
n
no 
lishment  of  a  branch  family . 

important  element  of  the  Japanese  family  system  is  its  emphasis  upon  mutual  obliga­
and  responsibility  for  the  welfare  of  the  members .   A  more  successful  member  o f   a  fam-
An 
tion 
11y  is  obligated  to  give  aid  to  the  less  succeSsful  members .  This  applies  particularly  to 

eld
e

st  son,  espeoially  if  he  is  the  son  who  has  inherited  the  land .  Along  with  the 
he  inherits  the  responsibility  for  the  care  of  his  parents  and  for  other  members  of 

close  family  as  well,  if  they  should  need  aid .  The  succes sor  also  inherits  his  fa­

the 
land, 
his 
ther ' s   �ebts ,   if  any,  and  the  obligation  to  repay  them. 

In  practic e ,   inheritance  �ocedure  varied  in  response  to  local  and  personal  circum­
stances .  Respondents  to  the  questionnaire  reported  the  following  inheritance  practices  in 
own  families :  to  eldest  son  only ,  78  percent ;  to  all  sons ,  but  different  amounts  ac­

�heir 
eording  to  age ,  13 ;  divided  equally  among  all  sons ,  4 ;   other  arrangement ,  5 .  

The  consensus  of  most  of  the  fArmera  interviewed 

the ' revised  C ivil  Code  were  carried  out ,  the  family  as  an  economic  unit  would 

encounter 
difficulties ,  The  questionnaire  revealed  a  s imilar  attitude .  When  asked  what  would 

WA S 

a

th

t  if ' the  inheritAnce  provis ion 

� 

, 
, 

or 
great 

' ''Ill �  Ar

ticle  900  of  the  reviseq  Civil  Code  stipulates  that  in  the  event  the  heirs  are  the 

spouse  and  lineal  descendants ,   the  former  shall  inherit  one-third  of  the  property, 
and  the  latter  two-thirds ;  if  the  heirs  are  the  spouse  and  lineal  ascendants ,   the 
property  shall  be  divided  equally;  and  if  the  heirs  are  the  spouse  and  the  siblings 
of  the  �ecea sed,  the  spouse  shall  receive  two-thirds ,  an�  the  latter  one-third . 

210 

211 

 
happen  if  all  the  sons  and  daughters  were  given  land  equally,  respondents 
the  family  would  be  unable  to  get  al ong ,   67  percent ;  the  future  of 
lows : 
would  improve,  16;  neither  the  family  nor  the  children  would  be  affected, 
10;  oth

answers ,  1 .  

er 

replied  as 
the  chi
6;  don

f  1 

� 

ldren 0 
' t  kno" , 

Farmers  frequently  argued  that  the  land  holdings  were  too  small  to  provide  a 

j,f 

they  were  subdivided  further .  Although  the 

enoe  for  all  family  members 
es t� 
le 
required  for  independent  farming  varied  from  village  to  village--from  five  tan  in 
�
Nikal
where  the  land  is  particularly,  fertile ,   to  15  cho  in 
' 
dairying  �uraku  in  Ebetsu--the  fe
e
iog  is  widespread  that  at  least  one  oho  is  necessary  for  supporting  an  average  family 
f
five .  Because  present  land  holdings  are  already  so  close  to  thi s  minimum  required  leVel 
the  maj ority  thought  that  the  new  inheritance  provisions  are  impraotical  and  that  a 
' 
more
realistic  revision  is  necessary  before  they  can  afford  to  abandon  their  traditional 
ance  practic es .  A  f ew  expres sed  the  fear  that  they  would  be  abandoned  by  their  children 
inhertt 
its  provisions  �pre  carried  out
chi
dren  after  thei r  death .  

Many  more  fearea  inheritance  disputes  among  their 

minimum 

l � 

a 

O

l

.1t  

. 

� 

sUbele 
acr

The  majority  o f   young  people  intervie�ed  in  youth  associat

or
e
tinuance  of  the  traditiona l  methods  of  inheritanc e .   Because  the  elder  brother  i s 
the  COn� 
obligated 
to  take  care  of  the  aged  parents  and  look  after  the  welfare  of  the  younger  children  until 
they  reach  maturity,  it  was  only  proper,  they  argued,  that  he  should  inherit  the  family l s  
u,  for  example ,   members  of  the  youth  association  stated  that  they  felt 
property . 
that  their  parents '  obligation  to  them  ands  with  their  own  mat
that  they  had  the  right  to  receive  a  share  of  the  inheritance .  

rity ,  and  they  did  not 

on  meetings  fa

I n   Ebet

feel 

d 

i

s

v

u

Disputes  over  i

eritanc e   of  land  arising  from  the  new  Code  occt�red  only  a t  Nobute ,  

end  Aioi.  The  one  ca se  in  Nobuta  and  the  two  cases  in  Nikaido 

Nikaido
dis.cord  among  brothers,  where
widow  to  share  in  the  property  l eft  by  her  husband . 

attributed' 
s  the  fourth  case ,  at  Aioi ,  involved  the  efforts  of  a  war 

were 

a

, 

to 

nh

Marriage 

In  Japan  a s   a  whole,  and  particularly  i n  

communities,  the  traditional  pattern 

ot 
marriage  has  been  one  in  which  the  families  chose  the  spouses  for  their  childr.en ,  and  a  go· 
between  was  ueed  to  conduct  the  necessary  interfamilial  negotiations  and  to  conclude  the 
arrangements .   The  traditional  system,  which  depended  upon  the  requirement  of  parental 
ep­
proval  for  marriage ,  was  strongly  supported  by  the  old  Civil  Code,  which  st ipulated  the  ne­
cessity  of  parental  approval  for  marriages  when  the  man  and  woman  were  less  than  30  and 
years  of  age  respectively . 
tem  of  marriage,  many  detailed  economic  and  social  arrangements 
acted  to  reinforce  the  authority  of  the  parents  and  the  acqu iescence  of  the  children . 

25 
In  addition , to  the  traditional  and  legal  support  for  this  sys­

c ommunity  life  also 

of 

rural 

Parental  approval  could  be  manifested  in  a  variety  of  ways . 

'

It

could  mean  little  more 

than  the  registration  of  parental  approval  of  the  free  choice  made  by  a  son  or  daughter . 
At  the  other  extreme ,  it  could  take  the  form  of  forCing  a  ma.rrif\ge  against  the  �ill  of 
the 
children  or  of  diss olving  a  marriage  against  the  will  of  the  children .  Normally,  marriage 
arrange
�
ents  usually  took  their  children ' s   views  into  conSideration ,  and  children  usually  were 
n
ing  to  be 

e  were  somewhere  between  these  two  extremes .  To  some  extent .  par­

their  parent s .  

t s   in  pr

ided 

ti

ac

will­

m

o

gu

by 

s

m

ilie

Many  fac tors  were  considered  i n   the  selectio

of  spouses .  A  basic  requirement  in  d;­
t ermining  the  appropriat ene s s   of  a  prospective  marriage  was  the  relative  sociai  status 
0 
.  The  closer  the.  status  of  the  tVIO  families ,  the  more  favorably  would  � 
the  two  fa
marriage  be  regarded .  Also,  great  emphasis  was  traditionally  placed  upon  the  " stock"  � 
the  family :  marriage  into  families  with  a  history  of  leprosy,  tuberculosis,  or  insan1 
"1of 
or:s 
was  avoided;  a  family  lineage  suspected  of  a  history  of  posseSSion,  whether  in  the 
"inugamil1  (dog  god)  or  of  "kitsUDe-mochi"  ( �ox  pos sessor) ,  was  shunned;  non-ats  famili 
would  never  c onsider  the  marriage  of  their  son  or  daughter  to  an  Eta ,  as  the  Japanese 
felt 
that  no  matter  how  much  worldly  success  an  Eta  might  achieve ,  he  could  never  overcome 
In 
tbe 
taint  of  his  lineage .  Family  �ea1th  has  also  been  looked  upon  as  an  important  matter .  

n 

f

�e 
S  o
!rserv

instance s ,   marriages  with  persons  from  certain  communities  or  areas  were  tradi

ionally 

�ed  upon . 

In  addition,  £avorable  and  unfavorable  zodiaoal  signs  aDd  conjectures  were 

t

ed 

closely.  Age  differences  also  were  given  some  weight ;  a  difference  of  four  or 

8 

considered  favorabl e .   A  function  of  the  go-between  Via s  to  investigate  all  of  these  as 

O�gbt years  was  considered  unfavorable ,  whereas  an  interval  of  three,  five,  or  seven  years 
::11 as  other  important  factors  in  order  that  the  marriage  should  be  perfectly  suitable  to 

S 
h  famili e s .  
t

bO

I 

In  the  normal  traditional  pattern,  the  bride  "comes  toll  or  is  "received  by"  the  hus-
d ' S   family .  Sometime s ,   when  a  fsmily  has  no  male  heir  to  carry  on  the  fami ly  line ,  a 
a  son  an<;l  will  enter  his  wife ' 
s  tradi tiona�  regarded  as  a  Slightly  contemptible 

The  adopted  s o n   ( "yoshi 11 )  

ban
usband  will  be  adopted,  usually  from  a  related  family . 
h
faad 11. 
figure ,  and  normal� 
sdopted .  This
be 
pint  of  rice  bran,  don I t   become  a 

under  economic  stre s s   would  a  father  permit  his  younger  sons  t o  

aversion  is  expressed  i n   the  folk  saying : 

"If  you  have  a s   little  as  a 

0)1� 

' yoshi 

I . "  

as 

i

. 

s 

v

S 

In  recent  years ,   the  war,  the  Occupation,  the  unsettled  economic  conditions ,  the  new 
e  contributed  to  an  atmosphere  of  change . 

constitution .  and  the  revised  Civil  Code  all  ha
atmosphere  has  permitted  certain  element s  of  the  population--who  for  �ne  reason  or 
i
T
h
anotber were  discontented  with  the  traditional  marriage  pattern,  or  whose  family  situation 
,as  such  that  individual  choice  was  possible--to  break  away  from  the  customary  system  of 
parental  selection  of  spouses .  The  war  permitted  many  rural  young  people  to  travel  and  to 
observe  a  less  traditional  way  of  life;  the  Occupation  has  furthered  the  dissemination  of 
western  ideas  of  individualism.  The  unsettled  economic  conditions  (and  the  land  reform) 
have  reordered  the  economic  arrangements  of, many  fa.miUes ;   the  Oonstitution  guarantees  the 
frsedom  of  the  individual ;  �nd  the  revised  Oivil  Code  ( in  contrast  to  the  old  one)  stipu­
lates  that  the  consent  of  the  prospective  bride  and  groom  is  the  sole  requirement  for  mar­
However,  a  wide  gap  occurs  between  the  awareness  of  alternatives  and  the  feasibil­

of  putting  them  into  practice;  and  the  s ocial  and  economic  conditions  which  have  tradi­

riag·e . 
ity 
tionally  supported  the  system  of  parental  selection  remain  for  the  most 
the  existe.nce  of  the  revised  Civil  Code.  Thus,  a lthough  many  of  the  prerequisites  for 
cbange  exist,  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  incidence  of  parental  selection  has  materially 
declined  in  the  13  villages  since  the  Surrender . 

untouched  by 

part 

However ,  SOme  changes  have  occurred  wbich  affect  the  traditional  system  of  marriage . 

Although  parental  approval  continues  to  be  of  great  importanc e ,   forced  marriages  in  the 
tears  since  the  SUrrender  are  not  so  common .  Parents  in  some  villages  mentioned  that  their 
daughters  were  less  acquiescent  about  marrying  men  whom  they  did  not  like .  Elnphasis  upon 
aocial  and  economic  status  a s . criteria  for  the  selection  of  spouses  has  diminished  markedly . 
though  only  economic  factors  are  considered  in  some  of  the  villages ,   the  personal  charac­

AI 
ter:1 s tics  of  the  prospective  s pouaes  are  bei ng  emphas i zed  more  and  ",ore. 
tarm 

heal th  and  ebili t�  to  work  are  particularly  des i red .   The  change  i n   atti tudes 
young  people  has  been  even  more  marke d .   Although  they  recogni ze  the  practical  dif. 

among 
ticulties  involved,  most  of  them  favor  greater  freedom  of  choice  in  marriage . 

In  prospective 

Wives , 

Much  less  change  has  occurred  in  some  of  the  otner  traditional  oriteria .  The  impor­
of 

stockll  continues  to  be  emphasized .  The  presence  of  he.redi tary  taint ,  whether  of 
tance 
PhYSical  and  mental  disease  or  of  status ,  such  as  surrounds  the  Eta ,  continues  to  be  an  ob­
!taale  to  marriage .  Marriage  with  dog-god .or  fox  possessor  families  is  still  avoided,  and 
traditional  con siderations  concerning  the  proper  geographical  location  of  the  prospective 

II 

8poUs e i s 

family  are  still  observed  in  some  villages . 

Since  the  Surrender  the  number  of  Hyoshi"  marriages  has  increased  notably .  This  has 
bout  principally  f or  two  rea'sons .  Many  families  had  l ost  their  sons  in  the  war,  and 
order  to  continue  the  family  line,  had  had  to  adopt  sons-in-law .  Secondly,  because  of 
ent  limitation  of  land  and  the  consequent  difficulties  in  the  establi shment  of 
younger  sons  who  wish  to  continue  in  farmlng,  rather  than  leave  the  vil-
lie s
for  nonfarm  employment,  have  become  more  willing  to  accept  the  status  of  adopted  bus­

ng
m
a

i

r

, 

n 

�ol1le a 
�he  s
t
{anoh  f
bage 
lind . 

i

212 

2lJ 

The  return  of  discharged  soldiers  to  their  homes  resulted  in  an  unusual  increase 

in 

in 

the  average 

stantial  family  allowances , 

the  rate  of  marriage,  and  the  end  of  conscription  led  t o   a  reduction 
both  brides  and  grooms , 

A  noteworthy  change  in  all  the  villages  haa  occurred  in  connection  witb  marriage 

The  greatest  reduction  in  the  average  age  of  marriage  took  ;f: ot 
Honami ,  a  coal  mining  community,  Where,  because  of  the  government  program  of  incent  Oe 
for  increased  coal  production,  miners  have  priority  in  housing  construction  and  reCe!  1vee 
Ve sllb� 
monies  which  have  become  more  elaborate  since  the  Surrender  than  they  bave  ever  been  1�e�e� 
e  c�� 
In  Kawashiro ,  for  example,  the  leaders  of  the  womee� 
aSh 
8 
tla  competition  for  trouss eau"  and  report: 
Pec.d 

ral  area s ,  This  may  be  attribut ed  to  the  post-Surrender  farming  boom,  wbich  made  mO�
than  ever  b e fpre  available  t o   many  farm  families,  as  well  as  to  the  removal  of  w
strict ions  upon  lavish  expenditures . 
as sociation  c omplained  that  marriage  has  become 
that  their  association  had  conducted  three  campaigns  to  persuade  the  families  of  proS
tive  spouses  to  set  a  limit  upon  wedding  expense s ,  

i
me 

art

11:1 

r

Divorce 

Because  of  the  Japanese  rural  custom  of  not  regist ering  marriages  until  the  birth 

of 
the  first  child  or  sometimes  not  until  a  year  after  marriage,  determination  of  the  exact 
nUmber  of  divorces  that  occurred  during  the  period  under  investigation  was  extremely  dif. 
ficult .  Most  divorces  take  place  within  the  year  after  marriage  and  before  the  birth 
Child,  and  the  actual  number  of  divorces  may  have  been  considerably  larger  than  the 
officially  recorded ,  To  cite  an  exampl e ,   the  village  of  Karako  is  sometimes  called  a  "yome­
daShi-mura" 
( literally,  village  which  expels  daughters-in-law)  by  neighboring 
because  of  the  large  number  of  divorces  that  take  place  annually;  second  wives  were  said 
be  common,  and  several  cases  were  cit e d   of  men  in  their  early  thirti es  living  with  their 
fourth  or  fifth  wives ,  However ,  the  statistical  registers  in  the  Karako  village  office 
corded  only  five  divorces  during  1945 ,  seven  during  1946  and  1947,  . and  four  during  1948 , 

of  a 
number 

communlti6s 

re­

to 

The  peak 

recorded  divorces  in  the  villages  was  during  1947 , 

This  rise  in  the  di­

in 

vorce  rate  was  chiefly  attributed  to  the  legalization  of  divorces  of  war  widows  whose  for­
mer  husbands ,  officially  listed  as  dead,  returned  after  their  wives  had  already  remarried, 
as  well  as  to  the  incompatibility  of  military  repatriates  and  their  long-separated  wives , 
In  the  maj ority  of  villages ,   and  for  the  13  villages  as  a  whole ,   the  number  of  recorded 
vorces  during  1948  decreased  sharply , 

di­

Traditionaliy,  the  chief  cause  of  divorce  throughout  rural  Japan  has  been  the  incqm­

pat ibility  of  the  wife  and  her  mother-in-law ,  This  is  still  true  in  the  11  rural  villages; 
in  the  urban  villages  of  Ebetsu  and  Honami,  incompatibility  of  the  spouses  was  cited  as 
In  all  villag e s ,   prolonged  illness 
chief  cause  and  mother-in-law  trouble  as  the  s econd. 
the  wife  was  frequently  listed 

a  reason  for  divorce ,  

the 
of 

RS 

Until  the  revised  Civil  Code  was  promulgated,  Japanes e   women  w.ere  not  able  to  sue 

divorce  and  divorce  action  was  considered  to  be  a  prerogative 
revised' Civil  Code  however  wives  can  sue  for  divorce  on  the  same  grounds  a s   can  husbands , 
Neverthele s s   the  post-surr�nder  divorce  proceedings  recorded  in  the  villages  were  all.  i� 
itiated  by  m�n .  However ,  two  cases  of  court  action  initiated  by  women  were  on  record:  t o 
women  petitioned  the  Domestic  Relation�  Court  after . their  divorce  for  property  settleme\:,.s. 
as  provided  for  in  the  new  C ivil  C ode ,  �  In  Karako ,  a  wife  refused  to  return  to  her  89 
band  after  seven  years  of  marriage  because  of  in-law  difficultie s ,   and  consequently  she :0 

Spurred  by  her  relatives ,  she  applied  for  property  settlement 

divorced  by  her  husband , 

of 

for 
the  husband ,  Under  the 

According  to  Article  768  of  the  new  Civil  Code,  in  divorce  by  agreement  a  spouse 
�!d 
demand  the  distribution  of  property  from  the  other  spouB e .   If  no  agreement 
between  the  parties ,  either  party  may  apply  to  the  Court  of  Domestic  Relations  fOtl0n 
legal  distr ibut ion  of  their  property . 
should  be  made  or  not,  and,  in  the  event  of  distribution,  stipulates  the  amount 
mode  of  s e tt lement , 

The  Court  determines  whether  such  distribu 

is  re8C 

d 
an 

cl .. 
� 

Domestic  Relations  Court  and  waa  awarded  1100 , 000 ,  

tben �as  divorced  by  her  husband ,  a  well-to-do  landl ord ,  and  returned  to  her  Fs rents 
O�:�m to  the  Domestic  Relations  C ourt ,  and  as  a  consequence ,  her  husband  was  ordered  by  the 

town ,  After  a  few  montha ,   her  relatives  prodded  he�  into  instituting  a  property 

�t  to  pay  her  119 5 ,000 . 

d�  by 

in  s 

In  Suye ,  a  woman  with  five  c h il­

. 

e

�!8
,sk�

Except  for  these  two  cases,  no  immediate  effects  of  the  divorce  provisions  in  the  re-
Civil  Code  were  observed .  The  maj ority  of  women  interviewed  in  the  villages  looked 
d 
nce  upon  the  new  divorce  law s ,   whereas  the  men  generally  laughed  heartily  at  the  notion 
1ng  divorced  by  their  wives ,  However,  during  the  post-Surrender  period,  wives  seem 
e
willing  to  put  up  with  domine.ering  mothers -in-law ,  and  it  has  become  more  common  for 
of  s 
to  leave  their  husbands  than  for  the  husbands  to  s end  their  wives  back  to  their  par­
le8  II 
.!VS 
as  happened 
tfl 

prewar  times. 

in 

en 

, 

�ement 

In  prewar  times  the  custom  in  all  villages  was  for  a  man  to  retire  from  active  manage-
ent  of  his  farm  between  the  ages  of  60  and  65 ,  if  h e   could  afford  to  do  so .  At  the  time 
�f retirement  the  headship  of  the  household,  as  well  as  the  ownership  of  property,  was 
the  father  ceased  to  partiCipate  as  the  official  representa ·  
tra
ti'le  o f   h i s   family.  B i s   wife  then  relinqui shed  the  management  o f   domestic  affairs  t o   the 

nsferred  t�  the  heir, 

a.nd· 

wife  and  as sumed  a  subordinate  position  in  her  relationships  with  her , 

In  spite  of 

formal  retirement ,  however,  the  father  and  mother  c ommonly  continued  to  perform  such 
and  household  chores  as  their  health  permit ted . 

Because  only  a  few  indivi duals  went  through  the  formalities  of  legal  retirement--pri­

marily  to  avoid  the  payment  of  inheritance  taxes--determination  of  the  number  of  actual  re­
tirement s  that  have  occurred  is  difficult .  Of  the  few  that  are  officially  recorded  in  the 

registers  in  the  village  offices ,  the  greatest  number  in  the  post -Surrender  period 
pla ce  during  1946  and  were  attributed  t o   the  belated  registration  of  wartime  retire­

After  the  revised  Civil  Code  became  effective  in  January  1948,  no  retirements  have 
recorded,  because  the  neces sity  for  a  legal  change  in  the  headship  of  the  family  upon 

man ' s   retirement  from  active  life  has  been  eliminat e d ,   Under  the  revised  Civil  Code,  a 

automatically  becomes  the  head  of  a  new  household  upon  marri ag e ;   under  the  old  system, 
family  heir ,  upon  the  retirement  or  death  of  the  father,  became  head  of  the  household 
which  his  father  had  been  head ,   Although  a  married  son  is  legally  regarded  as  the  head 

his  own  househol d ,   the  traditional  practice  c ontinues  of  treat ing  the  father  as  the  head 
the  household  until  his  death  or  retirement  or  until  the  son  has  his  own  separate  dwell­

heir ' s 
this 
farm 

census 
took 
ments , 
been 
8 

msn 
the 
of 
of 
of 
ing, 

In  prewar  times ,  two  types  of  retirement  had  been  practiced  in  the  villages , 

In  the 

first  type,  an  elderly  couple  moved  to  a  separate  dw elling  and  established  independent 
housekeeping  upon  retirement , 

In  such  cases ,  the  family  property  g enerally  was  divided  be­

heen the  man  and  h i s   succes sor ,  This  type  of  retirement  Vias  comparati, /ely  rare  and  wa s 

practiced  only  by  the  extremely  wealthy,  or  by  parents  who  c ould  not  get  along  with  their 

it  was  most  frequent  among  parents  with  adopted  sons-in-law , 

heir ; 
old  couple  Simply  relinquished  their  habitual  sleeping  room  and  retired  to  a  more  secluded 

In  the  second  typ e ,   the 

This ''nebeya -t sugi''  ( " sleeping-room  bequeathal" )  was  the  usual  type  of  retirement . 

room, 

A  new  trend  is  toward  earlier  and  more  gradual  transfer  of  farm  and  household  manage­

'&nt  to  the  heir .  Howeve r ,   because  of  uncertainties  arising  from  the  revised  Civil  Code 
actual  transfer  of  property  title  itself  was  said  to  occur  only  at  the  time  of  the 

the 
death  of  the  head  of  the  hous ehold . 

�ion  of  Labor 

OCCUPAT IONAL  ASPECTS 

Certain  types  of  heavy  work  on  the  farm,  such  as  plowing,  constructing  and  repairing 
rigation  ditches ,  and  operating  some  farm  machiner�  usually  are  performed  by  the  men  of 

� 

215 

the  household .  Other  work ,  sUeh  a 
the  tran�planting  of  rice  and 
S  the 
1s  ieeq• 
the 
ing  of  paddy  fields,  generally 
to  the  women ,  Doth  sexes  partiei  ert 
in  some  heavy  �ork ,  especially  hQPate 
h
ins  crops ,  carrying  rice  and  w
ea�b:t. 
dles,  and  carrying  ruel  and 
COIllPOst  1\. 
Children  in  their  teens  as si st 
the1 ' 
parents .  Women  too  old  to  WOl.'k  Us  r 
o�� 
ally  remain  at  home  to  take  care 
the  grandchildren  and  perform  simp1 
household  chores . 

e 

. 

t

sear�h  of 

i
ty  to  urban  areas  in 

Because  the  acreage  Cultivated 
is 
i s   small,  usually  not  enough 
Work 
Of 
available  for  all  of  the  members 
large  famili e s .   In  prewar 
imes ,  man 
conscr1PtedY 
younger  sons  who  were  not 
for  military  service  migrated  upon  ma� 
tur
seasonal  work  during  the  slack  farming 
period  between  November  and  h�rch,  or 
for  more  permanent  viork  in  faotories 
food 
and  business  firms .  Because  of 
shortages  and  the  difficulty 
taining  j obs  and  housing 
the  number  seeking  outside  employment 
h
decrea sed  considerably  s ince  1945 . 
An  increasing  number  of  the  younger 
sons  therefore  are  looking  for  such 
solutions  as  marriage  into  other  farm 
households  as  adopted  sons  or  land 
reclamation  in  order  to  be  able  to 
remain 
the  village . 

in  cities, 

in  ob­

as 

in 

OCCUpat ional  M1grat�oD 

Because  of  the  shortage  of  work 

opportunities  Within  the  village ,  " 
people  leave,  often  for  loog  periodl 
of  time  to  find  employment  elsewlle:re. 
Such  people t  called 
tbe1r 
inin,1  zoe-
tain 

their  official  residence  in 

IIdekalleg 

, 

home  village . 

Men  and  women  work  together  in  the 
fields .  His  headgear  is  a  product  of 
is 
the  1920 1 s ;   hers 

centuries  old. 

The  woman  leads  the  horse  while  the 
man  plows  in  prep�ring  the  paddy  field 
for  the  rice  seedlings . 

frequent  from  Fut omi ,  where  the  scarcity  of  arable  land  and  the  small  sC:!�
d
industry  have  for  a  long  time  impelled  many  adults  to  seek  employment : 
In  December  1948  278  individuals  were  listed  as  migrant s ,   of  VI  om 
in  Chiba  or  in  Kanagawa ' prefectur�s  a s   fishe.rmen,  51  as  maids  in  Tokyo, � 
lage 
v 
clerks  and  factory  workers 
girls  to  work  for  two  to  three  years  as  maids  in  wealthy  homes  in  To  0 
msnnersll  before  marriage . 

TokyO  and  Yokohama ,  The  custom  in  th

S 
ky

in 

i

ti  n  is  most 
; :
he  vil­
either 

This  tyope  of  migra  0 
�f 
0
170  were 
d  57  otherS  as 

fi ehill8 

h 

ba

s  been  lor 
in 8��de'1'  to  IIleart' 

In  Mi21uwake  approximately  50  young  men  were  wor .  g  n  sa  e 

and  Hokkaido  in  December  1948. 
breweries  soattered  from  Shizuoka  t o   Sakhalin,  but  because  o f   the  c10s 
h 
during  the  war  migration  practically  cessed .  Although  the  breweries 
i 
tion  has  not  r�ached  prewar  levels .  The  village  reclamation  proj ect  S 
that  make  it  likely  that  fewer  men  will  be  going  out  as  seasonal  laborers 

In  prewar  times ,  as  many  as  200  left  a�ua 
ng 
a�n

kin  i

ll  k  11  breweries 

in 

D� -
0'" 
ke" 
II sa 

1'-

11:1  for 
down  of  bre� . ..  
e  reopened,  �r' 
e  of  the  laC ",,t. 
than  in 

tbe 

. 

216 

grants  from  Nikaido  generally  go  to  the  nearby  cities  of  Osaka ,  Nara ,  and  Kyoto  and  work 
�i
as  maids ,  clerk s ,   and  factory  laborers .  Young  men  from  Aioi  s eek  work  chiefly  in 
eflY 
Obctories  and  business  firms  in  Osaka,  Kobe,  Okayama ,  and  Takamatsu.  A  great  many  of  the 
�graots  from  Aioi  were  reported  to  be  Eta,  most  of  whom  work  as  stevedores  in  Kobe . 

i

3 ,000 

Although  the  number  of  people  who  work  away  from  home  for  extended  periods  of  time  has 
oreased  s omewhat ,   the  number  of  daily  commuters  is  increasing  in  all  villages  near  urban 
de 
at
ters .  More  than 
G
lin 
tr8 
, 

Ebetsu  residents  commute  daily  to  Sapporo,  a  45-minute  ride  by 
to  work  in  government  offices  and  in  business  and  industrial  concerns .  From  Kawa-
130  men  and  30  women  leave  the  village  daily  to  work  in  nearby  towns ; 

of  them  are 
bit0 
Sover�ent  railway  employees .  From  Aioi  and  Nikaido,  a  substantial  number  commute  to  work 
to factories  and  busines s   firms  in  nearby  cities . 

90 

-

POSITION 

OF  WOMEN 

current  Status 

-

The  status  of  women  in  Japan  is  lower  than  it 

is  in 

most  Western  countries .  This 

i s  

ticularly  true  in  rural  areas ,  where  feudal  traditions  have  survived  the  longest  and 

�nge  to  modern  practices  has  been  slowest , 
house�ives  rather  than  independent  members  of  the  labor  force .  The  lower  status  of  Japa­
lisa  women  has  been  s ignalized  by  many  legal  restrictions ,  which  are  gradually  disappearing 
I'  �  result  of  post-Surrender  constitutional  reforms  and  the  new  democratic  atmosphere  that 
e
veloping .  Women  did  not  have  the  franchis e ,   they  could  not  own  property  independently 
18  d
or  their  husband s ,   they  had  no  right  to  a  share  of  the  father ' s   or  husband 1 s   inheritance, 
�ey 

In  addition,  the  maj ority  of  rural  women  are 

oould  not  be  elected  to  public  office ,   and  they  could  not  initiate  action  for  divorc e .  
III  addition  to  these  and  other  legal  disabilitie s ,   the  lower  status  o f  women  was  indicated 
aDd  enforced  by  many  acts  and  relations  of  daily  life .  Traditionally  a  proper  wife  wa s   ex­
pected  to  walk  several  paces  behind  her  husband  when  accompanying  him;  women  were  expec.ted 
to  serve  the  men  but  not  to  partiCipate  with  them  in  social  gatherings ;   women  were  expected 
to  be  obedient  to  men . 

Under  the  impact  of  the  new  Constitution  and  the  revised  Oivil  Code ,  increaSing  signe 

enfranchised 

change  can  be  noted  in  the  activities  as  well  as  in  the  status  of  women ,  Women  have 
and  are  permitted  an  increasing  participation  in  political  activities , 

are  developing  an  increasing  awarene ss  of  their  new  legal  righ�s  and  are  showing  a  gen­
spite 

higher  level  of  participation  in  community  affairs  than  they  did  formerly. 

In 

developments ,   however ,  it  should  not  be  a ssumed  that  old  practices  have  been  in­

: �mtanl�OtlS 

and  completely  replaced  by  neW  democratic  practi ces . 

Real  social  equality  with  men  is  not  publicly  accorded  women  in  any  of  the 

13 

villages . 

partiCipation  of  men  and  women  in  nonfamilial  social  functions  is  unheard  of.  G en­

�auy,  men  and  women  have  aocial  gatherings  separately,  or  the  women  prepare  and  serve 
t�  tc  the  men  and  then  eat  by  themselves  in  the  kitchen . 
eativals ,  the  m.en  assemble  at  a  community  hall  for  drinking  and  feasting ,  while  the  women 
tthkel' at  some  private  home  to  partake  of  Hmanjull  (bean  paste  buns )  or 

In  Suye,  for  example ,   during 

llma.zemeshilf  (rice 

ed  with  vegetable s )   by  themselves . 

The  increasing  participation  of  women  in  community  political  activities  is  not  neces­
accompanied  by  a  corresponding  improvement  in  social  status .  At  Yoshida ,  where  the 
voting  percentage  was  oonsi stently  higher  than  in  any  of  the  other 
villages ,  1lI 
more  women  appear  to  have  knowledge  of  their  legal  rights  under  the  Constitution  and 
OiVil  Code ,   and  where  there  was  even  a  wOll'.an  in  the  village  a s sembly,  the  social  s tatus 

Of 
'o�lllen  seems  to  be  the  lowest  of  any  of  the  villages .  The  use  of  the  term  of  respect 

8nll  (madam)  is  still  restricted  to  the  women  of  the  leading  family  and  to  the  wives  of 
�age  doctor,  the  Shinto  priest,  and  the  village  policeman , 

tlte 

12 

Political  Farticipation  by  Women,  in  Chapter  4 ,  

217 

Except  in  Honami;  where  more  than  ODe  bundred  farm  wOllen  are  me

b81's  of  the 
agrioultural  cooperatIve,  women  took  little  part  in  economic  organization s .   Because 
a
\,Ul 
ship  in  oooperatives  is  nearly  always  by  householde ,  women  do  not  attend  meetings 
their  husbands  are  111  or  othe�ise_ unable  to  go ,  No  women  hold  office  in 
oultural  cooperatives ,  but  a 
cooperative  at  Nobuta . 

unl
are  officials  in  the  buraku  chapters  of  the  sericUl

few 

any 

of  theees 

ge 

m

��b� 

t  'Rt<i� 
ural 

Although  Article 

ot  the  revised  Civil  Code  permits  olnl81'ship  of  property  b

762 

in 

Ag

y  1r 

In  Ai

ing  their  property  registered 

independent  of  their  husbands ,  women  still  seem  to  follow  the  traditional  practice  of �\'e8, 
their  huebands ' �8�1 
ain ,  although  the revised ctv-
Code  stipulates  that  a  widow  is  entitled  to  inherit  some  portion  of  the  family  proPert 
upon  the  death  of  her  husband,  no  cases  have  been  �eported  of  women  hav� 
� 
under  this  proviSion, 
oi ,  the  case  of  a  widow  who  had  instituted �ega1� action 
yet  1nherit�d 
tain  her  share  of  the  inheritance  was  the  sole  instance  reported  in  the  13  villages 
e
a  � 
to
ob 
woman  defying  tradition  by  exercising  this  newly  acquired  legal  right .  Sbe  was  a 
of 
War  Wid 
with  two  children  who  had  been  deprived  of  her  s�are  in  the  inheritance  by  her  father_in_
law ' s   transferral  of  her  busband ' s   property  to  the  husband ' s   younger  brother .  Encouraged 
by  her  relatives,  she  petitioned  the  Court  of  Domestic  Relations  for  intervention . 
Because  family  property  generally  is  inherited  intact--in  the  Japanese  s

unto  the  rat ' s   dung  in  the  closet"
ng,  "even 
--by  a  single  heir,  it  is  difficult  for  a  widow.  under 
existing  traditions,  to  share  in  the  inherita�ce .   The  majority  of  women  interviewed  were 
doubtful  about  the  practicality  of  the  inberi huce  provisions  of  the  revised  Civil  Code 
tinuation  of  the  old  custom.  They  held  the  generd  view  that  the  land 
favored  the  co
n
ings  were  too  small  to  justify  division  among  individual  family  members  and  t�t  such  ac­
tion  would  be  economically  harmfUl .  Widows  felt  it  was  "only  right"  that  the  son  Who 
care  of  them  after  their  husband ' s   death  should  receive  the  entire  inheritanc e .  

8lId 
hOld_ 

take. 

ay

a. 

i

Throughout  Japan ,  women  have  an  important  economic  function  in  the  farm  household, ' 
They  perform  almost  as  much  farm  work  as  do  men,  and  some  specialized  operations  such  a8 
sericulture  are  conducted  almost  entirely 
by 

them, 

m

a 

na

of 

The  earnings  of  all  family  members  are  turned  over  to  the  head  of  the  househOld,  who 

aigrated  to  neighbor

ount 
fi
oertain  ponto

noial  responsibility  in  IIIUlaging  the  household,  Children  may  ra­
their  earnings  as  spending  money,  During  the  war,  a  large  nUIII­

distributes  the  money  as  needed .  The  wife  of  the  household  head,  how
a  oertain  a
cei Te 
bar  of 
present  the  number  who 
lages  near 
comanmiUes,  tathers  are  not  enthuai8lltic  about  having  their  daughtel'll 
leave  the  farm  to  work. 
argue  that  practica�  all  of  their daughters ' 
used  for  living  expeJUIes  and  tor  such  tri.:rla  as  cosmetics  and  that  little  or 
sent  home  to  the  fam1�. 
soae  northern  villages,  however,  fathers  are  glad  to  have 
their  daughter.  wark  and  contribute  to  the  aupport 

llilla 
ve  for  outside  work  is  cODsiderab�  smaller. 

earnings  are 
nothing 

o1Ue8  to  work  in 

and  faotories,  but 

is  entrusted 

the  faail;y, 

In  some 

girla 

urban 

.� 
of  the  vil­

ever 1 

They 

ing 

n  of 

ng 

llDi

lea

pi

In 

i8 

.

with 

of 

In  Futomi ,  where  one-third  of  the  families  live  primarily  by  fishing .  women  appear 
to 
exercise  more  power  in  the  management  of  the  household  than  in  purely  farming  families 
i  d 
The  husbands  are  absent  for  long  periods  at  a  time,  and  therefore  the  women  are  entrus  � a­
with  the  general  financial  management  of  the  household  and  with  the  oultivation  of  the  a 
11y  fields . 

Although  women  are  in  general  considered  to  be  below  men  in  atatus ,  the  degree 

spect  shown  to  a  woman 
by 
able  extent  upon  tbe 
lta'CiUs 
are  accorded  1I0re  respect 
cOllllunity.  The  'rite 
the  villagers  than 

of 

per

ons  outside 
of  her  hllBbaDd. 

ll

Of 

deference  than  are  JDEln 

Thus , 

°id!;: 
her  own  8.mi�  seems  to  depend  to  a  OO:erall1 

wives  of  influential  landlords  g 

average  or  low 
Yoshida  i8  treated, with  greater 

.tatua  within 
reSpe 

her  own  fud.�. 

of 

the 
ot  111 

anQ, 

the  largest  landlord 
acoorded  a:rq  man  outeide 

in 

of 

b 

Within  the  family  itself,  status  is  determined  by  age  and  relationship  to  t e
h  head  ot 
bB 
ll  t
ths  household.  The  wife  of  the  head  of  the  household  holds  the  highest  status  o
�d
a 
women  in  the  family  and  is  treated  with  deference  by  male  members  of  the  �OUIeho 
Wben 
hier-in-

IIOther-in-law  relinquishes  the  domest.1o  management  of  the  hOWleh,ofd 

her 

• 

to 

dang 

218 

law  at  the  time  of  the  retirement  of  her 
husband  she  automatically  assumes  a  sub­
ordinat�  position  in  all  future  relation­
ships  with  her  successor,  although  a  cer­
tain  amount  of  deference  is  accorded  her 
because  of  her  age . 

' In  

The  authority  of  the  mother-in-law 
over  her  daughter-in-law  is  traditional 
in  Japanese  familie s .  
most  places, 
the  slightest  arrogance  on  the  part  of 
the  daughter-in-law  is  sufficient  cause 
for  her  being  sent  home  to  her  parents 
and  divorced .  Furthermore,  in  some  vil­
lages  the  mother-in-law  still  measures 
the  rice  to  be  cooked  at  each  meal ,  and 
the  daughter-in-law  can  not  even  approach 
the  rice  bin,  She  can  only  assume  the 
responsibility  for 
the  hous ehold 
upon  the  retirement  of  her  mother-in-law, 
when  she  is  presented  with  a  rice  paddle 
as  a  symbol  of  her  new  status .  Report­
edly  in  most  villages  women  rarely  become 
the  mistresses  of  their  own  households 
before  the  age  of  40 . 

running 

Rearing  of  children  is  a  maj 

concern  of  the  women  in  the  villages . 

or 

women of  three

she  is  a 
the  mother-in-law 

a
gr 

�����!;)

n

:ti��q�:�!s

1£ 
of 

In  Mizuwake,  where 
1  live  under  one  roof  the  eldest  daughter-in-law  (even 
Y
orders  from  her  moth�r-in-law .  However,  the  authority 

seems  to  have  declined  somewhat  in  some  of  the  villages . 

current  Problems 

One  of  the  main  concerns  of  women  is  the 
problem  of  rearing  their  children .  Post-1945 
conditions  have  brought  about  what  the  vil­
lagers  consider  a  "moral  laxnessll •   and  they  are 
uncertain  over  disciplinary  methods  for  copine 
it .  Lack  of  obedience  and  Ittalking  backll 
with 
to  parents .  precocious  smoking ,  arrogance,  and 
thievery  Vlere  reported  on  the  increase  by  wor­
ried  parents .  They  tend  to  attribute  these 
conditions  to  a  confusion  of  the  new  democratic 
ideas  with  "license1f ,  the  relaxation  of  the 
fOl'lller  rigid  discipline  of  the  schools ,   and  the 
elimination  of  the  formal  Itshushinlt  ("moralsll ) 
Course  from  the  school  curriculum. 

Village  women  considered  the  shortage  of 
clothing  material  their  second  major  problem . 
The  greatest  needs  everywhere  are  for  work 
olothes  for  women  and  clothing  for  children, 
Women  were  indignant  because  so 
goods  are  designed  for  men  rather  than  women. 
They  pointed  out  that  women  do  almost  as  much 
farm 
work  as  men,  so  they  should  be  given  more 
consideration  in  selection  of  incentive  goods . 
also  mentioned  that  luxury  items,  such  a s  

incentive 

many 

��ey 
"sakell  tobacco  and  silk  brocade,  were  not 
Useful' for  them:  What  they  desired  most  of  all 
Was  cotton  textiles  in  the  bolt  so  that  cloth­
ing  could  be  made  for  members  of  the  family 
most  in  need  of  it • 

This  miner ' s  wife,  like  all 
the  village  women,  is  concerned 
with  the  problem  of  feeding  her 
family . 

Beoause  the  maj ority  of  the  village  women  are  farmers '  wives ,  food  rlltionin 
matter  of  great  ooncern  to  them ,  However,  farmers  everywbere  expressed  keen  int g  1s_ llot 
erest 11'\ ' 
the  preparation  of  the  rationed  Western  foods ,  particularly  corn  meal  and 
the  Japanese  �,  and  the  majorit  Potatoes 
These  two  foods  are  more  or  less  new 
Y  of fal'tn�l'" 

are  most  eag�r  to  learn  how  they  can  be  made  more  palatable . 

items  to 

hite 

wives 

w

Farm  Vlomen  also  were  anxious  to  knOVl  how  they  could  reduce  their  housework 
vi 

could.  have  more  time  for  recreational  acti 
fling  households  and  maintaining  careers  simultaneously  and  were  curious  to  know  h 
thing 
find  time  for  reading  only 

could  be  done ,  Village  Vlomen  pointed  out  over  and  over  again  that  farm  w'  ow  sUch  41 
�ves  cOUld 

,  They  had  heard  of  American  wo:�  they 

iLl  and  confined  to  bed , 

run_ 

t ie

n 

s

when 

Chapter  6 

RELIGION 

RELIGIOUS  CRGANIZATIOW 

In  Japan  the  two  principal  popular  religions  are  Buddhism  and  Shinto.  Chriatiani 
ty 
always  played  a  c omparative�  minor  role  in  the  lives  of  the  people ,  and  according  to 
IISs 
best  available  estimates  the  number  of  Christians  does  not  exceed  one-half  of  one  percent 
the  total  population.  W  The  combined  membership  of  these  three  re ligions  is  greater 
f 
� the  total  population.  This  phenomenon  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  various  reli­
are  not  exclusive,  competitive  sects  as  in  the  West,  so  that  support  of  one  does  not 
si01lB 
preclude  simultaneous  support  of  another. 
Japanese  are  simultaneous� 
bOth  Shintoists  and  Buddhists.  Even  membership  in  a  Catholic  or  Protestant  church  does  not 
prevent  one  from  supporting  Buddhist  and  Shinto  institutions . 

c onsequence, 

many 

In 

In  fact,  to  a  large  extent  Shinto  and  Buddhism  complement  each  other .   People  attend 

8h1nto  shrines  to  celebrate  the  spring  and  autwnn  festivals ,  to  pray  when  there  is  illness 
the  fam1� ,   to  formalize  the  passage  from  youth  to  adulthood  or  trom  adulthood  to  old 

to  seek  better  weather  for  cropa ,  or  to  ask  for  other  special  favors .  They  visit  Bud­
temples  at  the  festivals  of  the  equinoxes ,   during  the  summer  at  Q-Bon  (Feast  of  the 

1JI 
age, 
dhi.t 
J)ead),  and  to  attend  i'unerals  and  memorial  services  for  the  dead .  To  some  extent,  Shinto 
the  religion  of  life  problelllB  and  crises ,  and  Buddhislll  is  the  religion  of  death  and  the 
it 
It  has  been  said ,  and  with  sOllle  truth,  that  every  Japanese  is  born  a  Sh1lltolst 
art_rilte . 

dies  a  Buddhist. 

Numerically 
J 

Buddhism 

the  largest  following  of  aDY  Japanese 'religion. 

baA 
into  six  maj or  sects :  Nara,  Tendai,  Shingon, 
is  the  largest.  Its  tour  su'b-sectlJ-.. Yuzunambutsu, Jodo,  Jodo-ehin,  and  Ji--have.  a  to­

Zen,  and  Nichiren. 

AIR1da, 

Of 

It  is  di­
these 

following  of  near�  18 , 000, 000.  The  Zen  and  Shingon  sects  rank  next  in  numerical 1m­

followed 

b.y 

Nicbiren,  which,  although  not  so  strong  in  numbers ,   exerts  compara�le 

Shinto  is  the  indigenous  religion  of  Japan.  When  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan 

the  sixth  cent-ury 
existed  side 

Shinto  took  on 
side  for  centuries . 

AD, 

maDY 

Buddhist  characteristics,  a.nd  the  two  reli­

the  long  Tokugawa  Shogunate  ( 1603- 1868 ) ,  

was  virtual�  the  state  religion  of  Japan.  Afier  the  Meiji  Restoration  ( 1868 ) ,  

b.y 

During 

"--'''''''

'Dm 

government  attempted  to  suppress  Buddhism  and  make  Shinto  the  state  religion. 
met  with  a  great  deal  of  opPOSition  trom  Buddhist  leaders  and  from  certain  Shinto 
In  response  to  this  pressur e ,   the  plan  was  changed  so  that  all  religious  sects  which 

Its 

White  potatoes  have  been  used  in  soups,  and  in  stews  to  be  eaten  along 
farming  communities  in  Japan  for  many  years,  but  never  as  a  substitute  for  r  c 
after  the  Surre-nder , 

h  ice 
wit  � e  �til 

in 

It 

Qy 

divided 

not  affiliated  with  Buddhism  or  Christianity  came  to  be  regarded 

the  government  as 
and  Budd.hist  sects  were  allowed  to  continue  unmolested.  In  1882 ,  all  Shinto  sects 
official  decree  into  two  categories :  Sectarian  Shinto  and  Shrine  or  State 

the  governaent.  Sectarian  Shinto  was  regarded  as  a  religious  sect  comparable  to  Bud­

::-
nto.  From  that  date  until  the  Surrender,  the  two  groups  received  different  treatment 
oa 
: ••  and  Chrieti.ani ty,  and  its  affairs  were  supervised  along  with  these  by  the  Mi.nistry  of 
UCat10n.  Shrine  Shinto,  on  the  other  hand ,  was  declared  nonrelieious 
'
erllllent  as  a  state  institution  under  the  supel'vision  of  the  Home 
r
hlnto  was  denied  the  use  of  state  shrines  as  meeting  places  and ,  except  in  special  cases , 

treated  by  the 
Sectarian 

Ministry . 

and 

Qy 

�  The  .oet  recent  estimates  place  the  membership  of  Christian  churches  at  370, 000. 

..,as  not  permitted  the  use  of  the  "torti " ,   a  special  type  of  sacred  archway  whicb  bee 
symbol  of  Shrine  Shinto  shrines .  Sectarian  Shinto  received  no  financial  support 
government  and  had  to  rely  upon  contributions  from  its  adherents .  In  contrast  With : the 
ht  �1�e 
keky  )nt 
0  ,  tab_ 

Shinto,  in  which  ritual  and  ceremonies  were  observed  by  priests  alone,  Sectarian  S
priests  conducted  regular  religious  services  before  a  oongregation .  The 
sects  designated  a8  Sectarian  Shinto  are  Taishakyo,  Mitakekyo  (also  called  Ont
more  impOrt
rikyo ,  and  Konkokyo . 
a

n  0 

fro 

Illlla 

tb, 

hr

Unlike  Sectarian  Shinto ,  Shrine  Shinto  s

ines  received  direct  supervision  and 
rine .  �  Special  legal  enactments  regul 

cia1  support  from  the  national  and  local  government s .   The  amount  of  financial  SUPPor�nan­
pended  upon  the  grade  of  the  particular  s
t  de_ 
matters  concerning  organization,  ceremonies ,  a nd  the  priesthood.  The  activities  of  :  ad 
were  limited  to  the  celebration  of  c eremonies  and  festivals  considered  appropriate 
to��nea 
fostering  of  national  ideals .  The  religious  ele
ent  in  shrines  was  subordinated  to  th  e 
culcation  of  loyalty  to  the  Emperor  and  the  State  an
Goddess  � in_ 
legendary  ancestress  of  the  Imperial  Family .  Complete  oontro1  of  the  shrines was main.he 
tained  through  the  network  of  authority  which  went  from  the  Home  Ministry  t
gh  the 
fectural,  city,  town,  and  village  governments .   Every  priest  in  Shrine  Shinto  waa  a  gor;:' e
ment  official,  and  during  the  war  period,  some  of  the  important  shrines  were  headed  by  �­
itary  officers .  The  great  Yasukuni  Shrine  for  the 
general  from 

dead  in  Tokyo  was  headed  by  a 

the  worship  of  the 

to  the  Surrender .  

hrou

Sun 

w&r 

r 

d 

h

m

­

major­

1937 

Complete  control  by the  government  of  all  religions  in  Japan  was  established  on 
40  with  the  enforc ement  of  the  Religious  Bodies  Law  of  1939 .  During  the  war,  all  reli. 
1
9
gions ,  including  the  recognized  Christian  groups,  were  organized  into  patriotic  soc ieties 
under  the  Great  Japan  Religious  Patriotic  Association,  headed  by  the  Minister  of 
' 
Many  of  the  religious  buildings  were  requisitioned  by  the  Army,  and  religious  affairs  were
Education 
handled  almost  exclusively  by  government  officials  who  posses sed  near-dictatorial  powers , 

1  April 

A  directive  (the  Shinto  Directive)  was  is sued  to  the  Japanes e   government  on  15  Decem­
ber  1945  by  the  Supreme  Commander  for  the  Allied  Powers ,  calling  for  the  separation  of  re­
ligion  and  state,  and  for  the  placing  of  "all  religions,  faiths ,  and  creeds  upon  exactly 
the  same  basisll --inc1uding  Shinto .   The  directive  specifically  forbade :  the  sponsorship , 
Bupport ,  perpetuation,  c�ntrol , and  dissemination  of  Shinto  by  the  government ;  the  use 
public  funds  in  finan
of 
in  any 
form  and  by  al�  means  in  educational  institutions  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  public 
funds .  Private  support  of  Shi�to  shrines  was  permitted,  but  the  directive  required  that 
such  support  be  entirely  voluntary  and  in  no  way  derived  from  forced  or  invol

g  Shinto  shrines ;   and  the  dissemination  of  Shinto  doctr
i

tar

nes 

i

c

n

un

y  contri­

butions . 

Among  the  legislation  enacted  to  implement  this  and  other  SCAP  direot
i

ves  on  religion 
were  the  Religious  Corporations  Ordinances  of  28  December  1945  which  simplified  the  �ooe­
dure  for  the  incorporation  of  religious  groups,  removed  the  requirement  of  government 
nition,  and  deprived  government  agencies  of  any  con.trol  whatsoever  over  religiOUS  'activi­
ties .  Freedom  of  religion  was  specifically  guaranteed  by  �ticles  19  and 
of  the  ns.' 
Constitution . 

20 

recog­

Two  other  post-Surrender  laws  had  a  con siderable  effect  upon  the  economic  basi s  

religious  organization s ,   The  land  reform  law  required  that  religious  institutions  sel 

°i  11 

a 

" 

C1assificstion  of  the  shrines  followed  a  rigid  hierarchy .  The  Grand  Shrine  of 
state,  pre 
stood  at  the  pinnacle .  Below  it  were  natil.onal,  " specia,l  national II , 
tura1  district  and  village  shrines ,  and  " shrines  without  rank" .  Below  these 
thousands  of  small ,  unrecognized  shrines .   Natlonal  and  " special  natlon 
oeived  gifts  from  the  Imperial  Household  Department  and  state  shrines  from  the 
se 
tiona1  treasury .  The  prefectural,  district ,  and  village  shrines 
local  government  officials  an d   received  token  grants  from  local  gove
rt office. 
e�om 
rn
Shrines  without  rank  received  no  regular  financial  support  from  any  go
v
rnro
They  relied  wholly  on  contributions  from  the  shrine  associations  as  well  as 
entire  population  in  general . 

ere  superv
i
ment  t
e

al"  shriJls 
nS-
d  by 

surieS .  
the 

Ise 
fec­

ere 
s  re-

w 

. 

. 

Vl

rnmen

tbe�1 

t  for  resale  to  farmers .   Another  law  terminated  the  sys­
arable  land  to  the  gove
which  religious  organizations  had  leased  forest  land  rent-free  from  the  government . 
al 

n
On  the  one  hand,  the  elim.ination  of  government  and  police  control  resulted  in  a 

ost-Surrender  legislation  affecting  religion  had  two  principal  results  on  a 
t� 
f�e  P 
sl
�derab1e  inorease  of  freedom  of  religious  activity .  On  the  other  hand ,  both  shrines 
so
S
teIDples  experienced  extreme  financial  difficulties  because  of  the  post-Surrender  eco­
cOn
situation  (fnflation,  loss  of  income  from  stocks  and  bonds )  and  such  legislation  as 
thdrawa1  of  government  grants,  the  cancellation  of' forest  leases .  the  land  reform, 

atio

n

ough  neighborhood  associations . 

,nd 
!!OIDio i 

:: �he  pro,hibition  upon  raising  funds  t

In  the  13  villages ,  the  changes  and  rearrangemen
t
ender  legislation  and  economic  situation  have  been  much  less  thorough-going  than  in  the 

s  resulting  thus  far  from  ths  post­

S�try as  a  whole.  Most  of  the  changes  seem  to  have  developed  in  r esponse  to  the  neces­
��ty  for  solving  the  economic  problems  of  shrine  and  temple  maintenanc e .  

MEMBERSHIP 

Except  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  T enrikyo  church  in  Honami ,  the  number  of  reli-
organizations  in  the  13  villages·  did  not  change  during  the  18-month  period,  and  the 
religious  organizations  increased  only  slightly.  The  wave  of  new 

louS 
�ot81  memberShip  of 
Shinto  and  Buddh.ist  sects  which  has  been  sweeping  the  whole  country  since  the  SUrrender  has 
hardly  brought  a  ripple  to  the  13  villages ;  only  two  of  these  minor  sects  have  found  sup­
port,  and  by  a  total  of  only  six  families  in  one  village ,  Aioi . 

all 

In  December 

4

,  there  were 
were  Shrine  Shinto, 

19

8

these , 

127 

245 
18 

Of 

shrines ,  temples,  and  churches  in  the  13  villages . 

Sectarian  Shinto,  98  Bud

ist ,  and  2  Christian . 

dh

Membership  in  Shrine  Shinto  organizations  in  December  1948  totaled  15 ,938  families,  an 
increase  of  four  percent  over  the  membership  in  1947.  During  the  same  period,  Buddhist  mem­

bership  also  increased  four  percent  and  totaled 
12 , 483  families  in  December  1948.  Of  the  eight 
Buddhist  sects  represented  in  the  villages, 

the 

sect  is  the  most  popular ,  having  a  fo1-
Zen 

Jodo-Shin 
10V/ing  of  4 ,301  familie s .   It  is  followed 
by 
(2 , 634  families ) ,  Shingon  (2 , 188) ,  Nichiren 
(1,063) ,  Yuzunembutsu  ( 845 ) ,   Jodo  (829 ) ,  Tenda! 
(352 ) ,  and  J1  (131 ) .  The  distribut�on  of  Sectar­
ian  Shinto  sects  is  as  follows :  Tenrikyo,  437 
families  (78  percent  of  them  are  in  Nikaido  and 
Ebetsu) ;  Konkokyo,  about  600  families  (all  in 
Honami ) ;   and  Ontakekyo,  two  churohes  in  Ebetsu. 

um

The  n

ber  of  Christian  families  in  the  vil­
lages  increased  from  74  to  92 .  In  December  1948, 
there  were  Christians  in  a
tely  one-third 
p
of  one  percent  of  all  village  familie s .   More 
than  one-half  of  the  Christians  were  in  Nikaido, 
and  the  remainder  were  in  villages  adj acent  to 
urban  oenters .  No  Christian  families  live 
in 
more  isolated  villages  of  Mizuwake,  Yokogoshi , 
Nobuta,  Futomi ,  Suye ,  or  Yoshida . 

pro

xima

the 

A  "torii"  gate  marks  the  eD­
trance  to  Tsubaki  Hachimangu, 
a  Shinto  shrine  in  Honami . 

There  are  Shinto  shrines  in  all  the  villages, 

and  villagers  invariably  attend  their  own  local 
shrine .  However ,  since  the  various  Buddhist 
Seotarian  Shinto  sects  do  not  have  buildings  in 
all  of  the  v.illages , 
patronize  temples  and  churches 
munities . 

to 
oompelled 
neighboring  com­

people  are 

many 

and 

in 

222 

223 

THE  PRmSTHOOD 

Shrine  Shinto 

Only  12 

live  in  the  villages .   FivePrlesta 
villages  reported  that  they � the 
�e 
not  had  resident  priests 
at 
for 
least  a  decade, and  a  few  �1 
bAd  not  bad  a  resident  pries�gea 
as  long  as  40  years .  The  stu- foX' 
inea 
which  do  not  have  their  own 
dent  priests  obtain  the  ser�e
of priests from  shrines  in  ne�es> 
boring  communi ties  during  festfh-
periods . 
val 

l­

s

In  contrast  tc  the  shrine
almost  every  Buddhist  teJnple  ha� 
at  least  one  resident  priest 
of  the  smaller  temples  in  Yoko  0 
and  N1kaido  3re  staffed 
pri!B� 
esses  whose  status  is  loweX'  than 
that  of  priests .  Thes�  temple II 
)  are  Benerally  branches 
(" amadera It
of  larger  temples  in  the 
Village 
'The  funerals  and  festivals  at  8ll' 
"amadera"  usually  are  oonducted  by  priests  from  the  main  temple,  although  minor  re1igiou, 
servioes,  such  as  the  offering  of  prayers  at  death  anniversaries ,  are  performed  by  the 
priestesses, 

Headquarters  of  the  popular  Tenri 
Sectarian  Shinto  sect  is  in  Tambaichi 
near  Nikaido. 

� 

by 

s 

in 

The  position  of  a  Shinto  priest  is generally  a  hereditary one .  To cite  an e

me  ex­
Honami  claims  to  be  the  35th  generation  lineal  descendant  of  a  prieetlf 
halld, 

ample,  a  priest 
family  that  has  been  serving  the  same  shrine  fOr  more  than  1,200  years .
the  Buddhist  priesthood  is  generally  not  hereditary,  except  for  priests  of  the  Jodo�bin 
sect.  Until  the  Meiji  era,  a  priest  from  the  Jodo-Shin  sect  usually  was  succeeded  b
y  a 
since  then  sucoession  by  his  eldest  son  has  been  more  common.  Al­
trusted  disoiple, 
though  all  of  the  Buddhist  priests  are  graduates  of  the  theological  schools,  none  of 
the 

On  the  other 

but 

re

xt

Shinto  priests  in 
has  had  formal  religious  schooling. 

the  13 

vi).l.agee 

All  of  the  younger  Shinto 
priests  have  full-time  jobs  in  ad­
dition  to  their  priestly  duties. 
Many  of  them  work  in the village 
The  "35th  gener.­
office  or  farm 
tionll  priest  i� Honami,  for  example, 
additlon 
serves  as  deputy  mayor  in 
to  his  duties  at  17  bur�  an"  fcnr 
the  vil1ag.i. 
coal  mine  shrines  in 
In  N1kaido,  the  two  Shinto�!:�on 
are  full-time  farmers  who 
as  priests  only  during  featlv 
alfiay�
Because  their  salary  has 
been  very  lOW ,   even  in 
yI 
Shinto  priests  had  to  have  o� 
prewartBide 
work  in  order  to  support  the r 
families , 

als 

• 

The  Chojuj1  Buddhist  temple  in  Yoshida 

is  simple ,  like  all  village  temples . 

224 

ddhi8t 
Before  the  war  the  BU  age  Oll 
clergy had  been  ·able  to  ma�urrendet, 
their  salaries ;  after  thel! 
however,  more  than  one-ha 

have 

been  compelled  to  do  outside  work  as  well .  Most 
of  them  farm,  teach,  or  work  in  the  village  of­
fice.  The  priest  of  the  Jodo-Shin  temple  in  Yo­
shida ,  for  example,  serves  as  principal  of  the 
new  lower  secondary  school . 

The  only  Protestant  minister  in  the  13  vil­
lages,  a  repatriate  from Sakhalin  lives  in  Ebe­
tsu.  Catholic  fathers  commute  we�kly  to  Ebetsu 
and  to  Karako  to  hold  Nlass . 

ACTIVITIES 

Shinto  and  Buddhist  institutions  in  the  vil­

lages  have  responded  differently  to  the  post­
Surrender  situation.  The  total  number  of  Shinto 
festivals  observed  has  declined,  primarily  be­
cause  ultra-nationalist  ceremonies  ( such  as  Em­
pire  Day and the  Emperor ' s  Birthday)  have  been 
prohibited  by  law .  The  festivals  which  remain. 
however ,  have  become  increasingly  elaborate  and 
exuberant  in  a  number  of  villages .  The  carrying 
of  portable  shrines  ( llomikoshi" )  by  the  young  men 
through  the  village  streets  and  the  colorful 
l.ion ' s   dance  II shishi-mai"  (both  of  which  had  been 
prohibited  during  the  war )  have  again  become  com­
mon  sights  in  the  villages  during  festivals .   Bud­
dhist  festivals ,   however,  have  decreased  both  in 
number  and  in  elaborateness.  In  many  villages, 
the  more  elaborate  and  expensive  festivals  are  no 
longer  observed  regularly  every  year.  The  only 
Buddhist  festivals  held  regularly  in  all  of  the  villages  are  on  the  occasion  of  the  Feast 
the  Dead  and  the vernal-and  autumnal  exquinoxes .   �efore  the  war ,  the  majority  of  Bud­
of 
abl�t  temples  held  masses  at  least  once  a  month,  but  in  1948  they  held  them  only  about  one­
as  often.  In addition,  the  observance  of  death  anniversaries  has  become  less  elabo­
� 
and  fewer  individuals  participate .  Formerly,  all  close  relatives  £rom neighboring 
rate, 
C01lll
llwuties  gathered  for  the  occasion,  but  attendance  today  is  more  restricted .  Because  of 
need  to  economize,  fewer  anniversaries  are  celebrated.  Families  either  ignore  certain 

The  Buddhist  priest  talks 
with  a  Christian  missionary 
in  the  town  of  Narits  near 
Futomi . 

the 
umlversaries  or  combine  several  into  one  occasion . 

In  Some  of  the  villages ,  temples  sponsor  such  activities  as  Sunday  schools ,   women ' s  
olubs ,   and  youth  groups ,  In  r.azuwake  and  Ebetsu,  ae  many  as  100  boys  and  girls  of  school 
age  attend  the  bi-weekly  Sunday  schools,  where  they hear  sermons,  sing  hymns ,  or  see  movies 
or  "kamishibai" ,  The  Daieij i  temple  in  Yokogoshi  operates  a  Buddhist  seminary where  15 
students  are  undergoing  a  two-year  training  course  for  the  priesthood .  

The 

Buddhist  women ' s  associations  a t  Nobuta ,  Ebetsu,  and  Suye--comprising  as  many  as 
250  members--regularly  assemble  to  listen  to  sermons  and  to  have  a  social  gathering .  In 
obuta  and  Suye  young  people  can  discuss  religion  in Buddhist  youth  groups .  A  kindergarten 
lbij 

a  Sunday  school  are  held  at  the  Protestant  church  in Ebetsu. 

In  addition,  a  maj ority  of  the  villages  have  groups  called  "ko" ,  generally  consisting 
� 10 to  20  individuals  who  gather  regularly--sometimes  as  frequently  as  once  a  month--at 
throe  member ' s  home  for  refreshments  and  occasionally  to  listen  to  sermons .  Originally 
eSe  "ko"  were  religious  groups  sponsored  by  a  shrine  or  temple  for  religious  purposes, 
bu. 
today  they  are primarily  social  groups.  Their  meetings  const! tute  one  of the  few  forms 
or t 
nOnfamilial  recreation  available  to  farmers .  

Prior  t o  the  war,  two  types  of  "ko"  were  common  in  the  villages .  One  type  devoted  i t­
to  organizing  pilgrimages  for  its members  to  locally  or  nationally  known  shrines  and 

•  1 
e  r 

225 

of 

t emple s ;   the  other  undertook  the  responsibility  for  the  performanoe  of  c ertain  ritual. 
Buddhist  holidays .  The  best  known 
the  first  types  were  the  Ise  ko ,  whose  members 
it ed  the  Ise  shrines  in  Mie  Prefecture ,   and  the  Odaishi  ko ,  whose  members  visited 
Ko  '1.1.11, 
the  head  t emple  of  the  Shingon  sect,  in  Wakayama  Prefecture,  or  other  important  ShinY��n, 
gon 
templ es .  Because  it  was  impossible  in  most  instanoes  for  the  entire  memberShip  of  a
e�o 
undertake  a  pilgrimage ,  representatives  usually  were  s e1ect _ed  to  make  the  trip .   Th
to 
turn  with  sacred  charms  and  tablets  was  the  occasion  for  c elebration  among  ko  members  re. 
s ome  village s,  members  of  a  ko  saved  a  certain  sum  each  month ,  and  when  a  sufficient  �  In 
by  �Ollllt 
had  been  accumulated,  the  group  started  out  on  its  pilgrimage , 
priest  of  the  sponsoring  shrine  or  t emple .  B efore  the  land  reform  program,  three  �o  in he 
kaido  owned  from  one  to  2  1/2  tan  of  land  each,  which  the  members  cultivated  in  turn 
i  N.1.. 
der  to  r ai s e   funds  for  the  pilgrimage s .   Because  of  travel  restrictions  and  food  sho
r
t
or. 
most  of  the  acti vi ties  of  these  ko  were  suspended  duri_ng  the  war .  The  post-surrender  ages, 
e  h:0-
nomic  situation  has  not  been  conducive  to  their  revival ,  and  those  still  in  existenc
not  regained  their  prewar  status . 

accompanied 

usus.l.ly 

S  on 

n 

Ve 

The  second  type  of  ko  functioned  only  during  Buddhist  holidays ,  when  the  members  g  tb 
­
ered  to  perform  the  rituals  for  which  they  were  responsible  and  to  have  a  party .  At  pr:s_
ent  the  activities  of  these  ko  appear  to  be  restricted  to  occasional  gatherings  at  some 
member ' s   home  to  listen  to  s ermons  and  to  partake  of  tea ,  cakes ,  and  fruit . 

CURRENT  PROBLEMS 

Most  shrines  and  temples  are  confronted  with  difficult  financial  problems .  Except  for 

the  two  large  Inari  shrines  in  Mizuwake,  which  have  supporters  throughout  the  prefecture, 
all  of  the  religious  organizations  in  the  villages  have  difficulty  financing  themselves . 

Traditionally,  shrine s  were  supported  by  funds  which  came  from  a  numb er  of  sources .  

The  most  important  o f   these  was  the  organized  parishioner s ,   the  "uj iko" ,  a n   organization  or 
neighbors  whose  primary  function  was  to  provide  financial  support  to  the  shrine s .   Until 
the  Shinto ' Directive  participation  in  the  "uj iko"  wa s ,   in  effect ,  c ompulsory  for  all  bu­
raku  resident s .   Another  important  source  was  the  land  holdings  or  forest  leases  which  pro­
vided  cash  income  or  a  contribution  to  the  upkeep  of  the  priest  and  shrine .  Some  of  the 
shrines  also  had  fairly  substantial  income-producing  investments  in  s tocks  and  bonds . 
sale  of  amulets  and  charms  to  visitors  provided  a  considerable  income  for 
shrines. 
C ontributions  from  wealthy  parishioners  also  constituted  an  important  financial  aid  to 
shrine s .   Finally,  the  priests  often  were  substantially  aided  by  contributions  of  rice, 
salt 
recieved  offerings  of  the  first  fruit s .  

" sake"  fish  and  veget abl es  from  the  pari shioners ;   at  harvest  time,  they  frequently 

many 

The 

, 

, 

, 

Financial  support  for  temples  was  derived  in  much  the  same  way .  Membership  in ��:8-

sociation  of  temple  supporters ,  the  " danto" ,  was  not  compulsory,  as  was  memberehiP
"uj iko"  but  was  limited  to  the  faithful .  However,  as  in  the  case  of  the  shrines,  c 
arable  income  was  obtained  from  land  and  forest  holdings ,  investment s ,   sale  of  charms 
amulet s ,   contribution s ,   and  offerings  of  agricultural  products .  

oDS1d_ 
and 

The  traditional  basis  of  shrine  and  temple  support  was  thus  affected 

tly  and 
1  d 
directly  by  the  post-Surrender  economic  situation,  the  Shinto  Directive,  and  the  an 
form. 

rec 

di 

111-

re-

Contributions  from  the  uj iko  continue  to  be  the  chief  source  of  shrine  inC���ng,�o 
ill  Honsmi, 
thaD  one­
ve 

spite  of  the  fact  that  ujiko  membership  is  now  v oluntary ,  nearly  all  villsgers 
an  uj iko  and  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  village  or  buraku  shrine ,  except 
Honami ,  mo�eh ha
where  approximately  one-third  of  the  residents  refused  to  j oin. 
third  of  the  villagers  are  coal  miners  who  patronize  four  coal  mine  shrine s 
:
e1 
uj iko  and  are  completely  financed  by  the  mine  owner s .  Therefore,  they  do  no 
need  to  participate  in  the  ujiko  of  other  shrines . 

they 

In 

O
e 

no 

h

f

Representatives  of  the  uj iko ,  who  are  usually  elected  by  the  par  s 
year  term  to  supervi s e   the  financial  management  of  the  shrine ,  continue  to  co 

i 

hi  ners  for 

0  llect  tbe 

8 

four" 

tributions .  Whenever  donations  are  needed  for  a  special  purpos e ,   such  as  the  repairing 

a  festival ,  the  representatives  determine  the  amount 

shrine  or  the  observanoe 
OOPthe 
and  notify  the  parishioners  of  the  deoision.  The  representatives  are  usually  the 
of  aed 
118\  influential  !lien  in  the  buraku,  and  tbe  maj ority  appear  to  have  held  the  post  s ince  pre­
'o�  times . 
.sf Jll8D 
��e  amount 

collected  is  insnf'f1cient,  t.hsy  are  oblige ted  to  make  up  the  deficit  pers onally. 

At  Nikaidot  the  functi ons  of  the  representatives  are  performed  in  some  buraku 

round  of  the  houses  to  obtain  c ontributions .  When 

age,  who  make 

years 

over 

60 

of 

of 

a 

Since  the  Shinto  Directive ,  contributions  from  the  ujiko  have  been  voluntary . 

b�h 

the  n .oo  they  bad  been  donating  for  years . 

the  face  value  of  the  c ontributions  has  not  decreased,  the  true  val ue  has  decreased 
beoause  of  inflation.  Priests  frequently  c omplain  that  many  parishioners  are  not 
the  inflation,  and  feel  rather  generous  when  they  offer  ¥IO 

t satly 
�iUl aware  of  tbe  effeots 
stead 
1 
P e  village  shrine  e stimated  that  at  least 
�render  n . 50  whicb  had  been  the  customary  donation .  For  exampl e,  the  sacrificial  " sake" 
�'om1ki.)  used  in  religious  c eremoni-e s ,   whicb  before  the  war  had  cost  only 
" Ilt  u p   to 

In  Ebetsu ,  the  repres entative  of 
per  person  is  now  needed  to  equal  the  pre­

in  the  post-Surrender  period . 

a s   high  as 

or  ¥2 . 00 ,  

13,000 

n . oo  

1'60 

of 

of 

Al-

Inflation  bas  also  substantially  reduced  the  purchasing  power  of  income  derived  from 
and  trom  the  interest  on  shrine  reserve  funds .  The  discontinuance  of  the  cus­

f  presenting  agricultural  products  to  shrines  may  also  be  attributed  to  the  post­

investments 
tom 
surrender  economio  situation. 

o

Loss  of  government  SUbsidies  under  the  Shinto  Directive  has  had  little  effect  on  the 

.brines ,   because  they  had  rec eived  only  token  gifts  or  none  at  all . 

Ei ghty  percent  of  the  income  of  t empl es  is  now  derived  from  voluntary  contributions 
percent  from  fees  for  conducting  funeral  and  memorial  s ervices .  Acc ording  to  the 

post-Surrender  offerings  have  not  decreased  in  face  value  but  they  are  no  longer 

�  20 
prieste , 
c�ensurate  with  the  current  cost  of  operating  templ es .   Furthermore,  because  of  food 
.bortages ,  farmers  are  no  longer  making  seasonal  presentations  of  agricultural  prodUcts, 

priests  who  traditionally  had  been  paid  in  ric e  are  now  receiving  cash . 

ud 

Aside  from  a  very  few  shrines  and  templ e s ,   religious  institutions  in  the  13  villages 

.ere not  gr eatl1  affected  by  the  land  reform  program . 

Of 

�ht  by  the 

c ommissions  from  religious  gr oups  in  all  the  villages,  138  cho  had  be­
longed  to  six  shrines  and  temples  in  three  villages .  Religious  organi zations  in  a  few  of 
the  villages  still  own  67  cho  of  forest  l and  not  s ubj ect  to  the  land  reform  program . 

land 

a  total  of  226  cho  of  arable  land 

Those  shrines  and  templ es  which  had  depended  on  the  proceeds  from  their  l and  for  sup­
are  currently  l eaning  heavily  on  parishioners '  contributi ons .  Priests  of  once  weal thy 
,  like  the  Daiei j i   t emple  in  Yokogoshi  which  sold  23  cho  and  the  Jokuj i  temple  in 
sold  1 7   cho,  are  r eluctant  to  call  upon  their  parishi oners  for  help  and  are 

resorting  to  alms  begging--a  traditi onal  custom  of  Buddhist  temp1 es--rather 

requesting  outright  donations  from  the  templ e  support  organizations . 

� 

By  Dec ember  1949,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  large  l andlords  had  lost  considerable 

heats  of  l and  under  the  land  reform  program,  there  had  been  no  substantial  decrease  in 
their  contributions ;  but  it  i s   being  anticipated  by 

of  the  priests . 

many 

Attendance  at  Shinto  shrines  has  decreased  c onsiderably  since  the  end  of  hostilities . 
addition  to  the  effects  of  the  Shinto  Directive  and  the  new  C onstitution  which  prohibit 
lD 
;OIPblsory  attendanc e  a t   religious  functions ,  many  informed  villagers  feel  that  rel igi ous 
has  declined  following  Japan ' s   defeat .  Villagers  today  normally  visit  shrines  only 
el1tb 
1Il'1ug 

festival s . 

r 

Shrine  attendance  was  greatest  during  the  war ,  when  villagers  made  frequent  visits 

individually  or  in  groupe  to  pray  for  victory  and  for  the  safety  of  soldiers  abroad . 

;lthe
lil8hborhood  groups  took  turns  in  cl eaning  shrines  during  the  war,  and  all  villagers  vis-
shrines  in  groups  at  l east  once  a  month .  Furthermore,  teachers  were  required  to  es­
their  students  there  on  reguJ:ar  visits .  The  village  shrine  was  al s�  the  scene  for 
Welcomes  and  farewells  f or  soldiers . 

e  td 
boClt't 
th 

Religious  fervor  in  the  villages  reached  its  lowest  ebb  shortly  after  the 
Sur 
and  shrine  attendance  became  negligible .  For  the  first  time ,   voices  were  heard  o re
n
P
nl
del' 
lenging  the  existence  of  the  Shinto  and  Buddhist  deities  and  questioning  the  need
y  Qhat 
;
tendsnce  at  shrines  and  temples .  Some  persons  argued  t.hat  because  they  had  been  t  �r at_ 
' 
the  gods  were  fighting  for  their  cause  and  would  lead  them  to  victory,  the  defeat  � d that 
showed  either  that  the  government  bad  misled  them  about  the  existence  of  the  gods  f  Ja�n 
or 
if  the  gods  existed  at  all ,   they  had  abandoned  Japan .  Thi s   violent  initial  reacti 
o�  to  .a�, 
that 
time  propaganda  was  said  to  have  subsided  somewhat . 
In  contrast  with  the  shrioes 
attendance  at  Buddhi st  temples  has  not  changed  much .   The  1 3  villages  lost  a  larg� 
of  young  men  during  the  war,  and  Buddhist  memorial  services  must  be  observe.d  for  th  U1nbel' 

owaVSl', 

n
em. 

In  the  two  villages  with  the  greatest  concentration  of  Christians ,  village  lead 
ported  a  considerable  increase  of  interest  in  Ohristianity  since  1945 ,  particularly :1'8 reo. 
Protestants  and  15  Catholl 
the  youth.  In  N ikaido,  where  there  was  an  increase  of 
C
ing  the  IS-month  period--an  average  increase  of  47  percent--more  people  were  said  to
�  d
e 
reading  the  B ible  than  formerly . 

mong 

ur_ 

60 

Chapter  7 

EDUCATION 

MEDIA 

THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

on  31  March  1947, 
Prior  to  the  enaotment  of  the  School  Education  Law  ( Diet  Law  No 
Japanese  school  system  consisted  of  four  categories  of  school s :   an  eight-year  elemen­
tarY  school ,  a  five-year  middle  school ,  a  three-year  higher  school ,  and  a  three-year  1Jlli­
the 

ty.  The  elementary  school  was  further  su bdi Vided  into  a  six-year  l ower  elementary 

versi 
scbool 
elementary  school  education  enroll ed  in 

( compulsory)  and  a  two-year  higher  elemente..ry  school .  Students  seeking  more  than 
middle  school  immediately  after  completing  the 

26) 

years '  course,  whereas  those  who  wanted  only  two  years  of  education  more  than  the  c om­

a 

pUsory  six  continued  to  attend  the  elementary  school  for  another  two  years .  The  middle 
siX 
schools  w�re  subdiVided  into  boys '  and  girls '  middle  school s ,   and  the  higher  schools  into 
ordinary  high  schools  and  technical  school s . 

The  School  Education  Law  of  1947  abolished  this  complicated  system,  including  the  seg­
rega.tion  of  boys  and  girls ,   and  instituted  a  uniform  school  system  patterned  after  the  Amer­
six-year  elementary  school ,  a  three-year  lower  sec­
ican  6-;-3-4  educational  system; 
scbool ,  a  three-year  upper  s econdary  school ,  and  a  four-year  University.  The  l ower 

!  �,  a 

ondary 
secondary  school  ( junior  high  school )  was  put  into  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  school 
1947,  and  the  upper  secondary  school  ( s enior  high  scbool )  a  year  later. 
y�r  on  1 
The  number  of  years  of  compulsory  schooling  was  gradually  increased  from  six  to  n.ine  during 

April 

1947-49 . 

Arrangements  for  the  new  l ower  secondary  schools  had  been  compl eted  in  all  villages  by 

December  1948.  I n   five  of  them,  new  school  buildings  had  been  erected  during  the  year  and 
,ere  in  use ;   in  five  others ,  classes  were  being  held  in  the  elementary  school  buildings 
while  the  new  buildings  were  under  construction .  In  the  remaining  three  villages ,  no  new 
buildings  were  contemplated,  and  l ower  secondary  school  classes  were  being  held  in  existing 
school  buildings . 

Ebetsu  is  the  only  one  of  the  villages  that  has  upper  secondary  school s . 

In  other  vil­

lages ,  students  must  attend  upper  secondary  school  in  neighboring  towns  or  villages .  Some 
Villages  have  made  arrangements  for  r educed  student  bus  fares  to  facilitate  attendance .  

I n   all  villages,  except  those  where  existing  facilities  are  being  utilized  for  the  new 
l.ower  secondary  school s ,   the  villagers  complained  of  the  heavy  burden  of  financing  the  con­
struction  of  the  new  school s .   In  most  villages,  the  maj or  portion  of  the  costs  is  defrayed 
by  contributione  from  the  reSidents,  collected  in  most  instances  by  means  of  an  informal 
public  imporo �.  In  a  few  villages,  this  is  supplemented  to  some  extent  by  grants  from  the 
needed  for 
government  and  the  village  office.  I n   Suye,  for  example,  out  of  the 
by  the 
construction  of  the  new  school , 
Village  office,  and  the  remainder  by  the  villagers  in  cash  and  �abor .  Each  household  con­
labor .  In  -Nobuta  aM  Obie,  where  the  new  schools  are  being  built 
tributed  10  man-days 
in  cooperation  with  adjacent  villages,  the  costs  are  being  divided  between  the  two  villages . 
,  'rhus,  Nobuta  must  proVide 

needed  for  the  construction  of  the 

was  provided  by  the  government, 

0 1240, 000 

n , ooo,ooo 

1100, 000 

of  the 

of 

jOint  school .  In  Obie,  of  the 

�2 , 550,000 

�5 , 050, 000 

required, 

1600, 000 
will  be  raised  by  l oans,  aM  the  remaining 

12, 500, 000 

will  be  provided  by  the  govern­
w ill  be  collected  from 

ment,  n , ooo , OOO 
the  residents  of  both  villages . 

'900, 000 

228 

229 

This  s chool  building  a t  
abiro  is  one  of  the  recently 
K9wa 
oonstructed  new  lower  seconds 
sohools . 

l'y 

A  la rge  die  is  S Or.let1me  used 
to  teach  arithmetic  to  primBr,y 
pupils . 

Enrollment  in  the  new  lower  secondary  schools  in  the  13  villages  increased  21  percent 

between  June  1947  and  December  1948 .  Nearly  one-half  of  the  students  were  girls,  who  in­
creased  by  22  percent,  as  compared  with  a  20  percent  increase  of  boys .  Evidence  exists 
that  enrollment  in  the  new  upper  secondary  schools  in  December  1948  was  greater  than  enroll­
ment  in  earlier  schools  of  a  similar  level . 

Educational  statistics  for  the  l8-month  period  indicate  that  preference  is  still  given 

villages 
to  males .  Among  the  1 , 086  students  attending  new  upper  secondary  schools  in 
in  December  1948,  boys  outnumbered  girls  by  180 .  Although  the  nwnber  of  university  boys 
in 
the  villages  increased  slightly  from  51  in  June  1947  to 
of 
university  girls  declined  from  five  to  none.  Higher  education  for  girls  is  not  generally 
the  villagers.  They  seemed  to  feel  that  too  much  education  might  endanger  a 
advocated 
girl ' s   opportunities  for  marriage. 

December  1948,  the  number 

55  in 

by 

12 

been  practiced 

No  active  opposition  to  coeducation  was  encountered.  Coeducation 

all  villages  and  in  the 

had 

in 

the  smaller  villages,  so  it  was  not  a  complete  novelty .  A  few  of 

before  the  war  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  elementary  schools 
higher  grades 
the 
ers  interviewed  in  December  1948  admitted  that  they  were  at  firs�  perturbed  at  the  idea  or
their  daughters  attending  classes  with  high  school  boys  but  that  by  now  their  fears  had 
sU 
sided.  Representatives  of  all  youth  associations,  except  those  at  Yoshida  and  Nobuta ,  ex� 
pressed  great  enthusiasm  for  coeducation.  They  reasoned  that  if  demooracy  were  to 
in  Japan,  the  same  type  of  education  was  necessar,y  for  both  sexes .  However,  at 
the  boy  leaders  contended  that  there  was  too  great  a  difference  between  the  sexes  to  juS- t 
tify  the  same  type  of  education,  and  that  if  women  were  to  remain  feminine ,   they  should  :� 
be  allowed  to  "imitate  men" .  At  Nobuta,  girl  leaders  preferred  separation  of  the  seXe�,  lit 
the  presence  of  boys  and  that  they  p�g 
school  on  the  grounds  that  they  felt  constraint 
be  mistreated .  The  boys  said  that  the  presence  of  girls  inhibited  their  behavior . 

yoshida 

suecee 

in 

in 

mot;Jl­

b­

PARENT-TEACHERS '  ASSOCIATION 

Before  and  during  the  Vlar  alm.ost  all  Japanese 

by 

communities  bad  both  parents '  associations  and 
mothers '  associations  which  were  concerned  with 
school  affairs .  These  Vlere  displaoed  after  the 
Surrender 
parent-teachers' associations ,  whoee 
organization  was  encouraged 
the  Occupation  as  a 
way  to  obtain  greater  participation  of'  parents  in 
the  affairs  of  the  new  decentralizeQ  school  system 
and  in  order  to  promote  the  welfare  of  children 
Each  of'  the 
association.  They  were  orga.n1zed  in 
lages  during  the 
Ebetsu,  the  association  was  established  in  April 
1947 . 

I 
the  vi1" 
months  under  C011sideration '  in 

villages  now  has  a  parent-teache;s 

12  of 

by 

18 

13 

In  most  villages ,   the  PTA  has  both  a  general 

chap­

village  organization  and  individual  school 
ters .  Membership  generally  is  restricted  to  par­
ents  of  school  children,  but  in  a  fell  villages  it 
is  extended  to  all  villagers .  The  village  associ­
ations  have  boards  of  advisers  who  usually  are  in­
dividuals  prominent  in  other  community  organiza­
tions,  such  as  the  women l s  a ssociation  and  the 
youth  association.  For  example,  in  Kawashiro  the 
board  includes,  in  addition  to  three  representa­
tives  from  each  of  the  nine  buraku  in  the  village, 
five  representatives  each  from  the  women l s   associ­
ation,  the  youth  association ,  and  the  teachers ' 
group .  Fifteen  members  are  elected  from  the  board 
to  serve  as  officers  of  the  PTA.  Throughout  the 
13  villages,  approximately  one-third  of  the  PTA 
officers  are  women .   Feminine  partiCipation  in  the 
PTA  appears  to  be  on  a  more  equal  footing  with  men 
than  it  is  in  any  other  community  organization . 

The  activities  of  the  PTA  are  usually  con­

fined  to  economic  and  educational  matters .   Fees 
paid  by  the  members  are  expended  on  school  equip­
ment  or  used  for  the  furtherance  of  the  welfare  of 
school  children  and  teachers .  Round  table  confer­
ences  between  teachers  and  parents  are  held  each 
most  villages  to 
�onth  in  the  different  buraku 
discuss  educational  problems,  as  well  as  problems 
In  many  villages, 
connected  with  child  training . 
parents  also  make  monthly  school  inspections  to  ac­
quaint  themselves  with  school  problems . 

in 

Teacher  participation  has  increased  since  the 
shift  from  the  parents '  associations  to  the  PTA ' s .  
Formerly,  teachers  never  appeared  a t   buraku  meet­
ings  to  discuss  school  problems  or  to  consult  par­
ents  on  school  policies;  before  the  Surrender,  all 
school  policies  not  dictated 
Education  were  determined  by  the  teachers  in  con­
sultation  with  village  officials .  Today,  both  par­
ents  and  teachers  were  said  to  have  a  greater 
voice  in  the  education  of  children  than  ever  be­
for e .  

the  �Unistry  of 

by 

"Geta"  are  removed  before 
entering  the  school  building . 

Children  help  in  the  upkeep 
of  the  school  building .  Here 
Suye  girls  clean  the  school ' 
corridors . 

230 

231 

Since  the  shift  to  the  PTA ' s ,   meetings  have  also  become  more  frequent .  In  former 

times ,  meetings  of  the  parents '  a s sociations  were  held  o�Y  once  or  twice  a  year ,  uSU&ll 
in  connection  with  some  personal  matter,  such  as  the  disc�plining  of  an 
T"Y 
day,  PTA  meetings  ar e   convened  at  least  once  a  month  to  discuss  matters  which  affe
o­
school  ohildren,  rather  thsn just  individuals . 

child 
'
ct

unruly 

all

frequently  represented  them  at  meeting s .   Membership  in  toe  PTA  is  open  to  both  sexes 

Membership  in  the  parents '  association  was  generally  restricted  to  men ,  although  i 
f icers  of  the  parent s '   association  were  apPOinted  by  the  principal  of  the  schOol  to  Whic�r­

the  organization  belonged,  but  those  in  the  PTA  are  elected  by  the  members .  

�  vea 

ADULT  EDUCATION  GROUPS 

In  all  13  villages , 

in 

nity  organizations--the  women ' s   as soc iation,  the  youth  a ssociation,  and  the  citizens '  aS90_ 

ciation--c onducted  a dult  educational  activities . 

addition  to  the  organizations  already  mentioned,  three  commu_ 

Women ' s   Association 

A 

women ' s   association,  with  a  membership  of 

10 

of  the  villages .  There  are  none  in  Eb etsu,  Futomi ,  and  Karako .   All  were 

exists  in 
formed  by  June  1947  to  replace  the  local  chapters  of  the  Greater  Japan  Women ' s   ASSOCiation 
' 
a  oompulsory  wartime  national  women ' s   organization ,  which  was  dissolved  shortly  after  the
end  of  hostilities . 

W 

40 

95 

to 

percent  of  a ll  married  women, 

The  associations  are  organized  on  two  levels :  a  village  organization,  to  which  all 
members  belong,  and  local  chapters  in  subdivi sions  of  the  village .  Officers  of  the  vil­
lage  organization  are  elected  from  among  the  officers  of  the  local  chapters .   They  are  usu­
ally  graduates  of  women ' s   high  schools  or  technical  schools  and  are  the  best-educated  women 
in  the  communiti e s .   Village-wide  meetings  usually  are  convened  annually  to  discuss  the 
budget  and  activities  for  the  year .  Local  meetings  are  he ld  at  least  once  a  month . 

The  women ' s   associations  are  primarily  concerned  with  the  promotion  of  women ' s   and 

children ' s   welfar e ,   and  they  sponsor  such  activities  as  discussion  groups  on  women ' s   and 
children ' s   problems  and  classes 
in 

sewing,  cooking ,  and  flower  ar­

rangement .  Lectures  on  the  new 
Constitution  and  the  revised  Civil 

Code  also  were  conducted  at  the 
time  of  their  promulgation  in  six 
of  the  villages . 

In  addition  a  number  of  spe­
cial  aotivities  �re  sponsored.  At 
annu:all1 
Mi.zuwake  the  as sociat.ion 
entertai�s  parents  of  the  war  dead 
st 
during  the  O-Bon  festival ,  and 
eVery 
Kawashiro  it  holds  a  dinner 

' s  organ­

)1/  Toward  the  end  of  the  war , 
j in  
two  patriotio  wornen 
izations ,  the  AikokU ,FU 
Kai  (Patriotic  Women  s  A FUjill 
ciation)  and  the  KO�b�e£enSe 
Kai  (Wome n ' s   Nations 
Association)  were  me�in lsi 
ppon ,  ABse­
torm  the  Dai  Ni
(Greater  Japan  Women  s 

d  to 

8Se­

• 

ciation) 

Officers  of  village  women ' s   as sociations 
are  usually  the  best  educated  women  in  the 
comreunity . 

232 

77 

II ll 
M a rch  for 
residents  over 
(Seventy-seven  Is 
o f   9 ge .  
a 
very  I!\lspioious  II ge . )  The 
to  be 
K/lwlI s h lro  women ' s   /l s socl'1tion  ... ls o 
oonducts  'I  mothers '  sohool  f or  the 

edUCA tIon  of  farm wives .  Under  i ts 

ye,) r s  
considered 

pill n ,   72  women  tqke  e  70-hnur  c ourse 
on  s oo l", l ,   economic,  '1 nd  ler .. 1  prob­
lems  a, oh  yeq r ;   It  is  q ntiCipqted 
th-lt  every  w oma n  in  the  vill"f'e  w i ll 
hqve  tAken  the  course  a t   leq s t   once 
in  the  next  10  yeq rs .  Durlnr  t he  18-
month  peri od ,  t'l is  I! s soc l .. tion  .. Iso 
s U.! Fed  thre-e  vifrorous  but  futile  cam­
� irns  to  e l imin"te  11! v i s h   mRrrlq ge 
oeremonies  w h ioh  h'1ve  developed  with 
the  post- Surrender  f",rming  boom.  It 
1I 1s o   R ttempted  m .. tchm .. k i n�  for  older 
rirls  who  were  experiencing  diffioulty 
in  getting  mArried . 

�t  Yoshida ,  where  the  offioers 

are  well-edu�ted ,  a nd  where  the  vice­
ohA 1rm�n  was  one  of  the  two  eleoted 
8 s soci<ltion  is  J"lt't icularly  '1 etive 
It  is  the  only  one 

Children  enj oyi� 

a  .picture-play· 

i n  

the  day  nursery  s cbool  of  the  Keisho 
temple ,  Yoshida -mura .  The  nursery  s ch ool 
is  s pons ored  by  the  women ' s   ass ociation. 

women ' s  

,1118f,9  a s semb1ywomBD  in  the  1.3  villll ges ,  the 
in  keeping  its  membership  well-informed  on  local  B nd  natlond  view s . 
ot  the  10  IIss ociations  whiob  issues  a  monthly  report  on  loca l  '3 00   ng tiorutl  II ffA irs- -in 
fll ot,  it  is  the  only  one  "hioh  is sues  publi CA t i ons  of  B ny  s ort--�nd  it  is  unique  in  th'l t  
it  conducts  politica l   meet inf's  b e  "'ore  _eleotions  to  'I c qu dnt  villllf"e  " omen  w i t h   the  personal 
bistories  and  plstforms  of  the  o'lndid'l tes . 
It  is  a ls o   d i stinotive  in  the  fll ct  thlIt ,  like 
tbe  Kllw"shir o   a s soo i/ltion ,  it  brouWbt  "bout  the  election  of  a  w �q n   candi�te  to  the  vil­
lage  as sembly  in  �pril 
Ibids  "ssociAtion  oper/l tes  a  nursery  for  50  presohool  children  at  one  of  the  Buddhist 
temples ,  a nd  it  invites  outside  lecturers  from  time  to  time  to  R cqudnt  mothers  w ith  the 
letest  informa tion  on  hell lth ,  s q n itlltion,  infant  CAre ,  Il nd  tood  preserv/lt ion. 

In  its  progrllm  for  the  promotion  of  child  welfllre ,  the  Yo­

1947. 

In  most  vlllJl ges ,  fund s  for  lI otivities  'I re  lI oquired  throUf.h  the  'I a aessment  of  /l nnus l 

115. 

dues  which  range  from  '5 . 00   to 
le1va ging  rags t  IMkin g   slippers ,  lind  sponsoring  plAys  li nd  musiCR l s .  

In  a ddition,  some  women ' s   a s s ociations  rII ise  money  by 

I n   .. ddltion  t o   the  genera l  w omen ' s   IIss ooiq tion  which  exists  in  most  o f   the  villAf8S , 

II  Buddhist  women ' s   orga n iza tion  M S  been  or�n ized  in  N obuts ,  Suye ,  Rnd  Ebetsu;  the  member­
lhip  varies  between  120  li nd  250  wome n .   The  orl'-!lnizetions  Are  R ttR ched  either  to  the  J'odo­
Shln  or  S hingon  sect  temple s ,   where  the  members  ga ther  three  to  five  times  II  yellr  to  listen 
to sermons . 

Besides  thes e ,   there  a re  many  wome n ' s   "ko" 

J§/ 

in  the  vill'3/!,es .  EJl oh  is  usull lly  com­

posl'ld  of  trom  10  to  15  neighbors  who  assemble  oooa s ions lly  Rt  some  member ' s   home  to  mAke 
.... nju"  lind  exo.hange  loca l  gossip. 
In  prewqr  times ,  most  of  these  sma ll  100 .. 1  groups  were 
affi lJA ted  with  religious  orga n iza tions  A nd  spons ored  rAgular  pilfrlmQ ges  to  famed  shrines 
lbd  temples .   During  the  war,  because  of  travel  restriotions ,  the  custom  was  suspended , 
'Qd  it  bas  not  yet  been  revived . 
�th  'ssociations 
By  1947 , 

8 11 

youth  B s a oci .. t1ona  h!ld  been  f ormed  in 

of  the  vill"'f,es . 

In  K'Irs,ko,  Obie , 

end  ' ioi ,  young  men  B nd  women  beloDg  to  sepllrl)te  RssooiA tions J  in  the  other  10  vill� �es , 
loung  men  and  women  pa rtioipate  in  the  same  orgA nization ,  4 nd  the  meetings  of  these  a s ­
�OQl8t ioo8  furnish  one  o f   the  few  opportunities  f or  young  men  4nd  women  to  meet  s ocia lly . 

W 

For  further  detl!lls  on  the  "ko " ,   consult  Chapter  6 .  

2.33 

In  all  of  the  villages ,   there  are  both  village-wide  and  local  associations .  The 
of  the  youth  associations  in  oentral  and  southern  Japan:  are  affiliated  with  county  ; orl.t� 
prefectural  youtb  associations .

. 
.nd 

ma '  

' 

J.ternbersbip  generally  is  re.stricted  to  males  between  the  ages  of  15  and  30  and  to' 
married  girls  between  15  and  25 .  Practic,ally  every  eligible  persen  holds  membership  Ull­
ficers  of  the  village-wide  association  u$URlly  are  older  than  the  rank-and-file  memb�s�t­
and  'invariably  are  the  best-educated  young  people  in  the  oo�unity .  The  chairmen  at  Fut1p 
and  36nd 
and  YQshida ,  fer  example ,  are  principals  of  the  lower  seccndary  schcels  and  are 
42 
years  of  age  respectively .  Each  asscciatien  has  a  chairman  and  two  vice-chairmen; 
th 
j cint  male-female  as sc'ciatiens,  the  chairman  is  al'1lays  a  male ,   but  cne  ef  the  twO'  vice_ 
e 
chairmen  is  a  female .  

in 

The  villa'ge-wide  associations  meet  enly  ence  a  year  at  the  village  effice  and  gener_ 

ally  restrict  their  deliberatiens  to  the  annual  budget  and  the  planning  of  activities 
the  year .  La-clll  ohapters,  hewever,  meet  at  least  ence  a  month  at  a  s choolhous e ,   temple 
or  oommunity  hall  and  carry  en  the  active  'nork  of  the  organizatien s .  

for 
• 

The  maj ority  of  youth  associations  are  divided  into  several  sections,  each  char�ed 
witl;l  a  specific  function.  The  sectiens  differ  semewhat  frem  village  to  village  but  �sua111 
consist  cf  the  following :  general  affairS,  culture ,   industry ,  public  welfare,  and  SOCial 
vlelfare .   Each  section  is  expected  to  engage  in  appropriate  community  activities .   Thus 
at 
Kawa shiro  the  public  welfare  section  ef  the  youth  association  cooperates  with  the  publi� 
health  cemmittee  of  the  village  a sgembly  in  epidemic  prevention  activities,  and  the  sooial 
welfare  section  supports  the  PTA,  the  Oommunity  Ohest  drive ,  and  various  relief  activit�ea 
in  the  village .  The  culture  section  in  most  villages  is  primarily  concerned 
viding  ef  public  entertainment ,  such  as  movies  and  play s .  

the  pro-

ith 

. 

w

During  1948,  the  youth  associatiens  in  alI ef  the  villages  spensered  such  activities 

as  lectures  cn  political  and  agricultural  preblems,  discussien  greups  on  social  preblems  12I 
and  books ,  plays ,  movies ,  agricultural  exhibits ,  and  athletic  meets .  Classes  were  oen­
duct�d  i'll  We-stern-style  sewing ,  the  tea  ceremony,  and  flower  arrangement  for  the  benefit 
girl s .  

of 

In 

is 
publications  are  issued  regularly.  The  cultural  section 

se.ven  o f   the  villages,  the  yeuth  associ�ticns  publish  a  monthly  e r   quarterly 
zine  ef  agricultural  news ,  peetry ,  and  essays .  At  Kawa shiro,  where  the  yeuth  g�oup 
ticularly  active ,  a  �umber 
lishes  a  mimeegraphed  magazine  entitled  Village  Pride,  and  the  secial  welfare  section  is­
sues  a  number  of  pamphlets  cn  social  preblems .  The  mest  netable  ef  these  was  a  :.Jeries 
It  dealt  with  such  matters  of  public 
lished  in  1948  under  the  title  ef  Secial  Report . 
terest  as  t.he  status  ef  the  land  reform  program,  methods  ef  tax  cellection,  the  village 
rice 'quota  and  bills  under  discussion  at  the  village  assembly .  At  Suye ,  the  association 
was  unable ' t o   maintain  a  regular  publicatien,  but  members  read  their  own  peetry  and  eS88YS 
at  buraku  meetings .  

maga­
par­

pub­
in­

pub­

of 

Libraries  for  the  use  of  the  cemmunity  are  operated  by  the  youth  associatiens 
in 
of  the  village s .   In  five  cf  these,  a  central  library  is  hcused  in  the  village  office 
�l' li­
the  scheolhouse;  in  the  other  two ,  very  small  buraku-scale  libraries  are  operated .  Tb 
braries  range  frem  50  to  1 , 000  volumes,  which  are  primarily  on  c�tural  and  agricultura 
1 

seven 

topic s .  

To  finance  these  activities,  annual  dues  ranging  from  15 .00   to  1100  are  co  eC
paymen 

members  in  seven  villages .   However ,  the  main  income  usually  i s   derived  frcm 

1l 

ted 
rrolll 
t  by  tbe 

,d.11age  office  for  public  service  rendered  by  the  members ,   such  a s   the  constructie.l'l 

re­
ef  roads  and  schoolheuses  and  the  cleaning  of  river  channels .  During  1948,  the  youth 
pair 
aSsociatien  in  Karako  received  n, 500  for  repairing  village  reads  and  fer  serving  a s   night 
�atcbmsn;  in  Yokegeshi ,  the  association  received  ¥5 , 000  for  cleaning  the  river  channel;  and 
the  Kawashiro  associatien  earned  110,000  fer  helping  to  construct  the  new  lewer  secondary 
60noo1 .   In  Kawashiro,  each  buraku  chapter  eperates  an  experimental  farm  plet  coveri 
p 
a ­
proximately  one  tan  in  acreage,  the  prcceeds  ef  which  are  utilized  fer  chapter  expen�s 
At  suye,  nearly  250  members  turned  out  twice  during  the  year  to  werk  for  the  nearb  dis: 
trict  feresty  offices  a s   a  means  of  raising  funds  for  the  association 
. 

and 

y 

The  maj ority  ef  the  youth  leaders  interviewed  in  the  villages  appeared  to  have  a  gen-

eral  knowledge  ef  the  centents  of  the  new  Censtitutien  and  the  revised  Civil  Ced 
Y 
rsported  that  they  had  aoquired  their  infermatien  threugh  lectures  at  yeuth  asso�iatie�
lIleetings ,   or  threugh  the  radio,  newspapers,  er  m.agazines .   News  broadcasts  were  popular 

Th 

youth  leaders  in  all  villages . 

lIith 

found 

The  !outh  associatiens  are  net  themselves  active  in  political  affairs  although  small 
cl�ques  w�thin  them  appear  to  be  very  active .  Hewever  political  discussion  groups  may  b 
e 

, 

. 

within  the  associatien,  as  in  Mizuwake .   � 

1948, 
villages . 

In  June  1947,  villagers  were  greatly  opposed  to  the  youth  a ssociations .  By  December 
this  appears  to  have  subsided  greatly;  mild  oppesitien  was  expressed  enly  in  three 
In  Karake  and  Nobuta ,   the  associatiens  were  criticized  for  taking  up  too  much 
time ,  and  in  Ebetsu  for  inculcating  Udangerous  ideas"  in  the  minds  of  the  young 

working 
The  youth  in  all  villages,  however ,  exhibited  great  enthusiasm  for  the  associations  which 
continue  to  be  ene  �f  the  few  extra-familial  social  activities  in  the  village .   Giris  were 
particularly  enthusustic . 

Citizens '  Asseciatiens 

Citizens '  associations  ( lIkominkan" )  for  the  civic  education  ef  the  villagers  were 
newly  erganized  in  six  villages .  Except  fer  two  villages ,  Honami  and  Suye,  the  citiZens ' 
associations  appear  to  be  organizations  in  name  only  and  have  net  yet  begun  to  function 

citizens '  public  hall  has  been  erected  in  any  of  the  villages  although  arrangements ' are 

No 
bsing  made  in  Yokogeshi  for  the  construction  of  one  in  early  1949 .  Village  offices  and 
schoolhouses  are  being  utilized  at  present  for  meetings  of  the  village  association  and 
meeting  halls  of  different  buraku  are  used  by  branch  chapters  in  Suye  and  Honami . 

1 

Membership 

th.e  citizens 
I 

in 

association  is  open  to  all  villagers .  The  officers  are 

the  deputy  mayer ,  the  twO'  vice-Chairmansh-ips  by  assemblymen 
by 
the  lower  sec�>ndary  sc,hool  principal .  Furthermore,  the  cemmittee 

elected,  usually  frem  among  public  efficials  and  scheel  teachers . 
th,e  chairmanship  is  held 
:nd 
the  secretaryship 
hiCh  plans  the  associatien ' s   activities  is  composed  ef  representatives  of  community  ergani-
z
ations .  Thus,  among  the  26  members  ef  the  c¢mmittee  at  Henami  there  are  six  a ssemblymen 
8ix  schoel  principals ,  ene  village  clerk,  two  representatives  e�ch  of  the  village  agricul- ' 
al  cceperative,  the  welfare  committee,  the  youth  associatien  and  the  women ' s   as socia-
turi 
t

In  Honami ,  for  example, 

on. 

by 

' 

In  Honami,  Vlhere  the  erganizatien  is  particularly  well  developed  the  village  assecia­

t 
y  udal 

n  is  divided  into  10  departments ,   eacb  with  its  ewn  schedule  of  a ctivities .  These  in-

oio
oou
t:torical  contest,  a.nd  the  buraku  chapters  spensored  classes  in  flower  arrangement .  lec-

general  affairs ,  culture,  library,  industry,  physical  training  arts  health.  wemen 
th ,  and  children .  During  1948,  the  village  association  arranged  a  youth  Festival' and  an' 
es  on  current  events ,  athletic  meets ,  children ' s   parties ,  and  a  newssheet  fol'  posting  on 

b 
Ullatin  beards . 

The  most  popular  topics  fer  discussion  in  most  cf  the  villages  were  reporte 
d 
"Should  a  wife  embrace  her  husband ' s   religion?" ,  "Free  marriage  er  arranged 
and  " I s   black-marketeering  good  er  bad?" 

to  be: 

lage?

marl' 

234 

In  Suye,  the  citizens '  association  sponsers  two  sets  ef  lectures  menthly,  one  for  all 

ults  and  the  ether  for  women  enly.  The  general  lectures  included  such  subj ects  as  the 

ad 

"
, 

4QI  For  infermation  on  the  pelitical  activities  of  youth,  cenault  Chapter  4. 

235 

new  Constitution,  farming  techniques ,   cooperatives ,  and  village  government . 
women  were  confined  to  those  with  feminine  appeal ,  such  as  home  sanitation ,   infant 
nursing ,   and  rearing  of  children .  Q/ 

Lectures  t 
care, 

Or 

INFORMAT ION  MEDIA 

Information  conc erning  political  and  agricultural  matters ,  such  as  agricultural 
lation,  farming  t echniques ,   rationing,  and  marketing  of  crop s ,   is  of  vital  importance
In  the  villages  visited,  the  chief  sources  of  this  information  are  the  new
farmers . 
and  the  radio,  and  to  a  lesser  extent ,  posters ,  leaflets ,  movie s,  and  "kamishibaill 

l�giS­

s  0 

paper 

Responsea  to  the  questionnaire  submitted  to  100  heads  of  households  in 

revealed  that  a  large  ma j ority  of  the  villagers  subscri be  to  a  newspaper .  Of  thOse  wh�e 
filled  in  the  que stionnaire ,   83  percent  reported  that  they  took  a  newspaper ,  the  ma j orit 
of  them  subscribing  to  a  national  paper  rather 
to  a  local  or  regional  newspaper .   T� 
most  isolated  villages  had  the  lowest  percentages  of  newspaper  subscribers . 

each 

than 

villa 

e 

Approximat ely  two-thirds  of  the  hou seholds  in  the  13  villages  owned  radios  in 
1948 .  As  compared  with  the  findings  of  the  1947  survey,  reported  radio  ownership  has 
go: 
up  in  almost  every  village .  Some  correlation  was  apparent  between  radio  ownership  and  eco� 
nomic  fact ors ,  as  evidenced  by  th e   fact  that  only 
percent  of  the  pre-land  reform  tenants 
reported  ownership,  as  compared  with 
the  pre- land  reform  landlords . 

percent  of  the  owner-cultivators  and  79  percent 

Decemb 

56 

71 

of 

P O S TL UD E  

Movie  theaters  are  found  only 

the  two  urban  village s ,   Honami  and  Ebetsu .  The  resi-

dents  of  the  other  villages  must  go  to  neighboring  towns  to  see  movi e s ,   or  they  can  see 

in 

\ 

only  the  occa sional  movies  that  come  to  the  village  five  to  ten  times  annually  under  the 

auspices  of  the  youth  association  or  the  village  cooperative . 
sists  of  a  historical  drama ,  a  newsreel, 
educational  nature  are  regularly  shown  to  school  children  in  five  of  the  village s .  
three  villages  reported  seeing  American  documentary  films  in  the 

movie  show 

an  educational  short  feature .  Movies  of  an 

months  under  consider­

usua l ly 

Only 

and 

The 

con-

18 

ation. 

Poster s ,   leafle t s ,   and  " kamishibai"  are  also  variously  used  in  the  villages  for  the 
dissemination  of  information  concerning  such  matters  of  interest  to  farmers  as  the  land 
reform  program,  taxat ion

and  delivery  quota s .  

, 

Q/  For  a  statement  of  the  adult  education  aspects  of  the  application  of  the  land  reform 

program,  see  Chapter  1 .  

236 

J�9STLUDE 

The  field  studies  on  which  this  report  is  based  were  made  in  �ay  and  June 

the  land  reform  program  was  just  getting  under  way.,  and  in  November  and  December 
, 
19' awhetJ 
the  sale  of  land  to  tenants  was  nearing  completion.  Between  these  two  dates  the  li� 
when 
of 
the  rural  people  of  Japan  was  being  affected  by 
changes  brought  about  by  the  18 e 
nd 
form  program  as  well  as  by  other  influences .  The  data  obtained  in  the  field  studie 
re­
thus 
provide  the  reader  an  exc ellent  opportunity  to  study  the  "before"  end  flafter"  situa:i
on 
wi th  respect  to  the  land  reform  program .  However ,  the  changes  which  \'Iere  under  obs 
are  no ,  n  any  sense ,  as  nea  an  clean-cut  as  might  be  implied  by  tbe  terms  "befor " 
"after " ;   the  flow  of  social  and  economic  history  is  no  respecter  of  the  arbitrary  cui  and 
point s  of  the  social  observer .  Many  agricultural  programs  w.ere  just  getting  under  wa;� 
the  time  of  the  second  survey,  and  many  changes  have  occurred  throughout  rural  Japan  sine 
December  1948 .  The  Japanese  village  is  still  very,  much  "in  transition" . 

ervat10 

1947 

many 

t  i 

d 

n 

t 

e 

. 

Thus  a  study  of  this  kind  can  never  be  complete  and  definitive .  Problems  and  situa_ 
t�ons  which  arise  during  the  period  of  observation  may  persist  unaltered  for  long  period 
of  time ;  they  may  become  intensifie d;  they  may  pale  into  inSignificanc e ;   or  they  may  be 
solved  by  measure s  which  come  into  operation  afterViards .  The  chroniclers  of  a  small 
of  history  are  therefore  compelled  to  accept  the  modest  limits  defined  by  their  period  of 
sliee 
observation .  While  this  manus cript  was  in  preparation  after  fialc'.  studies  had  been  com­
pleted,  many  further  changes  were  going  on  in  rural  Japan ,  and 
problelts  which  were 
noted  during  the  research  were  in  process  of  solution . 

many 

B 

To  bring  the  reader  up-to-date  on  general  trends ,   the  more  important  changes  which 
have  occurred  on  the  national  scene  ar e  summarized  in  this  Postlud e .   The  highlights  are 
empha sized,  and  the  references  are  allliost  entirely  limited  to  the  agricultural  programs . 
No  national  elections  have  been  held  since  January  1949 ;  cOJlununity  snd  village  organization 
remain  fundamentally  as  described  in  the  text ;  and  no  changes  seem  to  have  occurred  in 
reli­
gion,  family  organization,  or  education  which  would  require  substantial  revision  of  the  des­
criptions  given  i n   the  text . 

THE  LAt;!)  REFORM  PROGRAM 

At  the  end  of  the  survey  period,  December  1948,  the  initial  pha ae  of  the  land  reform 

program--the  transfer  of  land  to  former  tenants--was  nearing  completion,  and  most 
farmers 
were  confident  that  the  program  would  be  carried  througb  to  completion .  Their  confidence 
VIas  well-founded ,   for  by  31  March  1950  these  transfers  had  been  substantiallr  accomplished . 
(See  Appendix  D  for  a  detailed  statistical  statement  of  the  accomplishments . ) 

The  actual  registration  of  land  purcha ses,  a  long  and  involvea  task,  had 

begun 
in  December  1948;  in  the  13  villages  it  had  not  started  at  all .   By  31  �.:arch  1950 ,  thi�o 
'task  had  been  virtually  completed  throughout  Japan.  Each  of  the  approximately  30 , OCO, 
t� 
parcels  of  land  transferred  under  the  land  reform  program  was  first  checked  with 
local  tax  office  and  the  local  land  registry  office  to  insure  the  accuracy  of  boundarY 
ree�:i_ 
s c riptions  and  adequacy  of  ti tle.  A  writ  of  transfe.r  then  .,as  filed 
land 
this  office  c on�ts 
try  office  of  the  Attorney  Genera l ;   the  formal  acceptance  of  a  writ 
tutes  the  legal  registration  of  titl e .   Thus , 
had  legal  re'cogni�ion  of  their  ownership  of  the  newly  acquired  land . 

the  end  of  �arch  1950  the  former  tenG 

barely 

wi to 

both 

th e 

by 

b.Y 

e 

a­

In  anticipation  cf  the  completion  of  registration  in  early  1950,  the  �inistry  of 
ture  and  Forestry  made  p lans  in  the  fall  and  winter  of  1949  for  changes  in  the  ba�ic 

Agrl-

reform  legiGlation--changes  designed  to  put  the  program  ou  a .permanent  basis . 

sub­

group 

Jlt,).a l  

submitted  to 
bsS j c  auth or! ty  from  the  Owne r-Farmer  &s tsbl 1s hment  Spec:ial  Meaaures 

of  amendments  to  the  basic  legislation  was  preparea ,  alld  on  31  March  1950 
Diet .  These  proposed  amendments  prov.ided  for  a  shift  in  the  source 
temporary 
They  \� ere  still  under  d1scus­
]950 ,  and  will  be  reintroduced  in  the  coming 

permanent  Agricu�tural  land  Ad·j ustment 

Low ,  8 

law . 

the 

a 

, 

A 

�
auld 

sttl-

.,�� 
of ssUl'e ,  to 
�on on  the  c losing  day  of  the  Diet ,  2 
�e.ordinary  Session  of  the  Diet . 

!fay 

important  change  in  the  admir.istrative  aspect  of  the  land  reform  program  which 

An 

curred  since  the  field  studie s   was  a  red.istribution  of  representation  on  the  local  land 
O
In  the  first  elections  of  December  1947 ,  members  were  elected  to  the  commis­
mmisSions • 

o

wn 

representatives . 

C�on aa  representatives  of  the  pre-land  reform  tenure  group s ;   the  proportional  di stribu­
:1on wa S  five  tenants ,   two  owner-.cultivators ,  and  three  landlords .  Each  group  elected  its 
�ing necessary  the  alteration  of  the  basis  of  representation  for  the  second  local  land 
o�nission  elections,  held  18 
�siS,  and  the  composition  of  the  commission s ,   which  reflected  the  new  di stribution 
tenure  group s ,   consisted  of  two  tenants,  six  owner-oultivators ,   and  two  landlords .   Again, 

In  1949 ,  practically  all  changes  in  tenure  status  had  been  made, 

1949 .  T enl�e  status  as  of  that  date  was  used  a s   the 

August 

of 

group  elected  its  own  representatives .  

each 

RECLAY.ATION 

LAND 

By  Deo ember  1948 ,  most  farmers  in  the  13  village�  had  come  to  accept  the  land  recla­

Illation  proj ects  more  enthusiastioally,  because  they  had  come  to  learn  that  the  new  land 
was  to  be  used  for  local  farmers  aa  well  aa  for  repatriatas .  During  1949 ,  the  national 
reclamation  policy  became  definitely  one  of  aiding  local  farmer s ,   and  first  priority  on 
allocations  of  reclaimable  land  was  given  to  local  farmers  willing  to  reclaim  land  without 
8ubsidy  rather  than  to  repatriates ,  as  had  hitherto  been  the  practic e .   land  not  desired 
by  local  people  is  offered  to  others ,   who  are  paid  reclamation  and  houaing  subsidies  and 
granted  farm  �£nagement  loans .  The  emphasis  in  the  reclamation  program  has  shifted  from 
short-time  emergency  measures  designed  to  aid  repatriate s   and  to  increase  food  production 
to  a  long-range  program  of  increaaing  the  amount  of  the  agricultural  la.nd  of  farming  com­
munities. 

By  2  March  1950,  1 , 208, 124  cho  of  land  had  been  purchased  by  the  gover�ent  through 
the  local  land  commissions  for  reclamation  and  future  sale  to  farmers ;   by  31  Maroh  272 ,429 
of  this  land  had  been  sold  to  individual s   for  private  reclamation .  This  comprises  a 

cho 
large  proportion  of  the  land  readily  reclaimable  by  individual s .  

AGRICULTURAL  COOPERATIVES 

By  December  1948 ,  agricultural  cooperatives  had  displaced  the  former  agricultural 

a ssociations  in  the  13  villages  as  well  as  throughout  Japan.  However ,  the  actual  liqui­
dation  of  the  a ssets  of  the  agricultural  associationa  was  a  complicated  and  time-consuming 
task  which  was  in  progress  during  the  survey  period .  As  of  31  Lmrch  1950,  the  liquidation 
10  721  local  agricultural  associations  and  an  estimated  172 , 000  agricultural  and  seri­
of 
cult�al  practice  a ssociations  was  97  percent  complete ,   and  a ssets  valued  at  more  than  49 
billion  yen  had  been  transferred  from  local  a ssociations  to  the  new  cooperatives .  
Appendix  E  for  a  deta.iled  statistical  statement  of  the  growth  of  cooperatives . )  

(See 

S ince  the  time  of  the  aurvey  period  the  most  important  local  problems  of  the  new 
agricultural  cooperatives  have  centered  around  their  adjustment  to  the  post- infla�ionary 
tpe  oon­
Situation.  Most  of  the  cooperative  officials  had  had  no  previous  experience 
duct  of  cooperative  busines s   activities .  In  many  instance s   they  failed  to  curtail  the 
purchases  of  goods  when  prices  began  declining  during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1949 .  Most 
cOOperatives  were  undercapitalized  and  paid  for  these  goods  with  money  deposited  by  the 

in 

238 

239 

lIlembers .  A  number  of  cooperatives  experienced  difficulty 

bers  for  withdrawal  of  deposits  to  pay  for  fertilizer  and  other  expenses  during  � o
the  Agrioultural 
Partial  ameDdllents 
of  1950. 
50 
vide  finanoial  standards  and 
ties  of  coope 

meeting  the  request 
Cooperative  Ass ociation  law  in  l�e  SPl'ltlg 
pro.. 
l'athea • 

to 
regulatory 

powers  over  finanoial  act! 

�e�_ 

in 

vi 

t 

TAXES 

H igh  taxes  and  public  imposts  continue  to  be  a  problem  for  the  farmers  a s  f 

A 

Significant  event  was  the  publioation  of  the  repo�� all 
segments  of  the  population. 
Shoup  Taxation  Mission  in  the  fall  of  1949 .  The  over- all  intent  of 
of  the  refO
recommended  by  the  Mission  was  to  rationalize  the  tax  struoture  in  order  to  effe ct  or�s 
a� 
equitable  distribution  of  the  tax  burden,  to  eliminate  informal  public  imposts  and
grant  local  governments  greater  financial  autonomy .  Most  of  the  recommendatio�s  w 
acted  into  law  without  significant  changes  during  the  Session  of  the  Diet  which  Cl�:: 
2  May  1950;  the  proposed  revision  of  the  local  tax  law,  however ,  failed  to  pass  the  H�uon 
of  Councillors .   As  a  group,  farmers  benefited  from  the  reform s .   Discriminatory  pr 
sions  in  the  income  tax  law  relating  to  basic  exemptions  were  corr
1 
ected  tax  admini°�  -
tion  was  improved,  and  a  number  of  excise  taxes  were  reduced  or  eliminated .  Alth
oU;br:b 
full  effect  of  these  reforms  is  not  yet  evident,  it  is  apparent  that  the  farmers '  tax  b 
dens  for  the  1949  fiscal  year  were  lighter  than  they  had  been  in  the  1947  or  1948  fisc  �. 

year s .  

many 

th� 

an. 

8a 

f 

e 

0 

a 

INFLATION  AND  THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  BLACK  IIARKEr 

In  Deoember  1948 ,  the  farmers  were  affeoted  by  the  imbalance  between  their  incomes 

which  were  derived  from  the  sale  of  produce  at  official  prices,  and  their  living  expens�8 
which  were  determined  to  a  large  extent 
sumer  good s .   Since  the  survey  period,  the  course  of  inflation  has  changed 
first  balanced  national  budget  in  many  years  was  formulated  in  April  1949 ;  fiscal  and 
etary  controls  were  put  into  effect,  and  many  subsidies  were  eliminate d .   This  has  been 
reflected  in  a  lowered  effective  demand  at  the  same  time  that  the  supplies  of  goods  were 
becoming  more  plentiful .  Pric e�  have  begun  to  level  off,  and  in  some  instances  to  decline. 
Some  agricultural  cooperatives ,   caught  with  over-priced  inventories  of  goods,  face  finan­
cial  problem s .  

the  inflated  black  market  prices  of  many  con-

� 
someWhat .   The 
mon­

by 

' 

The  farmer  h a s   been  affected  i n   a  number  o f   ways .  Although  h i s   costs  have  declined 

somewhat,  the  price  of  some  commodities,  suoh  as  fertilizer,  has  increased  because  of 
remo�'al  of  subsidie8 .  At  the  same  time ,  his  inoome  from  the  black  market  sale  of  farm 
In  some  isolated  area s ,   the  black  market  prices  of  farm 
products  has  fallen  off  sharply . 
products  are  equal  to  or  even  below  controlled  pric e s .   Farmers  face  a  shrinkage  in  their 
real  income ;  the  days  of  inflation-borne  rural  prosperity  have  ended . 

the 

The  change  in  the  course  of  inflation  will  undoubtedly  necessitate  numerous  readjust­
ments  in  the  financing  of  farm  enterprise s .   Some  hardships  are  bound  to  occur .  However, 
these  adj ustments  are  ess ential  to  the  development  of  long-range  stability  in  r
ural  commu­
nities.  The  agricultural  reforms  carried  out  since  the  Surrender  have  done  much  to 
make 
the  farmer ' s   lot  more  bearable,  and  they  have  created  an  institutional  structure  through 
which  he  can  work  to  improve  his  circumstanoes,  but  they  have  not  touched  the  basic  prob-
le� of  overcrowding  on  agricultural  land.  As  long  as  the  prese
farmland  persists,  the  agricultural  problem  cannot  be  fully  solved .  Although  the  farme�1
still  is  in  a  more  favorable  position  than  he  was  before  the  war,  a  decline  from  the  ar 
ticial  prosperity  of  the  post-Surrender  inflation  period  was  inevitable ,   and  further  d��r 
this  respect,  Japanese  Gover
der 
o
cline  can  be  anticipated. 
ate  mes 
the  Allied  Powers  agricultural  specialists  are  making  concerted  efforts  to  for
ures  tor  stabilizing  the  agricultural  economy  at  a  rea sonable  level. 

ent  and  Supreme 

t  ratio  of  far

mman
mul

r
me

s  t

In 

o  _ 

8-

nm

n

c

_ 

DELIVERY  QUOTAS 

a

v

y 

delivery  quotas .  

ince  tr �n,  quotas  have  become  less  of  a 

Both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  survey  period,  farmers  compla ined  about 
roblem  and  several 
e
tile  h
hlinges  have  been  made  in  the  delivery  system  itself.  Beginning  with  the  1950  crop  co1-
f ctlan and  distribution  controls  on  both  sweet.  and  white  potatoes  were  removed  a lthough 
t�e  government  will  c�ntinue  �o  purc
se  and  distribute  a  portion  of  these  crop;  during 
chiefly  as  a  pr�ce-stab�lizing  measure .  Quota -allocation  regulations  were  revised 
1950, 
t  increa ses  as  well  as  reductions  in  preplanting  quota s .   The  bonus  payment  for 
mi
of  �949  rice  wa s  reduced  from  the  1948  level  of  three  times  the  ba.se 
to  p
ver-quota  de

ver

ha

er

S

p

to  two  times .  As  noted  above,  the  price s  paid  for  crops  collected  under  the 

li

y 

instances  were  higher  than  black  market  pric e s ,   a  sharp  revers

uo
q
of  the 

ta 

al 

°rice 
�ystem  in  som
situation  in  1947 . and  1948 . 

e 

INCENTIVE  GOODS 

p

ur

The  incentive  goods  program,  which  in  1947  and  1948  offered  farmers  the  opportunity 
cha se  hieh-priced  or  otherwi se  unobtainable  goods  at  controlled  prices  a s   a  reward 

to 
for  meetin�  crop  quota s ,   ha s  undergone  a  considerable  change .  The  supply  of  consumer  com­
modities  has  become  relatively  plentiful,  and  free  market  prices  are  now  lower"  than  offi­
cial  pric es  in  many  instances .  Textiles  and  rubber  goods  in  particular  have  become  more 
readily  available .  Under  these  conditions,  farmer s  have  come  to  prefer  bUYing  in  the  free 
�rket ,  because  they  usually  have  a  wider  choice  of  both  type  and  quality  of  goods ,  Thus , 
early  195 0 ,   a  crisis  confronted  retail  dealer s ,   because  farmers  were  not  buying  the 
in 
large  stocks  of  incentive  textile  goods  which  were  priced  higher  than  free  market  cloth  of 
equal  or  better  quality.  The  incentive  goods  program  probably  will  be  drastically  cur­

or  abolished  in  195 0 .  

tailed 

FERTILIZER  SUPPLIES 

The  fertilizer  supply  situation  ha s  improved  substantially  since  the  survey  period. 

stri

ut ion  of  commercial  fertilizer  to  farmers  during  the  1949  fall' period  (1  August-
b

The  di
31  December)  showed  marked  improvement  over  that  of  the  same  period  in  1948  both  in  total 
tonnage  and  in  timing  of  the  distribution .  The  1949  allocations  of  commercial  nitrogenous 
and  phosphatic  fertilizer  were  double  those  of  1948 .  By  the  end  of  December,  farmers  had 
received  100  percent  of  their  allocations,  as  compared  with  97  percent  and  88  percent  re­
spectively  during ' the  fall  of  1948 .  The  greatest  improvement  in  quantity  allocated  oc­

in  potash .  Farmers  received  86 , 200  metric  tons ,  as  compared  with  only  9 , 300  tons 
the  fall  of  1948 .  Considerable  fertilizer  was  purcha sed  by  farmers  during  August 

curred 
during 
and  the  first  half  of  September  1949 ,  wherea s  in  1948  no  appreciable  quantities  were  avail­
aole  until  after  20  September .  During  the  fall  of  1949  Japanese  farmers  generally  not  only 
received  all  the  fertilizer  allocat ed ,  but  obtained  it  in  time  for  most  efficient  use , 

Reduction  of  fertilizer  subsidi es  in  the  1949  fiscal  year  resulted  in  succe ssive  in­
e s  in  the  price  of  fertilizer  in  January  and  March  1950 .  The  greatest  problem  of 
in  relation  to  fertilizer  now  is  financing  purcha ses  rather  than  an  inadequate 

.ea

cr

s
farmers 
Supply .  

CONSOLIDATION  OF  PLOTS 

A  persi stent  problem  o£  efficient  farm  management  in  Japan  is  the  wide  distribution 

of  the  cultivated  plot s .   Ultimately,  the  solution  will  be  for  farmers  to  exchange 

�lots 
one  another  and  to  combine  adjoining  plots  so  that  more  of  a  farmer ' s   land  will  be 

Continuous .  But  these  are  slow  and  complicated  solutions  and  are  now  largely  in  the 

-ith 

Planning  stag e .  

240 

241 

AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION 

Law 

authorized  by  the 
D iet 

At  the  time  of  the  second  field  survey,  the  agricultural  extension  system 
for  the.  Improvement  and  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  enacted  by  � was 
whl  h 
5  July  1948 ,  wa s  being  discussed  in  the  villages .  The  law  envisions  a  farm  adv
ie 
for  each  village  in  Japan  and  a  home  adviser  for  each  three  to  five  villages .  Becausse� 
the  financial  problems  of  the  program,  the  planned  goals  will  not  be  reached  for  sev  a  Of 
v���l 
prefectural  guidance  aSSOCiations  e 
and 

years .  During  the  development  period,  farmers  will  continue  to  obtain  technical  ad
from  former  Nogyokai  farm  experts ,   now  employed 
village  cooperatives . 

by 

In  the  new  program,  the  number  of  farm  advi sers  is  being  increased  steadily ·  hom 

advisers  are  being  located  throughout  the  country ;  subj ect-matter  specialists 
nate  research  results  with  extension  practices  have  been  selected  in  all  prefectures 

coor� 
Training  schools  on  extension  methods  are  being  held  to  iJnprove  the  effectivenes s  Of'th 
farm  and  home  advi sers .  Special  empha sis  will  be  given  to  the  development  of  an  ada  us: 
4-H  C�Ubse 
orga ni Zed 

home  advisory  service  for  farm  women  and  of  clubs  patterned  after  the  American 
for  farm  youth .  Local  advi sory  committe e s   of  farmers  and  farm  wives 
being 
to  consult  with  extension  personnel 

the  devel opment  of  prop,rams .  

a re 

to

� 

'

in 

SUMMARY 

The  Japanese  village  still  is  in  transition;  some  noticeable  changes  have  occurred 

since  the  survey  period  ended,  while  other  village  conditions  remain  much  the  same ,  The 
solidarity  of  the  kinship  group  continues  to  be  an  all-important  value  t o   most  villagers 
although  at  the  same  time  some  of  them  are  sensing  that  the  exercise  of  individual  choic�8 
may  run  counter  to  f'amily  solidarity .  Village  organization,  with  its  highly  c ohe sive  lo� 

cal  groups,  retains  its  importance ,   but  traditional  relationships  within  the  village  are 
being  incr ea singly  affected  by  economic  activity,  and  by  the  more  active  participation  of 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  people  in  community  affairs ,  Local  officials  are  now  elected 

by  more  voters  than  befor e .   Many  new  faces  have  appeared  among  local  leaders .  The  land 

A PPENDI C ES  A ND  TA BL ES 

reform  program  has  enabled  more  farmers  to  own  the  land  they  cultivate ,   and  the  agricul­
tural  cooperatives  and  new  Civil  Code  have  afforded  the  villagers  a  firmer  voice  in  their 
own  economic  and  social  affairs ,   As  they  did  in  December  1948,  however,  alert  village 
leaders  point  out  the  need  for  constructive  measures 
year s .  

safeguard  the  gains  made  in  recent 

to 

242 

Appendix  A 

DEFINITIONS 

JU"�E  TERMS 

OF 

aadsn 

bunn 

Buddhist  nunner1 

Bn Doh  tlllll117 

kays 

lcitl!une-l1oohi 

Subdivision  ot  a  village,  sa

ar  to  a n  uni noorporated  halllet  in 

U

nited  States .  

the  U

Ico 

Alsoolation  o f  bunlcu  reBidsnts  i n  rtllagtls ,  established  b,.  la w  betw.en  1940 
to 

on  oertain  100II1  goven.snt 

carr,. 

adm1n1lltntivs  tunOtiODII . 

aDd 

1947 

' 

, 

oho 

Unit  of  .sasurs .. nt  oomprie ing  2.451  aOl'lls 

ohond-kai 

A.aooiation  ot  local  OCIII
in  rlll'l'l l  rtllages . 

IIUnit,.  reeldsnte  in  tOWIIII 

citiea ,  dll1lar  to  the 

snd 

buraku-lcal 

dalkon 

Giant  white  ndieh 

de nna-sellll

l 

ds nto 

dekaeegloin 

Eta 

Title  of  reepect  ueed  referentiaU,.  to  hebenda  and  both  referent1ell,.  IlDd  voceUve17 

superiors .  Llterall,.,  honorabla  aater

to 
Association  of  temple  supporters 

lord . 

J 

Pereons  who  leave  their  native  village  tor  tellPorary  emplo
olal  residence  in  tbe  villege . 

Tm

ent  but  reta in  their  otfi­

Deeoend.,nte  or  a  pre-Jlei,1i  outcast  groop,  generallJ  with  low  econolll1c  s ta tus  lind  epe­
oia l  oocup!ltione , 
word  Eta ,  which  IIII
lousl,.  .. voided  b,.  Jap!l nese  people .  NorlllallJ 
( new  cOtIllIon  pe ople ) ,  ntokusbu  hUl'llkuIlin" 

The 
ftderlleJllent  abundant" ,  ls  a  term  or  insult  end  is  sedu­
oirclllllooutio!lll ,  suah  ae  "ehinbelm1ll" 

p!lnled  b,.  sooie 1,  reSidential ,   ... nd  rellgioUB  restrictions. 

II
IIIIlS  literd

people

spec1

17 

cc

tnIln,y 
people ) ,  are  ueed .  In  this  report.,  the  word 

or  "bu%'1'kuJl1n"  (bu­
tter  of  conven­

is  used 

Cll

nku 
iencs }  the 
Japanese  reader,  and  the  use  of  the  longer  cirowalooutione  could  reeult 

probab17  will  not  carry  the  slime  1D11ulting  oonnotations  to  the  non­

term 

ae  a  IM

(

1tl  hUl'llku 
Eta 

) , 

oon!Ueion. 

10 

( -ka"a ) 

River 

-gewa 
getll 

gun 

han 
hibachi 

hinln 

honke 

i 

ioo8"' mi 

Wooden  clogs 

'dllinistretive  subdividon  of  a  prefeoture ,  s

ile r 

lin  'merican  county. 

1a

to 

Pel's one 1  s8,,1  used  for  sigDftlure 

Movable  urn  in  whiah  oharcoal  1a  burned  tor  helltlng  li nd  cooki.ng 

, 

Ll tenliy,  noohllll
Mei,11  outcaet  group  oonll1st1ng  ohief17  of  iNoh  flORting  elementll  ot  tile  popu13Uon 
heggll rll,  mounteblnks,  juulers ,  strolling  pla,.ers ,  and  mendicents . 

lln J   persone  e1JBilar  in  stll tus  to 

but  deeeendllnte  of  a  pre­

the  EtII , 

all 

Head  femil,. 

The  rush i!.l!ru!!u!  ,ttwl!!S ,  ueed  in  Jll!l king  JII!I ts .  

Persons  believed  to  have  powers  of  bewitchment ,   in 
to 

oharl!cteristics  of  dogs .  Litaroo 11,.,  "dog-god " .  

some  inslllnces  OIIusin� 

their  victimS 

j iyushugi 

FreedOll ;  libel"l liell . 

I!8I1\lC18 

ksbultosl!lku-ee1 

term  used  in  Sh1mene  Preteoture  to  re.fer  tc  the  tenanc,.  arl'll ngelll8nt  in  "bicb  the 

_ 
house ,  ·toreet,  end  sometimee  f., rm 
unit  f'rom  the  Lotndlord . 

tools 

.. nd  livestock  are  rented  by  the  taMnt 

a 

till 

ma zemeshl 

Rice  cooked  with  vegetables  and  sometimes  meat 

ChiDese  ideographs  used  together  with  s,.llebic  symbols  in  writing  Japanese 

RegioD8l  term  for  a  ne igbborhood  gr�np  consietillg  of  five  5-man 

groupe 

Miscanthu. ,  a  gras.  used  to  make  roof  thatch. 

Persons  believed  to  have  po"ere  of  bewitcbme
to  assume  chal'ft oteristics  of  foxes .  Lltel'lllly,  "pos oessor  of  foxes " .  

iD 

t , 

n

some  inslllnces  cousing  their  victims 

Group  of'  persODS  joined  together  tor  the  1'urtbennce  ot  mutWll  interests ;   these  1118y  be 
Originell,  the  terll 
econOllic,  religiOUS,  or  s00
together  for  religiOUS  purpoees . 

restrioted  to  group.  ba nded 

WIIB 

1ll

1

. 

,  religiOUS  group  of  approxiate

ouoeholds  whloh  tunCtiODII  durlnf;  funenle 

17  10  h

Unit  or  dr,.  weight  eqni� lent 
of  soybeans . 

to  330 

pounds  ot  rlce , 

pounds  ot  wheat,  or  283  pounds 

301 

CltlzeDII '  assooi8tions  wbich  engage  in  oivic  eduOfttionBl  work 

A  hea tiDg  devlce  conllisting  or  a  depression  in  the  floor  In  which 
placed 

II 

ch�rcOlll  fire  is 

,  ward  Dr  s imiltlr  subdivision  of 

village,  town,  or  cit,.. 

a 

Long-bladed,  short-handled  hoe . 

Town 

Buns  with  bean  pIIste  or  othsr  fillIng 

Locll 1  term  for 
weddings ,  tunenle ,  or  work  exchange . 

II 

group  of  seven  or  eight  households  whieb  coopel"lte  In  the  event  of 

Dellocl"l o,. 

Vlllllge 

Fom  ot  retirement 
of  the  elderl,.  couple  from  their  tormer  room  to 

from 

hesdeh1p  or  the  houllehold  whlch  Is  s1l1bol11led  b,.  ths  trl!lnsfer 

more  se oluded 

B 

room 

'p-icultul"'< l  association;  nellie  tor  both  the  individual  !lseoc1etiona  !lnd  the  netion ... ids 
syetem  of  oompulsory  as�ociqtions 
by  the  v01unlltry  agrioulturo. 1  cooperst lves . 

in  1940  and  supplllnted  during  the  Occupatlon 

formed 

Ll
in  farm  work . 

tero.

,  � 

ll,.

farmers '  small  unionJ 

lIIrge  grouping  of  neighbors  "ho  sssist  88ch  other 

. 

B 

'n 

gricultul'O! l  cooper!ltive  group  of  I!Ipproximately  10  familiee ,  "hich  perforllS 

ot 

. the  functi ons  normally  performed  by  the  neighborhood  IIssocietione . 

II

1DIIn,y 

Subdivision 

village,  similllr  to  a  bUrBku. 

Dr  II 

Buddhist  religious  festive l  hald  in  lilts 
sometimes  C411ed  the  "Feast  of  the  De� d "   or  the 
summer 

in  honor  of  departed  ancestors .  It  is 
'

eBtlv!l l" . 

tern 

F
Title  or  l'8epect,  in  genel'll l  used  rererent1elly  and  vocati
v
!IS  II 

ely  tor  snother  perBon ' a  
term  of  ftddreB s  t o   any 
reepectable  women  of  married  sge l  in  rurn l  ere�s  IIII!Irrled  women  are  usull lly  addressed 
wlfe 
"aunt"  (Ob..SBn) 

(not  one ' s   own) ,  in  urbsn  arell S ,  i t   is  wIdel,.  used 

the  term  okusalll!l  is  one  of  higb  respect. 

'L''lD

snd 

Portable  Shinto  shrine 

kotatsu 

ku 

ku'lll

l 

ma chi 

!lanju 

Ilemba 

min.huebugi 

mura 

nebey!! -taugi 

nog10ktd 

nokll  kokul!i!l1 

yogomi 
no
k

oa ze  

Oku8ams  (

o
ku

sa

n) 

omlki 

omikOBhi 

oyskata 

!III 

.045 

In  gel\erd , 
a leo ,  as  in  Nlka ldo ,  enf!l'ge  in  mutlll' l  aid  in  other  neld a ,  ouch 

group  ot  neigbbor$  engllgiDg  in  mutua l  I!gricultur- l  eid .  The  grOUP  �y 

ssistenco  in 

a 

in

noe  ot  shrines  li nd  templee . 

I!IS  II

t  a 

or  e10knesB  or  de� th  or 

avent 
Jllper.ese  "picture  playft  in  wbit.b  illustrated  CIIrdll  ere  shown  successively  on  a 
ture  stege  to  illustrate  a  narrative;  ueed  prllll8rlly  tor  childre n .  

'teM

JII!I

adnia­

Title  of  respect  meAning  "honor!lble  p!lrent" 

( oyeks tu-. ma )  

Title  of  respect  meaning  "honoreble  mastsr" 

Unit  or  dry  weight  e� lling  8 . 267  pounds 

reigi  BBho 

Etiquette 

J  I118nners . 

bito 

ksmish1b d 

244 

riapoban 

re>majl 

sake 

Wartise  tOni  ot  nelghborhood  group  whloh  had  loCI 1  lldainilltr-o tive  tunotio. 

'lpbebetio  writing  ot  Japanese  in  Roman  letters 

Light  rioe  wine 

Il1Utary  retainer  ot 

e 

budd  lord ,  II  wllrrior . 

Senzo-metsurl 

_ ncelltors '  Peativa l 

IIhlehl-md 

IIhuehln 

ten 

ta

mi 

te

tokonOlll8 

tonariguml 

tODo-same 

torU 

ujiko 

YOllhl 

zori 

lion' a  d!ince,  pertorDIed  during  ShInto  festi valli .  

The 

,  tormel  course  ot 
topioll  8B  etiquette,  Ellperor  worship
, 
trdnin g " .  

etudy, 

tormerly  given  in  the  elementery  IIchools,  conllillting  ot  lIuoh 
"-eral 

patriotillm,  lind  tiU!Il  piety.  Li

r
llllT

te

, 

Unit  o t  

II

re

ent  which  equllls  0 .245  lIare 
lll

IDB'I

U
Rush  met  used  for  flooring 

Recessed  portion  ot 
lire  placed  there. 

II 

rooll  used  tor  dec01"!ltion,  trequentlY  a  saroll  lind  Vlllle 

ot  flowers 

Neighborhood  IIIIsocbtionli l  during  the  WIIr ,   the,.  had  10Cll  IId11inist1"!ltive  tunotl0 

• •  

Feudd  lord;  II  term  ulled  tor  highly  emlted  pereoDllgell . 

Shinte  lIhk'ine  gate 

Shk'ine  su

ort  organisation 

pp

Name  given  to  a  villllge  which  hilS  a  larga  nwaber  ot  divorcell .  Lita1"!l 1l,.,  .... 1llIIga 
which  expels  daughters-in-law". 

'dopted  husbandll;  the  husMnd  is  legally  IIdopted  into  the  bride ' s  tll.ily  lind  takell  her 
tllmilT  naH . 

St1"!lW  slUldllll. 

QUESTIONNURE 

B 

Appendix 
ON  FUlMERS '  I.TTIT

UDBS 

Introduotion 

TOW�1)  RURI.L 

L

S 

PR<!l

DI

During  the  survs,.  ot  13  villagell  in  Nonllber  ",nd  December,  1948,  a  quelltionnaire  Willi  given  to  a 
not  intended  to  be  II  reprelellte tive 
The 

tal'lll  hOllssholdll  in  e.,ch  nllll ge .  

the  balldD 

... JIl­
oroel 

n 
ti
lIeleoted 

o

ot  rural 

cCllDluni'tiea  thk'OII gh.out  Ja

BlIl1ple  1III S 

n ,   but  oaly 

It  is ,  t

re tore,  a  Sllilple  ot 
pe

ot  the  he

dll  ot 

speo1ftUsed  group  !lnd  IIh
II  IIl11lple 

"

villAges . 

ba

!I 

tllnl 
d 

oul

be 

t 

o
s sotion 
of 
houeeholdll 
interpreted 

the  po
ot 
ot 

l! 
!IS 

pula
lIuch . 
the 

BOIIevsr,  with  respect  to  tenure  IltetUB,  the  Bllilple  percentegaD  correspond  clOlle1,y  to  those  tound  in 

the  totel  ru1"!l1  populatiOn! 

TENURE  ST'TUS  AS  OF 

1946 

SEPl'EMBER 

The  SlImple 

Hl  JIIPlln 

Number" ot 
He'!lds  ot 

Percent 
ot  All 

Nober  ot  Percsnt  ot 
seholds  Respondents  Households  All  Farmerll 

M 

599 

594 
93 
14 

46 .08 

2,4Zl ,495 

45.69 
7.15 
1 . 08  

2,446,433 
535,412 

44 . 88 

45 .23 
9.89 

ou

Categor,. 

H

Ten!lnts 
Owner-

cultivatorll 

Landlords 
UnknOlJn  JV 

#I 

are   tra.  "inistry  o t   �griaul­
ture  and  Foreatry  and  ara  basad  on 
Dllta 
nober  ot  regiatered  �oting  house­
holds  to.r  the  1946  lJIDd  collllll1111110n 
electiollB . 
note 
JV  Fourteen  respondents  r,iled  t� __ .�. 
lltetus  on  tbair  questl�"'-- ­
these  queBtio���i8 
were  omitted  in  thill 
1IJll'.l,l� 
tenure  status 

respODBes 

their 
The 

to 

breakd01lJlll· 

nairell 
in 
all 

TaUL 

1,300 

100.00 

5,409, 340 

100 .00  

In  egch  vl11age,  between  5  and  10  of  the  lIeleoted  heeds  ot  t"rm  households  were  unable  to  appes� 1111'11 
per­

re .   In  lIuch  instances,  another  membllr  01'  the  t�mi1,y  (us

llY 

ull

l! 

sonllll,.  to  tUl  out 
or  a  lion)  fillad  out  the  questionnaire . 

allt1onn

II  qI.I

d

r--

,-

tegory 

ca

-Tsnsnts 
OIIner-

oult1v�tors 

lAndlords 
Unknown 

T014L 

TENURE 

ST�TUS  AS  OF  NOVEMBER-DECEMBER  1949 

The  Sample 

Number  of 
Heqds  of 

Ul  
Number  ot 
eholds  Raspondents  Households 

l'eroent 
of  All 

H

u
ll

o

Ja

n 

pe
AI 
Percent  ot 

All  Farmers 

113 

1,121 
52 

14 
1,300 

8.69 

86 . 23 
4 .00  
1 . 08 

100 . 00 

JV 

RI 
EI 
Y 
5 , 909,227 

8 . 3  

83.8 
7 . 9  

100. 0  

V 
'li/,  Eetimetas  b,.  Minilltry  of  'grloulture  and  Forelltr,. 
d.<Ite 
JV. 
if  All  of  1947,  Souroe l 

-Monthly  Statistical  Bullatin", 

not  available 

Emct 

No  115,  'ugust  1948,  Minilltry  of  I.grioulture  snd  Forestry. 

BeCIIIWle  ot  ti

.!Ind  IItatt  limite­
lle 
tions ,  the  IIlze  of  the  sample  in  each 
v1llage  W!lS  limited  to  100  respondents . 
E�otl,.  100  he�ds  ot  tarm  houeeholds 
were  selected  in  Mloh  viU"ge,  regard­
lells  ot  the  tot.l  n�ber  of  ferm  house­
holds .  Theile  Indl�idUIIls  were  lIelected 
trom  the  l�nd  oommillsion  election  reg­
ietries  tor  1946  which  conte in  informa­
tion  on  !Ill  fllrmers  in  a 
the 
size  of  their  tamily,  the  size  of  their 
holdings J  th
e  amount  of  land  rented  to 
or  trOll  othere ,  and  the  l
tion  ot 
their  home .  They were  used  in  this 
stud,- liS  the  basil  tor  seleoting  the 
BIImple  partl,.  beC!luse  they  lire 
plete ,  acoU1"!l te,  and  accessible ,  but 
largely  beCllluse  they  con
in  infona­
tion  upon which 
Bllmpla 
tenure  status  prior  to  the  hod  refom 

village: 

upcn 

0011-

oca

ta

Il 

baaed 
ot  the  lI!lmple ; 

could  be  d1"!Iwn.  The  1946  entries  in  these  registries  were  aadll  ourrent  liS  of  the  date
. 
i 

., 
tember  1946  and  was  so  oonst
pIe, 
gr�m .  

death  and  other  personal  changes  not  related  to  laud  reforl1  were  taken  into  consideration.  The 
therefore ,  cont�ins  lJIndlords ,  tenants ,  and  owner-c�ltiv!ltors  in  proportion  to  their  numberll  in  Ssp
111111-
­
m  pro-

cted  in  order  to  retlaot  the  rettotion.s  ot 

group  to  ths 

each 

land 

for

ru

r

e

In  eech  vill.ge  the  100  respondents  were  seleoted  by  the  technique  ot  Bt1"!It1tled  � ndom  lIamp1\ng. 

That  ill ,  the,.  were  selected  � ndo
try  i n   proportion  to  the  nu
ber  o f   lIlndlords ,  tenants , 
ner-cultivatorll  in  each  bu1"!lku  as  of  1946.  ThiB  method  ot  sampling  m!l7  have  resulted  in  a  8ampling 
and 
m
error  1"!Inginf!  hetween  one  end  lIeven  percent  per  village,  depending  upon  the  proportion  ot  responses  in  aD7 
given  answer  category. 

from  the  regi
ll

ml,y 

ow

Sohool  te'!lchers  were  t1"!lined  in  e

ch  village  to  a

ter  the  quslltionnaire .  The  individuals  lIe­

lected  tor  the  lIampla  agme  to  the  IIchool  building  or  the villftge 
themselves . 
lIe
re
s
to  revMl  their  nllilell  and  wsre  urged  to  be  COIlplete1y  tl'!!l nk  lind  honest  in  their  responses . 

' IImaIl  proportion  of  respondents  in  each  village  lIample  were  interviewed  di

rchers  in  order  to  teet  the  gener91  vg lidit,.  and  me� nings  ot  the  responses .  Rellpondents  wsrs 

ottioe  gnd  tilled  out  the  questionnaire 

ctly  by  the  re­
ilked  not 

dm

B

a

ini
ll

For  purpoael!  ot  unitormit,.,  all  "no  response"  answers  have  been  exclud .. d  trom  the  percenta ge   agloulll-
, 
tionll,  unless  st�tad  otherwille.  Similarly,  1111  representetioDs  by  tenure  status  and  all  referenoes  to  ten
ure  IItatus  are  on  the  ba
IltetUl! ,  unlese  otherwise  llteted .  This  ha.  been  done 
­
tor  two  rellBonsl  firllt,  it  rellults  in  a  more  8ccur�te  gna1yaill  ot  the  opinions  and  re
ctionll  ot  the  tenure 
q
grouplI  lIost  affacted  b,.  the  lftnd  reform  prog1"!lm,  the 
ia 

-land  retol'lll  tell!lnts  and 'la ndlordll ,  and  lIacond,  it 

ll  of  pre-land  reform  tenur

representation  which  rllflects  the 

iteria  used  in  the  sallpls  design. 

pre

d

e 

II 

cr

Terms  Ul!ed  to  describe  tenure  atatUl! 

Dot  alwa,.11  co

espond  to  the  commonI,.  accepted  detinitions  ot 

the  wordll ,  but  ra ther  to  the 
person  eng!l f!lng  in  cultivstion  who  either 
auch  l
twice 
belong  in  either  of  the  previoua  ce tegories . 

I
he  O'IIna,  a  lIlndlord  ...  a  person  who  does  n
IIIch  land  aa  he  CUltivlltes ,  and  an  OIJner-cult1vator 
o

used  in  land  re
1lIIY 

detin

""011 

nd 

00ll 

t1

lIS 

Ill! 

a

811 

tenant  is ' described  all  a 
no  IIgI'icultu1"!ll  land  or  who  cllltlva tes  at  laellt  twice  all 

legilllation.  21  A. 

rr
torm 

t  cultivate  the  land  he  owns  or  who  owns  at  least 
a  peril on  who  oultivates ,  but  who  doell  not 

The  DUliber  ot  individualll  or  itellll  represented  b,.  each  100  perc lint  is  shown  under  each 

amounts  IIhown  in  the  bre8kdowns  do  not  alwa)'ll  add  up  to  the  to
the  breakdownll  were  Dot  applicable  and  tor  lIome  cs tegoriell  DO  data  were  available. 

te

l  ot  respondents  beO!luse  SOIl8  cste goriell  in 

category.  The 

The  fo11011ing  lIeven  sections  are  exoerpts  trOll  the  quelltionnaire . 

Section  1 

LaDd  Reform  PrornJl 

In  tha  early 

of 

However,  at 
d!I)'II 

tille  ot  the  pre
the  lftod 

retora,  oriti08  expreslled 

bt  concerning  the  reaotion  ot  JapeMlle 
ent  survey  .oet  tal'lller. ,  ellp8cial1y  the  tol'tler  tenants,  were  eat­

aOM 

ou

d

the 

prOg1"!llll .  �e-ba1t  ot  all  the  rellpondents ,  and  lIore  than  two-thirds  of  thoBe 

tarmarll . 
hUed  with  the  lend  ret
Who  had  been  tena nte  prior  to  tha  land  retorm  prog1"!lm, 
lIore  then  one-halt  ot  all  the  respondente  and  eXlllotl,y  two-thirds  of  the  tell!lnts  telt  tlMt  the  land  retOl'lll 
prOg1"!l.  had  been  beneticial  to  their  village .  'II  expected,  the  prOg1"!lll 
l"ndlords .  The  IIII!I jorlty  of  tball  reported  that  the  prog1"!lm  had  not  been  beneficial  to  their  ta.l
Only  37  percent  stated  thet  the  program  had  been  good  tor  their  villege . 

ed  that  their  1'allilie8  hed  been  benet1ted. 

unpopulsr  among  the  tO

r 
,  and 

report

rH

orm 

W8S 

1,y

ll

�gricultural  lAod  I.djuetment  lAw ,  Law  No 

tober  1946. 

6J 

42,  22  Oc

247 

QUESTION:  Do  you  think  the  land  reform  progrqm  1B  good  for  your  village? 

HI 
Respondents 

Tenants 

Cultivlltors  La ndlords 

Owner-

Number 

1 , 290 

597 

586 

A NSIIER 
I 

Yes 
No 
Both  good  lind  bad 
Don ' t  knOll 

% 

57 
5 
28 
10 

4 
66 %  
20 
10 

% 

50 
5 
35 
10 

93 

37 
16 
37 
10 

% 

QUESTION 
I 

Wae  the  land  reform  program  beneficiAl  to  your  f�milT? 

HI 
Respondents 

TeMnts 

Owner-
Cultivators 

Lq ndlorde 

NlDlber 

1 , 245 

583 

562 

ANSWERI 

Yes 
No 
Mada  n o   difference 
Don ' t   know 

% 

50 

29 
14 
7 

68  � 
4 
22 
6 

% 

38 
16 
39 
7 

86 

8 
61 

% 

'Zl 
4 

In  addition  to  the  gene� l  finding  that  the  land  reform  program  hed  been  benefiCiA l ,   it 

fOund  thAt 
39  percent  of  all  of  the  fqrmers  interviewed  end  47  percent  of  the  tena nts  felt  positively  that,  without  the 
land  reform, 

woree  then  they  are  lit  present. 

Wil l!  

conditione  would  hAve  been 
The  fArmers '  ev�lUAtion  of  the  l�nd 

they  have  themselves  derived  from  it ,  rAther  thA n  upon  more  theoretl CII l  ooos iderg tions .  For  eX!lmple ,  a 
ma j ority  of  those  f9rmers  who  felt  that  conditions  in  the  vill�ge  would  have 
reform  progrqm  thcught  thAt  the  program  hqd  been  beneficiql  to  their  fqmily,  wherells  less  thA n  one-fourth 
of  them  thought  thAt  the  prorrqm  hed  not  been  beneficial  to  their  family . 

worse  without  the  land 

reform  pro�m  seems  to  be  besed 

been 

lArge ly  upon  the  A ctUAl  benefita 

QUESTION: 

If  there  hlld  been  no  lllnd  reform  progrsm ,  how  do  you  think  living  cond�tione  i n   the  villqp,e 
would  heve  bee

? 

n

Tenure  Stnt'llB 
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Cwner-

A ll 

ors  Lq ndlorde 

Responde nts  Teng nts 

Number 

1 , 2Q2 

598 

ti 

CuI 

VII t

587 

A NSWER I 

Better 
Worse 
No  diffe re nt 
Don ' t   know 

% 

8 
39 
37 
16 

% 

8 
47 
30 
15 

% 

7 
34 
43 
16 

Attitude  Toward  Effect  of 
Lend  Reform  Program 
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
Not 

Hlll d  Not 
Benefited  Be nef ited  Affe cted 
Family 
Fllmily 

lIsd 

JJ.qd 

FAmily 

93 

12 
21 
51 
16 

% 

622 

168 

363 

57 
9  % 
23 
11 

9 
24 

% 

11 
56 

% 

4 
23 
57 
16 

The  correl.tiona  be tween  pre -lqnd  reform  tenqnoy  sta tus  end  post-lAnd  reform  IIttitudes  deserve  special 

initiated,  expressed  the  gree tee t  ·enthusiasm . 

emphasis .  Tenants ,  for  whose  betterment  the  progr�m 
OnlT  eight  percent  of  them  thought  thg t  conditions  in  the  villi ge  w ould  have  been  better  hRd  there  beeD  nO 
la nd  reform ,  wherees  47  percent  thought  they  would  have  beon  .or
ha::"'8 
been  different .  L� ndlords ,  on  the  other  ha nd ,   were  more  critics l .   That  numbers  o f   them  are  able  to  Os  ob­
t 
j ective  concerning  gener" l  villllge  conditions  is  attested  by  the  fllct  tbll t  a  large  IM j ority  of 
that  the  hnd  reform  progMm  had  been  either  good  or  both  good  and  bad  for  the  villJlge ,   whereRS  ollly  16 
l
f
percent  of  them  thought  that  it  hlld  definitely  been  bq d .   However,  .only  eight  percent  o f   the 
e
lRndlords 
thA t  the  progr..m  h'ld  been  beneficid  to  their  own  f"mlly,  and 
nitely  thAt  it  ha d  not .  The  dis tincti on  thR t   landlords  seem  to  make  between  �(rood  for  the  vllhge "  lind 
"good  for  my  f�milT"  is  demons trq ted  by  severd  fa cts .  OnlY  a  s llghtlT  bl(!her  percentage 
of  l.qndlords 
of  other  groups  thought  tbat  living  cond iti ons  in  the  vill�ge  would  have  been  better  hed  there  been  no 
reform,  a nd  21  percent  of  the  landlords  expressed  the  belief  tha t  conditions  would  have  been  worse . 

l
t 
maj ority  of  tbem,  61  percent,  thoupht  dofi­
t"" n 

30  percent  tha t  they  would  not 

th.em 

lftnd 

"'IS 

and 

e ,  

fe

s

8 

The  la nd  reform  progr"m  did  not  seek  to  de stroy  tenanoy  completely,  but  rather  to  reduce  i �  to 

tota lly  e limin'lted,  resident  la ndlords 
ni
8  m
mum  and  to  ellminete  its  evils .  Uthougb  absentee  lA ndlordiBm 
certAin  amount  of  lqnd  for  teO/l n t   cultivation  under  oond itions  llpeoifled  bY 
were  permitted  to  retq i
600, 000  oho,  or  epproxi­
In  April  1949,  the  tot� l  Bre.  thu
ret� ined  lind  cultiv" ted  by  teO/lnte 
mately  10  perce nt  of  the  tot� l'lIrqble  19 nd  in  Japg n .   Cr.1 t i ee  of  the.  land  re form  progl'llm  hiI'v e   contended 
that  the se  retention  provisions  are  inimicsl  to  the  st'lted 
t o  the  lAndlords  to  ma intdn  their  treditionsl  control  in  tho  .l"Ill'!I l  community.  Supporters  of 
replied  thA t  the  mer!;in  of  permissible  tena ncy  which  these  provisions  ellow  is  Bound  for  f"rm 
reasons ,  B S   it  perm its  that  mB8 sure  of  flexibility  required  to  adjuat  tenure  con\!ltions  to  the  chA nging 
II18nageJUBn 

8Te  8n  Invlte ti 
1;he  lnw  hII;1I 

legislAtion  And 

purpose  of  the 

WAS  Rbo� 

n  II 

WaB 

s 

lRw . 

on 

i

­

and  eoonOllio  requirements  ot  individual  tal'll  operators .  In  tho  present  survey,  all  respondents  were 

hOll  the1  telt  about  this  much  dhoussed  pOint.  Thirty-tour  percent  ot  tholll  thought  thllt  this  reten­
peroent  eta ted  tbst  thel  did  not 
thom 

,cOal 
tion  should  be  permitted ,  50  percent  thought  that  it  should  not,  and 
,,�ed 
tnOlf • 
, • ..,ored 

might  be  expeoted ,  tenants  were  the  moat  oritical  ot  the  proviSion,  !Ilthougl:l  20  percent 

it  stande . 

the  law 

16 

ot 

'e 

lIB 

the  ra ntere  .ho  reported  that  the 

reform  program  had  been  benetioial  to  their  t�m117  (a 

or 

jori 

of  whom  were  tenants  prior 

the  land  reform) ,  nMrlT  t.o-thirds  thought  that  lA ndlorde  should  not 
ellOlled  to  retain  the  exoeee  land,  while  of  those  who  reported  that  the  progrqm  hed  not  been  beneficial 
t,y 
be 
' 
oe8 rl.1 

th0ll8ht  tha t  landlorde  ehould  be  allowed  to  retain  the  la nd .  

to 

118-

land 

two-thirde 

:JI 

qUlSTION.  It 

been  argued  that  a  landOllll8r  should  not  be  allowed  to  retain  u.r  land  other  than  that 

whioh  he  a ctusl17  oultivates  himself.  HOII  do  10u  teel  about  this? 

bn 

Tenure 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

statu. 

- -

Attitude  Toward  Effeot 
lAnd  Retorm  Program 

of 

- - - - - - - - - - - - -
Had 
HAd  Not  HAd  Not 

-

RespOndents  �  Cultiva tors  Landlorde 

All 

Owner-

Benetitsd  Benetited  Affected 
Famill 

Famill 

Family 

lNSlIIlb 

Naber 

He  should 

should  not 

Be 
Don ' t   knOll 

93 

70 

2l 9 

� 

Uthough  the  gell8ral  level  o�  IIIItistsotion  with  the  la nd  retorm  prognm  eeemed  to  be  high,  1118Q1  spe­
oifio  ocaplainte  ooncerning  iDlldequaoies  of  the  prograll,  10081  oonditions ,  and  unfa1roeeB  were  voiced  by 
farmers .  Twenty-four  peroent  ot  the  f,,1'IISTS  interviewed  ottered  speoifio  observations .  The  most  fre ­
quent17  mentioned  points  of  dilllletistll ction  were  the  tollOllingl  Landlords  should  not  have  been  permitted 
to  retain  so  muoh  land  oultivated  by  othore )  land  purOhaee  was  unduly  complex)  and  torest,  megdOll ,  and  un­
reolaimed  land  should  have  been  inoluded  in  the  progn.m.  MBny  of  the  pointe  relate  to  lood  conditioDl!  or 
individual  08ses ,  tor  example ,  claillll  ot  unfa ir  treatment  by  the  lAnd  cOllmill9ion.  others ,   hOllever,  such  as 
the  suggestion  that  other  la nds  be  included  within  the  Clltegories  of  lAnd  subjeot  to  retom,  touch  on 
brO!lder  problems .  The  relea se  of  forest  land,  for  elDlmple ,  is  oonsidered  by  some  t .. rmers  to  be  a  prese1ng 
problem  in  mounta inous  area s .  

Section  2 

La ndlord-TeDll nt  Relations 

Betore  the  land  retorm  prognm  WIiS  put  into  effeot,  the  Jspanese  tell!lnt  termer 

subetantis1l7  a t  

the  aer01  ot  hi s   landlord .  Contra ctusl  arrangements  were  ra re17  t01'lll
doubt,  the  la ndlord ' s   interpretations  generAlly  prevaile d .  
Under  traditiona l  teDll ney,  the  la n d  rental 
commonly  paid' in  kind,  rather  then  i n   cuh.  This  arra nge­
ment  w�s  frequently  a  burden  upon  tenants ,  for  the  rent  was  usually  a  stipulAted  amount  ot  grain,  set  by 
the  landlords  and  determined  before  the  harvest  on  the  baeie  ot  yields  harvested  during  good  seasons . 
tha  event  of  a  bed  hIIrveet,  a  tellSnt  had  to  turn  over 
lind  bu,y  food  to  eat  at  tho  high  prices  common  during 

maj ority  of  hiB  tota l  crop  to  his  landlord  as  rent 

Ij ority  of  those  IITrangements  were  ora l .  

bed  hArvest  yellr .  

In 

W!lS 

A 

IIII

II 

W88 
l 1  and  expliCit,  a nd  i n   oases  ot 

II 

The  provisions  o f   land  retorm  legislation  stipulated 

in  these  conditions. 

order  t o   provide 

tenants  with  eeourity  of  tenure  and  proteotion  from  dishonest  landlords,  the  legislation  provided  that  all 
tenant-landlord  agreements  be  written,  and  that  all  written  contraots  be  registered  at  the  village  oftlce. 
rent,  the  terlll8  ot  �eDt, 
tbe  IegieIAti
.
the  period 
of 
certain  e:rpBJ:IIIOS  1nCUlTed 
ilImovable  1JIproveaents  wauld  be  granted  tenants 

OD  a l.llo  stipulated  that  oontraots  would  specify  the  aaount  ot 
tenure,  tho  conditions  which  wauld  warrant  rent  reduot1.ona,  8J1d  tbe  provisions  under  whioh 
the  landlord.  and  under  which  remuneration  tor 

the  tenant  would  be  ehared 

caee  of  lease  tera1nstion. 

�arm 

by 

by 

ohanges 

In 

ill 

,t  the  time  the  survey 

WIIB 

made ,  the  Ministry  ot  A{!l'ioulture  aDd  Forestry ' e   progrem  for  promoting  ten­

anoy  agreements  hed  been  in  effeot  only  six  months .  Nevertheless ,   eight  percent  of  all  termers  renting 
written  tenanoy  contra ot  tor  all  of  the  lA nd ,   and  22  percent  re ­
land  from  others  reported  thl!lt  they  had 
ported  tha t   they  ha d  a  cont1'!l 0t  for  part  o f   their  lAnd,  whereal!  7 0  perce�t  reported  tbl t   they  hed  n o  writ­
ten  contract  tor  the  land  they  rented  from  others.  The 
proportions  were  found  among  persons  renting 
land  to  othere . 

same 

II 

1I 

This  issue  seems  to  be  a  oriti�l  one  in  the  lives  of  the  fermers .  When  respondents  were  asked  di­
rectly  whl!lt  pointll  of  dissatistA otion  they  bad  with  the  law , 
most  frequently  mentioned  specifio 
complll1nt  was  thet  lAndlords  should  not  have  been  permitted  to  reta in  so  muoh  land  cultiV!ltsd  by  others. 

the 

QUESTION:  Do  you  bave 

� 

written  cont� ct 

00 

le

�

sed  l�nd? 

Respondents  Renting 

Others 

trom. 

Respondeots  Renting 
to  others 

Number 

H1 Psrt 
None 

574 

8  � 

22 
70 

290 

8 
22 
70 

� 

,  ujority  of 

ne ces88ry,  Bnd  !In  even 
mBj ority  felt  tben  if  tell!lncy  con�cte  were  concluded ,   the  oonditione  of  the  contr9 ct  should  be  wri
dett!lll. 

tenure  groupa  felt  th!!t  B  writteo  tell!lncy  contl"1'l ct 

!Ill 

is 

larger 
tt

en  In 

QUB3TIONI  Do  you  think  it  necessary  to  eX'" 
change  written  tenaot  contraota 
wbeo  you  le�se  or  let  laad? 

QUESTION I  Do  you  think  it  necessary 

to  write 
in  det�il  in  a  tenancy  cont�ct? 

all  the  cOllditions 

l 

H
Respocdenta 

1 , 283 

$4 �  

Number 

.. NSlfElh 

Yes 
Depend s   upon  the 

aDd  the  circuasten088 

uo 

No 
1)oos n ' t   mt!Itter 
Don ' t   know 

33 
4 
5 
4 

HI 
Re spondents 

Number 

1 , 287 

4te1fE1i: 

Yes 
No 
Dooan' t  metter 
Don ' t   know 

:c 

76 
10 
10 
4 

Sixty-two  percent  of  sll  respondents  preferred  PS1lDent  of  rent  in  c�eh  rsther  tb!ln  in  kind . 

be  6xpeoted,  ten8nts  and  lan,dlorda  differed  1I'1delJ'  in  their  preferences ,  
au  port 
BsPdld  51  perceot  of  the  owner-oultivJ!l tora ,  wheraas  63  peroent  of  tbe  landlord a  f8vored  payment  in  kind . 

tenant  point  of  view .  Seventy-seven  percent  ot  the  tenants  preferred  psyment  of  rent  In  Ol'Isb, 

owner-oult1VJ!ltors  teoded  to 

..s  might 

the 

end 

Preferencee  dlt

ed  widely  !lccording  to  the  extent  �o  which  the  �espondent8  thougJlt  that  the  land 
large  uJority  of  those  f8rmers  wbo  thought  tb3t 
r
retorm  rOgTl!l m  h8d  been  beneficial  to  their  fllmily. 
..  plura lity  of 
their  t�mu.y  IvId  been  benefited  by  the  pro� m  &lao  favored  the  payment  of  rent  in  ouh. 
the  res�lI<Ienta  .ho  felt  tbttt  the  progt"lm  bed  not  been  beneficld  to  their  t!lmilJ'  t'lvored  the  �yment  ot 

t  in  ldnd  while  nllArly  four  ollt  ot  very  ti ve  wbo  thought  th.!lt  lJInd  retorm  hAd  been  beneJ.'1c1al  to  their 

e
!

.. 

expeoted ,  as  the  I118jorlty  ot  those  who  benefited  1I8re 

�:lly 

a nts . 

�
fsvor

payment  in  c9sh. Thia  migbt 
. 

d 

be 

te.n-

QUBSTIONI  Without  l'()gBrd  to  whether  pricee  a

e  high  or  low ,  which  do  you  think  ie  betterl  PS1llent  ot  rent 
r
in  Ct!Ish   or  psyment  of  rent  in  kill<l? 

Attitude  Toward  Effect  of 

411 

Tenure 

Statu 

OIIner-

Respondents  Tenants  Culti�etore  L8ndlordB 

Program 

lAnd  Reto
- - - -&a

rm 
- -�d
�t­
-
�t
N
Benefited  Benefited  Affected 
Famil1 
Family 
FSMily 

- -&

d-N

Nullber 

1, 294 

598 

592 

4NSWElh 

Payment  in  Idnd 
Payment  in  Ct!Ish 
No  ditference 
Don 
t  know 
I 

18 
62 

� 

14 6 

� 

6 

7'7 11 
6 

24 �  
51 
18 
7 

90 

63 
20 
1 5  
2 

� 

622 

167 

7 �  

79 
10 
4 

49 
29 

� 

18 4 

365 

24 � 
52 
18 

6 
t.hout 

1  t 
There  bae  beeo  s  good  ded  ot  disOUllaion  about  the  rlght  of  ten8 nte  to  sub  e 
consent  of  the  landlord .  Mcet  of  the  fllrmers  felt  th!lt  this  1s  wrong,  a lthough  there 
age  of  objectlone 
trom 
QUESTIONs  Do  you  think  it  i8  all  right  for  a  tenant  to  sublet  leased  land  with

lI!Indlords  than 

tenants . 

troc 

ou

t  the 

r 
thei 

llInd 

wi 
higher 

ne  8 

the 
percent· 

landlord ' s   consent? 

�ll 
Respondents 

Number 

1 ,296 

'NStmRl 

Yes 
No 
Don ' t   know 

10  � 
82 
8 

OIIner-
Cultivators 

L8ndlord8 

� 
599 

14 %  
78 
8 

591 

8 :C  

85 
7 

92 

2 
94 
4 

% 

250 

LAnd  reform  legislstio.n  provided  for  the  eleotion  of  a  local 

Seotion  3 

Local 

nd  Comlall1011S 

L8

fillage  in  JaPl!ln  to  adlliniater  the  prO�III . 

the  executive  org811S  of  the  land  ret01'll  prOgrA",  the  100&1 
and 

laDi 

collllll1so1on  In  every  City,  tmm. 

commi ssions  dr'!ltted  tbe  purobttae  plan  for  eJ!lch  village,  deters.t

..a 

d  the  IIIlitabl11tr  ot  lsll<ls  to  be 

}.aDd 
base d ,  estebl1ahed  pricee  .ithin  lel!'ll  lim I ts ,   verified  the  ellgiblllty  ot  purchasere ,  decided  casee  re­
quiring  \1DllslII! l 
o
0011-
lIIiaaion  is  oOllpoeed  of  five  tenants ,  three  landownera,  snd  two  owner-oulthators ,  wbo  were  originally  eleo­
durlng  Decelllber  ot  1944 .   In  onl,y  52  percent  or  the 
Cgees, 

two-yeq r   tenD .  Elsctions  were 
elioog  the  10,m   100!l1  oommlss1oos,  w�e  it  neoes8111'1  to 

s�ol&1  tre'ltNnt,  snd  etteoted  the  aotU!l�  puroMae  and  reode  of  la nd .  

eleotione,  beCt!l\llle ,  in  the  othe

to  serve  for 

100111 

beld 

!Itch 

pur­

or 

!I 

oe

number  ot  C8l1<1ld!ltes  equalled  the  number  of  pO!l1iions  to  be  filled .  

hold 

Tbe  liets  ot  the  deotora  were 

r 

ted 
Moeo , 

to  public  inepection .  Persons  el1gible  to  vote  in  the  eleotione  were  those  who  were  at  lellst  20  :re_sra 

tba 
OpeD 
of  age  and  members  ot  households  oulti�t1ng  one  ten  or  lIore  ot  land  in  Jspan  Proper  snd  three  tan  in 
)(aido.  It  is  a saumed  in  thill  ana lysia  thllt 
eleotiollS  s ctua lly  JDeant  tbtt t  they  partioipsted  in  the  selection  ot 

of  the  rallpondenta  who  llaid  tb'lt  they  bad  voted  in  the 

nca1nee . 

-n,r 

Hole­

burs

bI 

II 

ku 

� 

..  large  I118j orit,y  ot  the  rellpondents  etAted  that  the:r  bed  voted  in  the  land  comm.illaion  eleotiollS . 

Jfeer17  two-thirde  ot  them  thollgbt  th8t  their  looal  ocamissioo  members  were  the  beet 

le  tor  the  job, 

one-titth  thought  tbe t  elthollgb  the  members  were  good ,  there  were  others  who  were  just  as 

psop

tho� 
hi.gher  parcentAgII  ot  tenants  than  landlords  ezprealled  confidence  in  the  land  oOGlllllasiona. 

good . 

al­
A 

QUBSTIONI  Did  you  vote  in 

the  la n d   oommi
s-
Ilion  alectiona ? 

4ll 
Re spondents 

Number 

1,268 

QUESTION:  Do  you  think  the  membara  of  the  land  ccamissiona  in  

your  village  are  the  beat  persona  tor  the  j ob7 

All 
Respon-
dents 

Te

ts 

nan

NUlllbar 

1,298 

598 

er
t

-

Own
Cu
l

!- land-
vatore  � 
593 

93 

lNSWBRI 

Yell 
No 

80  % 
20 

ANSWERI 

e

t 
B
s
Good, 
but  there 
ara  other  good 
men 

Not  the  beat 
Don ' t   know 

61 

% 

22 
6 

64 �  

59 

%  46 %  

19 
6 

24 
6 

35 
3 

One  of  the  most  lmportsnt 

the  land  commlesion  w/.le  to  determine  which  individ

duties  of 

It!Ige  were  eligible  to  bu,y  land  that  h.!Id  baen  bought  trOll!  ownere  by  the  government.  Lall.d 
stipulates  certain  crite
to  egriolllture"  s nd  who  Md  demonstrated  re'lsonable  proficienoy  in  tllrming  were  el1gibl.e  to  puroh8as 
land , 
with  priorit,.  being  g1ven  to  those  persona  who  on  23  Novellber  1945  were  tenants 
the  land  ther  wished  to 
bl11'.  lIowever,  within  the  lW�  or  these  oriteria , 
en­
tire  village  and  the  polloy  to  be  appUed  to  individuals ,  hBd  to  be  Ill.IIde ,  snd  i n   most  Ct!Isea  it  was  the  10-
oal  l!Ind  oommiaaion  that  made  them .  

OIlS  who  w8re  "11ke17  to  devote  themllelves 

a  ot  eligibilitY"'  In  genera l ,   all 

ooneerning  both  the  policy  for 

ua
rat01'll 

deoia1ons

1118111 

pars 

the 

ri

00 

, 

II 

11 

16 

11 
ls  in  the  't'1l­
lagislation 

4  I18j orit,y  ot  the  reapondents  thollgbt  that  the  method  used  to  detel'1l1ne  individlll!l  eU

been  a ppropriate .  

higher 

er-

t1

tor

grOIlP  least  afteoted  a nd  IDOBt  likelJ' 

en  obj ective  point  ot  view--than 
reform  'program  had 

percent!lge  of  own
e

ot

A. 

cul
r  grOU9li 

bew 
land 
been  benefioial 
them  thOllgbt  thII t  the  meth.od  had  been  iDl!l ppropriate ,   wber88s 
fol'1ll  had  not  been  benefioial  to  their  t
large  percentage  of  the  people  who  felt  th.!lt  tbeir  tJ!lllllly  hIId  been  benetited  b1  the  lII nd  retorm,  8nd  who 
elso  thought  tIMt  the  method  or  determining  individual  el1giblllty  wile  eppropriate ,   probebly  refleots 
the 
tllCt  that  the  ma jority  of  those  benefited  were  tenants ,  who  were  for  the  moat  part  eutomatically  elig1ble . 
The  fa ot  tha t  obe-hIIil  ot  the  landlorda  { a nd  D!lsrly  one-hII ll  of  all  farmers  who  felt  that  land 
bed 

percent  of  tholle  who  telt  that  the  lead  re­
dly  dis8pproved  of  the  ID8thod  used  �o  determine  eligibility.  The 

to  their  family  were  also  the 

nine  pe

most 

ot 

26 

'la

et

h

�
expreSlled  tMII  feeling. 

e--tbe 

reo
satisfied ;  onJ;r 

Pe

n

to 
the 
rcent  ot 

it

b
g1
ll  who  felt  that 

U

y 

bi d  

r

Drll 

� 

In  the  IIIlIj ority  of  those  villages  in  which  oClZllll1aeions  wera  seatsd  by  proolamation,  nominees 
in  eMb  ot  the  bl11'!lku  of  the  village.  I n   a ccor4llnce  with  Japanese 
.are 
leoted  by  dBJllool"ltio 
law, 
whenever  the  nllllloor  of  nominees  eqlll! lled  the  nUlllber  ot  positiollS  opsn,  no  eleotiollll  we.re  held,  and 
. 
l118yor  eimpl,y  se�ted  the  oall<lidJ!ltes  b:r  proolaution. 

Jll8t;1D9 

ae­

the 

haeis  of  the  results  of  tield  investigations  oonduoted 

6-15  Jall1l8ry  1947 ,  Occupation  su­

�  On  the 

thorities  believe  thllt  from  75-80  percent  of  the  land  oommiaGions  were  socepted  as  lIatlstaotory  b,. 
their  conet1tllBnts,  a nd  that  in  the  I118 j ority  of  cases  ib  wblch  no  electiona  bad  been  held  the  seleo­
tion  of  c�lI<Iid8tee  had  been  a ooQIDpliebed  aocording  to  democra tio  procedures .   However, 

!roc 

bee

discovered  in  whioh  there  wss  evldence  of  voting  oontrolled  b1  vested  communlty 1nterssts. 

D 

have 
The  Ministry  ot  Agrioulture  snd  Forestry  took  immediats  steps  to  in1'orm  tsrmers  ot  their  rightll  under 
the  law  to  recall  cOllllll1seioll9rs  who  did  not  re
se nt 
held  in 

Aa  a  OOll8equ.ence ,  recall  eleotions  .ere 

v1llige s .  

the.. 

pre

a 

f 
..  instelloss 

l1li111 

251 

pe

�� ugh 

t  been  benefioia1  to  their  tllmil,y)  elso  thought  the  method  1I'aa  appropriate  suggests  that  l.o! ndlords 
..  h1.�bql'� 
obje cting  t o   the  entire  progrAm,  c a n  be  eOl'lle"hat  objeotive  about  the  program ' lI   methodll .
;oantage  of  the  he�dB  of 
Im'bor ,   approftd  then  did  those  "ho  ol\ltivated  l.o!sa  I!e 
de  cultlv'Jted  from  1 . 51  to  five  t!ln  per  tamil,y  IIII
:r f�mlly member. 
000  tan  � 
land  per  family  member  replied  tMt  they  did  not  knO'll  wbether  or  not  the  method  of  determining  elig1bU1t; 
"a ll  a pproprlllte . 

II I  
households  (exolusive  of  thoea  1n  Kbetsu)  who,  at  the  time  tb-e  BUrvey  " 

d1eproportionatel,y  high  peroentage  of  the  people  who  oultivated  1eaa  than 

{"rm 

� 

QUKSTIONI  Do  you  think  that  the  method  of  determining  who  wa s  ellgib1e  to  purohase  bnd  in  the  VillA

,,�s  a ppropriate? 

ge 

TelJUl'B  Status 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ow09r-
ResEondente  Tellllntll  Cultivators  la ndlords 

HI 

Had 

- - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
Had  Not  Had  Not 
Benefited  Benefited  Affected 
FamIly 
FamIly 

FamIl,y 

Attitude 

Effeot  ot 

Toward 

Reform  Program 

land 

Number 

1 , 281 

594 

581 

UlSWERI 

Yes 
No 
Don ' t   kn01l' 

60 
13 
27 

� 

53  • 
18 
29 

61 
13 

% 

26 

9.3 

50 
12 
38 

� 

617 

166 

357 

75 
9 
16 

� 

48 
26 
26 

� 

52 
13 
35 

� 

'mount  of  LIlnd  Cultivqted  per  F�mily  Member  at  Time  of  Survey 

0-1  Tan 

1 . 1-1 . 5   Tan 

Number 

411 

Yss 
No 
Don 't 

know 

51 

37 
12 

� 

Exclusive  of  Ebetsu,  Hokkaido. 

311 

59 
16 
25 

� 

1 .  51-5 . 0  Tan 

� 

449 

66 %  
13 
21 

� 

A  maj ority  of  the  respondents  stil ted  without  qua lifiCll tion  that  they  thoueht  t�t  those  villagers  who 
had  bought  lAnd  during  the  progrqm  were  MtisHed  with  the  M ndling  of  the ir  cues  by  the  land  oommission, 
one-third  thought  that  s oms  might  not  be  s�tisried,  and  only  three  percent  stated  definitely  that  they 
thought  the  purchasers  "ere  not  satisfied .  ..  higher  percentage  of  tenants ,  most  of  whom  bought  land  them­
selves  and  thus  might  be  in  a  better  position  to  spe�k  for  all  those  who  bought  land,  gRve  an  unqualified 
anBlJer  expressing  M t1efq ction  th!ln  did  other  groups .  Those  fumers  who  indicatsd  satisfAction  with  the 
benefits  of  the  land  reform  program  to  their  family 
dling  of  the  C'Jses  of  others  by  the  land  commillslon. 

expressed  the  greateet  satisfaction  with  the 

also 

han­

QUESTION 
I 

Do  you  think  that  those  who  bought  �nd  under  the  prOVi sions  of  the  land  reform  law  are  satis-
fied  with  the  handling  of  their  � se  by  the  land  commission  or  not? 

Attitude 

Effeot  of 

Toward 
land  Reform  Program 

TelJUl'e  Statue 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Owner-

HSd 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ha d   Not  Had  Not 
Be ne fitsd  Benefited  Affeoted 
Fnmily 
Fa mily 

Respondents  Tenants  CultiVA tors  landlords  Family 

HI 

Number 

1 , 294 

583 

585 

93 

622 

167 

365 

ANSilBRI 

Satisfied 
Some  are  satisfiedl 

some  are  not 

Diss'.Itisfied 
Don't  kn01l' 

� 

53 

3.3 
3 
11 

60  :& 

29 

9 
2 

� 

48 

36 
4 
12 

41 %  

66 %  

45  % 

41 
2 
16 

3 
-:n 
4 

42 
4 
9 

� 

45 

38 
3 

14 

Similar  peroentages  of  f'.lrmers  expressed  personal  satis.fAction  with  the  WAY  tho  land  oommission  bI�; 
dIed  their  own  case .  Amoll8  landlords ,  thoBe  who  sdd  they  were  personsll,y  eatisfied  were  te"sr  in  au;  of 
than  those  who  though� that  people  in  general  who  had  boueht 
this  group  bought  land ,  and 

ot  them  were  toroed  to  s811  it . 

were  lI!l.tlsfied--not 

lIurprieing,  lUI 

land 

elf 

IIIIn.Y 

QUESTIONI 

(For  farmers  who  bought  or  sold  ll!lnd  under  the  proviaionB  of  the  land  reform  law)  Were  ,.ou 
personallY  satisfied  with  the  wa,.  the  la nd  commiSBion  handll!ld  ,.our  08se? 

Number 

ANSIIBRI 

Satisfied 

252 

All 
Respondentll 

1 , 150 

52  :& 

Tenantll 

Cultivators  Landlords 

Owner­

568 

61 . 

78 

.30 

� 

All 
ResEondents 

o.oer-
Cultivators 

Landlordll 

Neither  sl!ltisfied 

nor  disllatiefied 

Dillll!lt1st1ed 
Don ' t   know 

30  :& 
13 
5 

� 

10 
26 �  
.3 

13 
36 %  
5 

40  % 

4 
26 

retOnD  legislation  provides  that  the  l>r1oe  of  land  shell  henceforth  be  determined  by 

Lu:id 

oCOllDiss1oOB,  II Oting  in  a coordlJnc!I 
with 
tba  concerned  partie s .   This  lI'es  one  of 
progr�mll  in  Japan,  beo!lUlle  without  prico  controls , 
Furthermore ,  th e   present 
laud 
purchased 
th e   government, 
reotly  to  tho  governmsnt  on  terms  s1milar  to 

fr am  

land  

ths 

e 

prinCiples  establillhed  by  law,  rather  than  by  negotietionB  betllsen 

the  land 

iesueB  whiob  had  Oaus!ld  the  f"llure  of  a ll  previous  Illnd  refom 
la nd .  

maj ority  of  the  tena.nte  We1'9  UMble  to 

refol'll  lag1eletion  stipulated  that ,  1 n   order  to  prevent  speculation  1I'1th  la nd  

purobeS8 

could  not  be  resold  privatel,y,  but  that  all   resales  would  be  made  di­

cberaoterizing  the  original  sale  contra ot. 

thOS8 

A  maJ orU,.  of 

farm"rs ,  and  a  mej orit,.  of 

tenure  groupe  exoept  landlords ,  f'.lvored  the  prinoiple 

all 
of  price  oontrols  administered  by  the  local  land  oomm�llllSions .  However,  ooe-fifth  of  all  farmers  and  one­
fourth  of  the  bndlords  Bod  owner-cultivlltorll  thought  that  the  detel'lllination  of  prioe  IIhould  be  made  ac­
cording  to  the  oircumlltances .  Ne'lrl,.  One -third  of  the  landlords  f!lvored  oegotilltion. 

all 

QUESTION I  1Ihich  do  you  think  is  better,  to  have  the  price  of  land  fixed  by  the  land  oommission  or  to  havs 

the  price  fixed 

by 

negot1!ltion  betlleen  the  partiss  oonoarned? 

Nsber 

ANSWElh  Land  COmm1111110n 
Depends  upon  the 
CiroUIDlltqncell 

Negot1!lt10n 
Doesn ' t   matter 
Don ' t   know 

All 
Respondents 

1,297 

� 

61 

20 
11 
6 
2 

Tenants 

Owner-
Cultivators 

landlordll 

598 

74 

15 
4 
4 
3 

� 

592 

% 

52 

25 

14 
2 
7 

% 

93 

32 

30 
24 

11 
3 

Several  provillions  of  land  reform  legislation  protected  the  tenant 

guaranteeing  him  seourity  of 

tenure .  This  fqctor  had  been  the  CgUlle  of  nearl,y  one-half  of  pre1l'llr  tenl!lnt-landlord  disputes ,  and  the  laok 
of  lIeourit,.  of  tanure  bad  bean  one  of  the  greatest  evila  ot  the  tenanoy  lIystem .  KaDJ'  tenl!lnt  eviot.ions  were 
ceulled  b,.  the  tdlure  of  tenants  to  pay  the  rent  that  they  had  IIgreed  to  pay  in  their  oontraots.  Hmrever, 
provision  ot  land  retorm  legislation,  !Ill  disputes  arising  out  of  aDJ'  del!!!y  in  P1!17lII8nt  of  rent  by 
under 
the  tenant  for  good  CIIuse  must  be  lIettled  by  the  l!lnd  oommiBsion,  rather  than  by  consultation  between  the 
concerned  parties .  

a 

b,y 

�  plurali�  o t   !!Ill  the  respondents  f!lvored  th e   settlement  o t   such  questions  by  the  land  oommission 
only  in  1I000e  Cgses ,  a  plura lit,.  of  the  tenants  tavored  settlament  by  the  la nd  commission  1n  a ll  CIIses,  snd  
less  thlln  10  pero.;,nt  o f   tha  tenants  preferred  oonsultation.  I n   general ,   tellll ntll  r"vored  sattlement  by 
land  commission  and  landlords  settlement  by  COnBult!!ltion,  'IIIith  owner-cultivators  ocoupying  a  midway  posi­
tion. 

the 

QUESTIONI  In  the  event  of  delay  in  Pl!lYllent  of  rent  by  the  tenant  for  good  C'JUlle ,   do  you  think  the  question 

should  be  settled  by  the  land  commission,  or  do  you  think  it  should  be  settled  by  consultation 
betlleen  landlord  snd  tenant  only? 

HI 
Respondenta 

TeMnte 

Owner-
Cultiv!ltore 

LII ndlords 

Number 

ANSWERI  L'lnd  commill8ion 

1 , 292 

595 

.38  � 

46  :& 

In  some  circumsta ncea 

b,.  the  land  commission 
Consultat10n  batween  the 

ooncerned  pArties 

Doelln ' t  I118tter 
Don 't  kn01l' 

40 

6 
14 
2 

39 

8 
5 
2 

Section  4 

590 

34 % 

40 

16 
8 
2 

93 

22  % 

39 

32 
6 
1 

VillaS!  A!!:ioulture 1  Coo�rat1Vge 

determine  the  extent  to  which  fl!lrmerll  have  direct  conta ot  with 

In  order 

to 

"ere  asked  if  they  vill1ted  their  coopentive  often. 

'bout  tIIo-thirds  reported  that  they  did ,  !lnd  only 

cooperative ,  respondents 

I!I 

253 

d  that  they  never  vie1t  the  oooperatiwII .  Poet-land  refora  landlords  reported 

three  per_at  s
requent  regular  villi ts  to  the  ooopentive .  Pre-land  refoJ"lll  te
retona  OIrll8r-oultivators ,  reported  the  llloet  frequent  regular 
t
f!l'0upe ,  in  contl'llllt  to  the  percent
a

tate

vi

n

lind  OIrner-oultintore ,  and  poet

na
eite .  Onl.r 

ts 

liliiii11  percentage  ot 
ti

1t 

oooper
a

11

th.e 

. 

ve

la

et 
the 
la
a
_
thelle  lid 

ge  of  landlordll,  reported  that  they  never  vI

II 

QU!STIONI  Do  yo

u 

of

n 

te

go 

to  your  village  o

pe

oo

n

tive? 

Refon 

Pre-lAnd 
Tenure  Statua 

P_t-x..nd  Raf01'll 
Tenure  Statws 

Re

Number 

often 
Yse ,  
No,  not  ot
Nevsr 

n 

te

ent

All 

s
�nd
1 , :ZSl 

e  � 
596 

6:z  • 
35 
3 

64 . 

34 
2 

- -- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -

lord

OIrner-
Cultivator

- - - -

nts  CUltivators  Ls

-�;; - - - - - - -
lorde 

Te

s 

na

s  land
9.3 

46  • 

59:2 

64 . 
34 

2 

4:l 
12 
l  elleooiaUoIW ,  the 

11.3 

1 ,116 

49  _ 
49 

2 

65  _ 
.3.3 

2 

lld

5:Z 

.33  • 

54 
13 

ntradist1noUon  to  the  old  looal  agri
.

t

are  largel)'  UDdar  the  dlreotion  of  their  el�ted 
tidence  in  the 
tOlrllrd  the  cooperatlvee.  -'  I118 j orit,  ,of  the  respondente  expressed 
fioi
a
II ttitudell . 

oul
p  ot  their  cooperative  should  eerve  as  s  useful  ind
�
s
e  groups  e

ahi
ls ,  lind  over  one-quarter  of  thea  e

qua1itl
d  full  oonfidence .  All  ten

dership

e der

xpr

le

es

se

ur

e nd  the  extent  to  whioh  the 

xpr

Ul'ft

, 

s

fll

late

nOllllt

d  villege  oooperative 
bers  heve  con- a 
e
lI
x  of  their  genera l  ettitudes 
m
ed  confidence  In  their  present  ot­
l!l8d  verT  siJDilar 

e

UElIIlh 

In  oo

QUESTIONI  Do  you  haw  confidence  in  the 

esent  officiall1  of  10ur  cooperetive? 

pr

ANSWERI 

NUllber 

Complete  oonfidence 
Some  confidence 
Little  oonfldenoe 
No  oonfidence 

U1 
Respondente 

1,:270 

28  _ 
55 

14 .3 

QUESTION.  Do  10U  th1nk  10ur  inoOllll 

QUESTION I 

t!lx  1III1!18118111ent  is  f!l1r 
oompsred  with  thllt  of 
otherll? 

811 

Rellpondeats  Allllened 
for  8 n  
InoOlle  T8

X 

NmDber 

1 , 198 

A!6lI!R. 

Fair 
Unf!l1r 
Don ' t   knOll 

24 _  
49 

;n 

do  1au  find  hArder  to 
1h10h 
be8r,  the  gl'61n  quotA  or  the 
incOllll 

t!lz'l 

Respondents  ABsessed 

8n  Ino

T"x 

end  ASBi�d  Grsin  Quotll8 

for 

0ll8 

ANSWBlh 

Ntllllber 

Gn1n  quote 
InoOM  tax 
Equa1l1  hArd 
Don ' t  

kn"" 

1 , 1,36 

15  � 
25 
57 
3 

Although  not 
onetheless  a  ser10

lII

n

1B 
tbIIt  their  quota  W811  untdr  cca
quotll  Willi  fllir) . 

us 

enUoned  811 

pa

the 

gr1e'Y!lnce.  Thirty-eight 
red  with  thAt  of 

perc
ot

most  burdenBOGIe  by  8S  1118111  f

rB  8S  the  i nOOlll6  tax, 

grain 

ota 

ent  of 

herB  (in  contrast  to  47 

th

anu

oee  fJtrmers  who  h!ld  quot.. s  to  l118et  f!'it 

who  tho

ht  that  their 

the 

percent 

ug

QUESTIONI  Do  10U  think  ,Your  gre in  quote  iB  flllr  as  cOtll

pe

red  with  that  o

f 

othe

B? 

r

Respo

ent II  Assigned 

Grein  Quotll 

nd

Number 

1 , 172 

Fair 
Unfdr 
Don

t 

'

kn"" 

47 . 
.38 
15 

a  ooneequenoe  of  the  large  nllllber  ot 

but  about  liS 

sll 

kindB  heve  1ncre
a

pr
fll1'lDlll's  ooneider  their  own  ell8e

te 

DeW 

la
ntll  to  be 

vill11ge 

looe!  8SlleBB­
eed  Bubatantially.  Tlle  I118j orlty  of  the  farmers  feel  BOIIIe 

in  a  per10d  of  inf

tion

ojec

, 

all  ooneider 

A.s 

mente  and  oontributions  of 
of  thelll  to  be  II  b
ur
them  to  be  unfair. 

den

, 

SlIlII8

fodt' 

About  one-third  of  all  the  respo

en

(lIIoet  of  whOlD  were  I118n)  e

s

ed  a  favorable  e ttitude 

the  1.nolu81on  of  women  IIlIIong  tho  o
that  1t  would  _lee  no  dUterance .  0nl1 13  perceDt  thought  that  wcaeD  off101111s  detinIte17  would  Dot 
t
This  lIee
benefioial
village  lIurveyed  hed 
. 

rfiolal 
eoretiO!l l  attitude ,  8B  in  not  One 
n  aooeptanCJe  of  wOGlen  lIay  be  a 
ot  the  respondents 
wc.an  1I 0tuaU,  been  made  an  oUioial  of  a  oo
estion  on  the  baBie  of  their  attitude  toward  the  gen8l'1 1  p!lrtl0lpet1on  of  wOllen  in 

of  the  eg1'ioulturs l  OOOp81'11tives ,  whereaB 

and  th
nt
ope

te 
ale 

IllaIl1 

nd
tioi

1ve , 

lIupe

p1Ul'ft 11t1  lltated 

tQIr"rcI 

have 

mt
a 

aM 

xpre

be 

a 

s

111111 
oOGlmuni ty  a otivitieB . 

anBwered  the  qu

QUESTIOlh 

do  TOU  fee l  

ROIl 
about  the  villllge 
IIBsesSlII8nts  a nd  
oontribution

? 

s

B

QUBSTIONI  Do  10U  think  it  would  be  bene

o

ti

ill

l  to  10ur  cooper!ltive  to  inolude  wOllen  among  the  officials? 

Number 

Re

pond
1 ,:279 

11\5111 

All 

en

ts 

QUESTIONI  Do  Tau  think  TOur 

village  eS88sllilllllntli 

untllir 
e1'8 
with  those  of  ot

SII 

ocmpared 

rs? 

he
tIl 
ReBpondllntll 

ANSWER, 

N1nber 

Fair 
Unfllir 
Don ' t  knOll 

1

1 

,26

37 
,36 
:27 

� 

R

NSWERs 

A

Number 

8en.s!ioia1 
Not  beneticld 
Makes  no  difference 
Don't 

knOll 

es

ondents 
All 

p
1 ,:278 

� 

34 
13 
43 
10 

Seotion  5 

ANSWBlh 

ReaBoll8ble 
e  reeeo
S
s ,  
sOlIe  difficult 

om

bl

ne

Difficult 
Don 't  knOll 

� 

1 5 

68 
10 
7 

Negrly  one-fourth  of  the  respondents  oomplltined  about  the  exoBssiveness  of  v11l"ge  a
er .. l  and  about  the  IlIIture  of  the  s,YBtem  itself.  MaIl1 
n

contrlbutio
ooncerning  allBes sments  for  part1cular  purposes . 

io  ge

S
8pecifio  ocmplltints  were  made 

tB  lind 

ssm

Be

llB 

o

e

QUESTIONs  1Ibet  kinds  of 

village 

auellSlllente  and  oontributi oDII  do 

Respondents 
\'/ho  Mentioned 
Kind  AI 

Thill 

644 

24 
5 
4 

ditficult? 

you  find 

Respondents 
Who  Mentioned 

les 

mp

and 

shrines 

Te
Ccmmunity  Cheat 
LoOll  entert!l1nments 
Lot

er

e

/! 

t

i
Police  office 
Villllge  org9D1�tioDB 
other  than  the  above 

Th1a  Kind AI 
4 
� .3 
2 
1 
1 

AI 

These  percentages  add  to  less 
the  8ample

supplied 

&ll811'er. 

) 

644 

100  percent,  as  a  total  of  6U  f

rB 

answers  to  this  queBtion.  SOIDII  farmers  gave  more  then  one 

a1'lll8

than 

(47 

6 

percent  ot 

de
0

pe
0ll
0
roent, 

ThB  Income  tax  Beell8d  to  be  of  predc.: 1Mnt  conCJern  to  f
a

nde
e  taxes  Illi  o

t  of  the  findings  of  the  quelltioDDlllre ,  :31  percent  of  the  respo
n

pOint 
in
t10ned  1
49 
cOGlpered  with  that  of  othBrs .  One-b8lt  of  the  f'lrmerll  telt  thtJt  the  grdn  quo
were  equally  difficult  to  bear,  of  the  othe
icult  tl1�n  the 
1noOllle  taXIBs  were  more  d1f
t

e  of  the1r  greatest  diffioult1es  lit  the  preBent  time .  Furtbenaore ,  
ts 
ers  who  bIId  been  ... ellaed  tor  SD  income  tax  felt  that  their 
n
inc
own  tax 
rm

and  the 
of  the  respondents ,  8  l!trger  proport10n 

.  Altbougb  there  1e  evidence  on  thill 
llpontaneoulIlJ' ��; 
II 
waB 
un!  II 
ome  ��be 

of  thoBe 

quot8S. 

r  hIIU 

plura 

felt 

tha 

air 

en

nd

fe

me

pe

t9

s 

r

r

!!!!! 

8

I 

gre1n 

ANSWER 
I 

Number 

General  COmplaintB  oon­
oerning  lIXCII8siveneBs 
and  the  neture 
the 
system  i teeU 

of 

Sohool 
"Unknown  purpoBe/! 
n 

254 

255 

Section  6 

Use  of  'ppea l  Procedures 

Seation  7 

Genllral  Economic  Prpblems 

In  order  to 

ze  iDjuatices ,   apPB!ll 

in
feel  tMt  their  orop  quot9 S  or  their 
their  agr1cultur�l  eoooerlitive  OJ;  their 
"ere  lIware  of  the  filet  thlJt  apped  proaedureol  "ere  avdlable.  More  f ... 
cedures  than  knew  of  grlI l n   quotll  a ppelll  procedures . 

prooe.duree 
SIII1I
S g
office . 

h8ve  been  established .  The se  eDlible  fUllers  wh 
ents  are  too  high 
0 
tenure �l 

A  ma j ority  of  the  f"rUlers  in  all 

register  an  Official 

kllllw  of  inoOlDe  tax 

to 
pro-
apPealOllpa 

i noOllle  tnx 

local  tax 

rulel'fl 

imi

to) 

m

a 

e

a

QUESTION.  If  ,.ou  consider  ,.our  grain  quot!! 
ible  to  appeal 

s

unr" ir,  is  it  p
it? 

o

s

TION

QUFS

I 

If  7Du  consider  ,.our  inoODe  �x 
IIs sessment  unt� ir,  ill  it  POs sible 
to  !lppeal  it? 

Respondents  Assigned 
Grain  �otll 

Respondente  As seS sed 
for  sn  Income  Tex 

NllIDber 

1,262 

\ NSYlElh 

Yes 

No 
Don ' t   know 

64 
22 

14 

% 

tNSlfER, 

Number 

Yea 
No 
Don ' t  know 

1,269 

72 

14 
14 

% 

About  one-fourth  ot  the  fArmers  not  onl,.  knew  of  the  exietance  of  appe�l  procedures,  but  bed  IIctuall1 
made  appel'lls .   Thill  ill  true  of  1111  three  tenure  grOUplI.  Vn�ge-b,.-vill!lge  responses ,  preslDllbl,- reflect­
ing  local  conditions ,  show  gregt  vQrl .. tion.  In  Nikddo,  for  eXllmple ,  only  17  parcent  ot  the  f�mers  re­
ported  thllt  thll,.  hII d 
tax  IIssessmllnt;  in  HOMmi, 
the,.  hIId 
Ilignif1c!l ntl,..  "Ind  in  some  M ses  III!Irkedl,-,  higher  than  IIppe"le  to  gra in  quota ll .   The  peroentll ges  of 
who  h!ld  II ppe�led  the ir  assessments  Bnd  quote s ,   lind  who  Blso  thought  them  unt",ir, 
who  had  not  appe"led  lind  though�  them  to  be  fdr. 

II
t�x  a s sessment .  In  10  of  the  13  villllges .  appe"le  to  the  inoOllle  tAx  a SBll s_nts  were 

II 
percent  reported  thll t  the,.  hBd  appealed  B  gro in  quotll  e nd  46  percent  that 

gr>I in  quo� ,  whereas  38  peroent  reported  thllt  thll,.  hltd  appe�led  lin  iDODl!le 

e  that  of  those 

ppe� led 

led 

twi

ppe

J6 

WIlS 

II

o

a

e 

fUmeN 

QUESTIONI  HIIve  ,.ou  ever  IIppealed  a  grain  quote? 

QUESTION,  liIVe  you  ever  appe�lad  an  income  tex  IIS-

Respondentll  Assigned 
Gre in  �otB 

sesBlilent? 

Respondentll  Assessed 

tor  sn  Income  T .. 

x 

ANSlIERl 

Nmlber 

Yes 
No 

1 , 195 

25 
75 

% 

A1SWERI 

luaber 

Yes 
No 

1, 217 

30 
70 

% 

QUESTIONI  Do  ,.OU  think  ,.our  grllin  quota  is  feir  compared  with  those  of  othen? 

Rellpondentll  Assigned 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Grain  Quota 

HIId  Not 
Appealed  It 

'11 
Resl!2ndents 

Number 

1 , 172 

HIId 

ed 

'EE!!lIl
291 

It 

UfSWBRI  rllir 

a ir 
Unf
Don ' t  know 

47 
38 
15 

% 

30  ". 

6 
64 

904 
54 
30 
16 

% 

QUESTIONI  Do 

,.OU 

think  ,.our  tax  sssessment  is  f'l1r  oompared  with  those  of  other.s? 

Rellpondentll  Alliligned 
Grain  Quota 

All 
Respondentll 

HIId 
!ppeeled  It 

HIId  Not 
Appealed  It 

ANSWER I 

NUlDber 

Fa ir 
Unfs1r 
Don ' t   know 

1 , 198 

369 

24 '/. 
49 
27 

14 '/. 
74 

12 

848 

28  '/. 
38 

� 

256 

Cons1derablll  end  ,,1desprllsd  UDIIeeill4!ss 

evidant  among  all  classes  or  farmers  concerning  their  our

rent  eOODOIIIic  sitUlJtion  lind  their  prospects  for  the  nellr 
!Ders ,  wbether  or  not  the,.  felt  tha t  they  have  been  benefited  b,.  the  land  refo1'lll  progrqms . 

future. 

underlying 

This 

snxiet,.  a ffected  a ll  far­

­

"!HI 

f 

1.0100 

tivators  under  the 

including  tel1l!lnts . (a  large  IIII

The  maj ority  of  all  tenure  groups

I j ont,.  of  "hom  have  become  ownar-cul­
re form  progr!lmJ ,  felt  that  their  living  conditioDS  bid  woreened 
the  laet  YlIllr. 
13  percent  felt  tbet  there  bed  been  an  improvement.  The  prevdl1ng  pass1m1 ...  seel!lll  to  be  1lldepandent 
0nlS 
experience  with  the  lJtnd  retorm  program,  liS  there  WIIS  no  a ppreo1ebls  tendsnc,.  for  farmers  who  felt  that 
ot 
land  reform  program  bad  not  been  beneficial  to  their  femil,- to  feel  tmt  living  COndit10M  "ere  now 
worse  tben  last  ,.." r .   The  grievances  most  frequentl,- mentioned  b,.  all  tenure  groupe  lire  high  income  tallllll ,  
tile 
o�r

the  
QuaTIONI  How  lire  living  oonditioM  in  ,.our  fllml1,- BS  compared  with  last  ,.s,..r? 

it,.  of  olothing ,   li n d   the  generlll  high  prioea .  

in 

o

s

AliS1IIRI 

Number 

Better 
Same 
Worse 
Dqn ' t   know 

All 
Respondents 

1 , 298 
13 
33 
51 
3 

% 

Attituds  Toward  Effect  of  land  Reform 
Prog1'!IIIl 
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
HIId  Not 
Benefited 
FamU,. 

Had 
Benefited 
F",mil,-

Red  Not 
Affected 
FllmU,. 

621 

168 

33 
14 %  
52 
1 

7 '/. 

J4 
55 
4 

J66 

ll '/. 

J4 
53 
2 

The  expectlltion  ot  lin  IIgrioultU1'tll  depression  Willi  to  satle  extent  conditioned  b,.  the 

of  his  current  economic  eitUlltion 
tiollil  had  worsened  'II'''I S   more  likel,.  to  expect  II  depreBllion  than  II  fllrmer  who  had  experienced 
ment  in  conditions . 

compared  with  lallt  ,..",r.  A  flll'll8r  who  felt  that  hill  living  condi­

improve­

110lIl8 

!III 

rmer ' s   est1mste 

te

QUESTION,  Do  you  think  a  severe  depression  w111  come  during  the  next  twelve  mouths? 

Opinion  of 

Conditions 

Living 
of  Pam1�  Compared  With 
last  Year 

All  Respondsnts 

Better 

SaIl8 

Nlaber 

1,281 

157 

ANSlIElh 

Yell 
lIa,.be 
No 
Don ' t   know 

42 %  
J6 
7 
15 

% 

38 
34 
12 
16 

4Zl 
32 

9 
� 
13 

% 

Worse 

669 

% 

50 
31 
4 
15 

Simi�rly,  the  f",rmer ' s   eVlllustion  of  his  current  oondition  wall  influenced  strong�  b,.  hill  view  of 

futurs  prospects .  FIImers  who  felt  tbet  II  depression  Willi  bound  to  come  were  much  more  pellllilDilltic  about 
their  living  conditions  than  farmers  who  were  not  anticipating  II  deprallsion. 

QUESTIONI  HOII  lire  living  conditions  in  ,.our  flllli1,- all  cOllPllred  with  18llt  TMr? 

Opinion  on  Probabil1t,.  of 
a  Severe  DepreSSion  With­

All  Rellpondentll 

Ye. 

NUlDber 

1,298 

533 

ANSaRI 

Better 
Salle 
"orse 
Don ' t   know 

13  '/. 
33 

51 
3 

n '/.  
26 
62 
1 

in 

a  Year 

� 

464 
12 '/.  

44 
42 
2 

No 

86 

46 
22 %  
31 
1 

Appendix  C 

QlNERAL  BEADQUARTSRS 

SUPREME  CClll

lANDER 

Tm: 

� 

ALLI!D POIIEBS 

APO  500 
9  Deoember  1945 

Deo  45)CIE 

Appslldix 

b 
HBAD�ARTBRS 

SUPR!I!E 

GENERAL 
R 
CCIIIrIAND!

F(R  TIlE  ALLIED 
NatUl'Oll  Resourcell  SeoUOI! 

P01IERS 

JAPANBSE  LAND 

RBF<JIM  PROOlWl 

AG  602.6 
N 
API
S

(9 
4ll) 

C

(
lIIMalANDUIl  F<l\1 
THROUGHI 

SOBJECT I 

JAPANI!:SE 

DI1'!RIAL 
QOV!RlIII!N'1' 
Centra l  Lia ison  otfioe ,   TokJo 

Rura l  Land  Reform 

1 

In  order  tbllt  the  Imperlal  Jap"nese  (lovernlllant 
trengtbenlng  of  democratio  tendenoies ,  e stabl1
enslaved  the  JapAnese  farmer 
�oDdage  "hioh 
nt  1.s  directed  to  take  messures  to  insure 
erlllM 
th  fruits  of  their  labor . 
opportunity  to  enjoy 

haa 

. 

e 
The  purpese  of  this  order  io 
s 

whers  almoat 

to 

2 

8� structure 
lan� 
olent  of  these  llll1  include s 
s .   Iatenlle  overorOlldlnB'  of  land 

of 

exte1'lll1D8
the 

half 

� :�
0 

remove  eoonOllll0  obstaoles 

the  revi-val  and 
delltroy  the  eoonCl'll10 

to 

.  II 
�  ::r;les  of  feudal  oppreslllon,  the  Japaneee  Imperia l  
t�t  those  who  till  the  sol1  of  Jap"n  shall  have  more  equa 

�or  the  dignlty  of  !IIIln ,  

and 

�

v­

8e 
p 

us  nls  which  have  long  blighte 
o�t�o� is  engaged  in  husbllndry .  The  more' _ lev-

.  ni  1 

d  th 
e 

tl11  less  than  one  and  one  helf  ecres  each. 

hi�  unfavo�able  to  tenant 
a 

b. 

Umollt  helf  tha  farm  households  in  Japan 
1I1deepresd 
More  than  three- our 
reatal  allountlng  to 
f  f 

or  more  0 

teneDOY 

half 

0118 

f 

1 
under  condlt 
the  of  the  fl!lrmers  in  JSp"n  are  e 

o. 

b

indebtedness  cOlllbioed  w i  

en  0 
l  be" 
Farm  indebtedness 
pereieta 
thamselves  on  their  agrloulture  in00lll8 .  
d.  GoverlJllent  fisosl  olloles  whloh  discr1ll1nate 

aO  tMt  less  than  half 

urd

arm 

th 

s 

f  their  ennual  crops. 

ls  on  agrlculture  are 

acre 

Interest  rates  and  direct  tallll
industry. 

e .   hthorltetlve  overMent  control  over  farmere  an 

interests 

Arbitrary  crop  quotas  established  � di
f!ll'lI8r  in  the  cultivation  of  crops  or 

i  te 
D 
s 

� 

:,:

Incipation  of  the  Jepanese  farmer  cannot  begin 

IIII
destroye d .  

lther 

perit1all:r 

or 

totl!llly  tellllnta, 

pa11ng 

ra 

tes  of  lntereat  on  farm  l08na 

hi 
th  t 

e O , 

t..\l 

farm  households  are  able  to  support 

culture   in  favor  o f   induetr  and 
opprellllive  than those  1n  OOlDlD8rce 

trade 

8 

nd 

d  farm 

nizatlons  without  re 

rei 

or 

for  farmer 

s 

ted  control  as sociations  often  restrict  the 
needs  or  econOlDic  ad"ncement . 

' 
untn

suoh  basic  farm  evils  are  uprooted  and 

d  t  bulit  to  thi s   !kisdquarters  o n   o r  before 

3 

15  March  194  a  program 

6 

• 

Tba  Japanese  Imperial  Govermen 

f  rurlll  land  reform. 
0 

t  is  therefore  ordere 
program  llhall  contein  plans  fori 
s 
Th1 
t  19nd  OIIners  to  land  operator ll .  

0  IN 

a .   Transfer  o f   hnd  OIInerehip  trOll  abeen  ee 

b .  

d

c.  ProvisiOns  for  tenant  purchase  of 

ProviBions  for  purchase  of  f"rm  lands  frOID  non-opera  n� 
Prov18ions  for  reesoneble  protectlon
.  Suoh  necesssr,.  sateguerds  should  inc 

\  Aooess  to  long  lind  s  or 

h  t  te 
farm 
(1
Me"sures  to  protect  the  f�rme 
ga 
2
(3  lI\elleures  to  stabil1ze  prioes  of  agr
(4  Planll  for  the  dUtll8ion  of  technica  a 
( 

l�  f

rm r  a 

land 

"
e l  

me

It 

r

( 5 )   �

o 

pulation. 
progr9!D  to  foster  a nd  encou��i��t:f�� t

ult 

b,.  non"tlgrerian  interests  and  e 
Jllpanese  farmer. 
The  J"Jl!Inese  Imperis l  Go
proposols  it  deems  �cesssrl  to  guarllntee 
surs'te  with  its  contribution. 

nme

r

ve

nt  1s  reques�de�i:�� 

e .  

i 

FOR  TIlE  SupmlE  Co.n."NDER: 

ti  OIIners  at  equitable  rateS. 

at  anllll!ll  insta llmelJl;s  commensurete  wit 

b  te  IJI; 
ne 

r  tenents  ageins  re 

t 

verdon  to  tenency  st'1tu8. 

income . 

b l   interest  rllte s .  

oredit  a t   reRsone  e 
1nst  exploitation  b,.  proceesors  an 
roduce . 
cu nd��hs� inf01'lll
1 

lltion  of  assistance  to  the  sgrar 

d  di  tributerll 

i

II 

• 

ia n  

1  oo-operative  !Dovement  free  0 
b::oonomic  lind  culturll l   edv!l ncement  of 

the 

f  domination 

t in  s ddition  to  the  above ,  8uch  other 
s  sbare  ot  the  netional  lnoCllle  cOlllJl

en-
l 

/15/  H.  t.  All
It I  H .  
Colonel, 

11. 

en, 
�LLEN 

� .G .D . , 

ABet  !d3uteht  Geners l .  

Abolition  of  the  pernicious 

tenure  system  which 

long  blighted  Japanese  a griculture 

p"lred  develoJlll8nt  of  a  peace,tIll  national  econOlll1  bas  been  a  bIlsio  objective  of  th.s  Occupation.  AocOlllpUsh­
ment  ,of  this  obj eotive  is  eSllential  to  tho  economio  Ind  poUtiosl  well-being 

Ja pan. 

lend 

bu 

IIId  111-

sll8 l1er  then the  state  of  California . 

Raving  I n   area  of  142,270  equere  miles ,  Japan 

16  percent 
'pprox1mately  47  percent  of  the  tot.!ll  population  of  sbout  81,600.000  depends 
of  the  tot.!ll  erea  is  arable . 
percent  ot  the  i'al'llferll  l'ented 
on  agriculture  for  ell  or  part  of  its  lnoome .  Betore  the  Surrender,  a bout 
70 
nine  perceDt  of  farm  households  cult1v8ted  mollS  then ·two  cho 
all  or  pert  of  the  land  they  cult.1veted . 
(4 . 9  aorss)  of  land,  and   67  percent  cultivated  lese  then  one  cho  (2.45  acree ) .   This  overorD1lding  had  led  to 
to  70  percent  of  ths  a nnual  orop  snd  hed 
a  highl,y  inequitable  land  tenure  syatelll  with  rents  ranging  frOID 
their  deMnds  tor  rem.ed1el  leg­
resulted  ln  widespread  eoonCllllc  instability  snd  sociel  strife .  Repulsed 
islation,  fsrmers ,  during  the  decade  preceding  World  War  II,  consciously  and  unoolUlolous],y  gave  strong  sUp­

to  the  mil1tsr,.  group which  hsld  out  tha  prOlllise  of  ne"  lIInds  a nd  prosperit,. , to  be  won  through  aggres­

Only 

Onl.y 

50 

in 

is 

pen 
sive  wllr.  Tbis  course 
thwBrted  by  dafeet  end  surrender.  The  tenant  class  in  Occupied  Japan,  with  de­
ma nds  for  rellef  frOID  their  intolerable  s ituation  still  foremost  in  their  minds ,  reaained  a  fertile  fielil 
for  en,y  other  extremist  ideology  promising  s  solution  to  thair  problells .  

W8S 

of 

The  elimination  of  this  M lignenoe  wss  recognized  a s   vital  t o   the  promotion  o f  

production  of 

II1I.Iximi.uzt 
I!Iteple  foods  and  requIsite  soc1ll1  e nd  eoonomic  stabil1ty.  On  9  December  1945,  t�  Supreme  Commander  for  the 
HUed  POIIers  isllued 
the  so11  of  Japen  sbell  have  a  more  equal  opportunity  to  enjo,. the  fruits  of  their  lebor" . 

directive  to  the  J"pa neBs  Government  "to  take  mellBurea  to  inaure  thll t  thoae  1Iho  till 

e 

To  1lIIplement  this  d lreotive ,  legisllltion  wes  eneoted  by  the  Diat  and  promulga te d  

legislation  WIIS  in  th.e  form  of  two  lII'11S,  the 
revised  Agrioulturd  Le nd   �djustluent 
ownershIp  to  fllrmeMl  who  aotu.41ly  till  the  soil,  and  (2)  1JnprovelDsnt  of  ferm  tananc,.  pr'l ctices  for  those 
who  oontinue  as  te/lll nts . 
oollective  OII'nerahip  of  tha  le nd .  

prog1"l!D  bes  empMs i zed  prIv"I te  rather  tMD  stBte,  a nd 

No  42.  Le nd  ret'ol'1ll  haa  two  mein  obj ectives .   (l)'  tl'>l nsfer  of  lIInd 

Fanler  Estebl1shment  Specia l  "'easures  Law  No  43, end  the 

October  1946 .  This 

1nd1vlduel 

rather  tban 

OIIner 

Lew', 

The 

21 

The  program  i n   eaoh  olty,  town,  and  village  ha s   been  a dlllil

listered  bT  a  10c91  lIInC!  OOlllmiS9ion  (11 , 322 

the  fermers .  The  ratio  of  tellBnts ,  owners ,  and  OIInerMcultivetors 

on 
for  ell  Japan)  eleoted  hy  and 
.fr1llL 
eaoh  commission  WBS  or1gina lly  established  by law  at  five,  three, 
two ..1'eepectivel,..  !'lith  the  inorease 
in  the  nWlJber  of  owner-cultivator s ,   resulting  from  the  land  transfer  phese  of  the  reform ,  a  change  111  rep­
necessary  prior  to  the  seoond  geners l  electlon  held  18  \uguet  1949. 
resentation  on  these  commissions 
.tcoord1ngl,.,  farmers  were  divided  into  three  categories  (roughly  describeble  a9  tenanta ,  lJ!ndlordu,  a nd  
0lI.nsr-f,,1'IIlers 
tatives .  Eoi ch  category  elec�d  its  D1In  represent.!ltives  to  the  commission.  PrefB'Cturnl 
cOlllmissl ons  (a lso  elected
) 
miSsions  a re  under  ths  geneI'll l  supervleion  of 
the  Minister  of  �gr1culture  a nd  Forestr,.  is  chs1rmll n .  

coord1Mte  end  superville  the  work  of  the  local  oOillm1.BsiODS .  The  prefeotural  ceer­
Ilssion,  of  whioh 

oriee  I  aDd  II  eaoh  haviD$'  two  representatives ,   e nd   Category  IU,  six  represen­

Centrd  (Nationel)  Agriculture l 

ap-lcult.ural  lend 

with  Catel.!

V) } 

Land 

11 

and 

the 

COIII

WqS 

.

�gr1cultural  l and s   subject  t o   purcbftse  have  be e n l  

(l)  lend s   OIIned  b y   absentas  landlords ,  ( 2 )   tenerit­
speoified  retention  rates  (the  rates  v�r,r  10C!llly,  but  their  8 vernge  m\lst  not 

operated  lIIriCls  in  excess 
exceed  one  oho  in  K:rushu,  Shikoku,  and  Honshu,  or  four  cho  ln  HokkBldo) ;  (:3)  owner-operated  lIInds  in  exce s s  
o f   spec1fied  retention  l'IItes  (these  a l s o   vflr,r  locally,  but  their  average  must  not  exceed  three  oho.  in  Kyushu, 
Shikoku,  snd  Honshu ,  or  12  cho  in  Hokkaldo) ,  except  thosa  that  cen  be  reRsOll8bl,y  op"rsted  b,.  the  farmer  and 
his  immediatll  fflml1,.,  (4)  corporation-owned  lands  tMt  do  not  rele�  direotly  to  the  prlnoipd  objective  of 
the  corporgtionj 

(5)  lands  cepable  of  re cllllMtlon  for  agrioultUr1l 1  use . 

of 

and 

Lands  subject  to  transfer  have  been  purchased 

comm18eions  for  rell'lle  to  eligible  bu,yers.  Tensnts  on  the  lalld  as 
other  persons  who  wish 

te  the 

i

.of 

have  had  priority  to  purohasa,  in  the  order  nsmed. 

the  govsrnmellt  through  the  s genoy  of  the  loeal  land 
23  November  1945 ,   other  tan"nts ,  !lnd 

by 

to  cult

va

land 

!I 

y 

The  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Forestry  defines  theae  olassif1C11tions  ss  follows 
engll ging  1n  oultiwt10n  who  either  OIIns  no  Bgricultural  lend  or 
third  of  thet  cultivllted  by 
wbolle  D1Ioed  lends  exceed  twice  the  amount  cultivated  b,. 
l
gagas  in  cult1v.tion  snd  owns  a griculturol  lIInd  but  who  does  not 
(e l 
Cate gory  II, 
Categor,.  I ,   those  "ho  oult1vste  lIInds  tbay  lea. se  exceeding  two  tan  (Hoklm ldo,  five  tan) 
those  who  le"se  to  others  agrioultural  lIInd  exceeding  two  ten  (Hokksldo,  five  tan ) ;   C'It,egor,.  III,  sl1 
tbose  not  1noluded  in  CategorIes  I  and  I I .   'l'be  c"teg�ry  to whioh a  fermer  1Iho  both  lasses  to  and 
from  others  is  determined  b,.  the  classifiCll tion  in  which  lies  the   grestest  ares  o f   the  land  h e  culti­
vete s .  

an  emount  equel  to  leos  then  one ­
or 
lIIrd 
,  e  persoD  "ho  en­
or  (b)  abovs . 

persoll  who  does  not  eng.J88  in  cultivst10n  of  his 

and  (c )  owner-oultivator

into  either 

(b)  owner, 

(a )  tell!lnt ,   a  penCIl 

tAll 

himJ 

him; 

OWIl8 

leases  

I 

II 

I 

258 

259 

II
­

an 

of 

of 

10 

In 

the 

1938 

11760 

have 

19)8. 

by 

rontfll 

de�nd9 

8  clv.l nge 

whoae 

ther,  those 

frozen  et  the 

landa  were 

Lalld  purohased 

ront� l  for  upla nd .  

ingly,  a vorgged 

tnfl'Jtion.'iry  p:t'eossure

L.qnds  N o  
to 
1946 

.. ns,fer  program , 

purchased at 

time  of  purohqse ,  the 

post-Surrander 

level  whloh  W!l S  caloulated 

nre  not  !I cceded  to,  hOllever, 

September  1939 
19:38 

for 
JanU!lry  1941)  the  price  of  land 

the  lI�r  "hen  land  prioes  were  frozen  at  levels  ourrent  In 

Governt!lent  undor  land  reform  ".a  peid  for  1 n   24-YlVlr  bonds  be'3ring 

those  stflted  above . 
lishment  of  these  offlcial  prices , 

I'IQS 
Pflddy  lands  and  40  times . the 
for  upland 

per  t'ln  for  paddy  "nd  'i448  per  t.Jn 
approximate 

�  "record  rent<t l   vdue "  �d 
I)grlou1turA l  la nd  ·I n   Japan.  This  rentql  VA lue  w�s  a n   otri­
yeArs  lind 
WAS  ueed 

Procedure  to  determine  the  offioial  purchase  price  of  land  waa  bRsed  on  th'lt  use>!  by  the  Jspsneee  G 
for 
ernDlent  dUring 
(based  or1�Mlly  on  lI otu�l  rentn la)  whioh  w� a  revised  every 
1Il!n08t  every  piece 
�ong  been  estabUshed 
for  establishing  taxes .  Under  "artime  J"JlIInsse  control  (Temporllry  control  Ordiognoe  of  Price  of  'rrioulturs1 
oullY  ca lculated  figux-e 
109,  )0 
under  tho  OIIDOr  FArmor  Estflblishment  Special  Moqsuros  LA" ,  the  price  Wft S   s o t   a t   4 0   times  the  1938  rem,u 
be  an  a verage  of  )3  timos  the 
value  tor  peddy  19nd  end  48  times  the  19)8  rent�l  for  upla nd .   The  purchAse  pricos  for 
,,11  JaDsn ,  R cc ord­
Y.  "hleb  wore  a pproxilMtely  equivq lent 
to  market  prices .  The  purohq se  price  of  Moh  paroel  "liB- set  by  thll  a ppropriqte  oity,  tOlIn,  or  villa ge  a gri ­
oultur�l  ,l"nd  cocnmieeion,  "hteb  had  limited  disoretion  lie  t o   10081  price  levels  within  the  generll l  require-
ment  thqt  avera ge   price a  must 
tab
B  !J  &1\ve 
Subsequent  to  the  es
riee  to 'demanda  on  the  pert  of  f01'lll6,r  lsnd  OIInerll  for  substqntial  InoNlQses  in  offioial  land  prices .  Thoae 
beC'luse 
price  during  the  period  of  the  init.i"l  transfer  ot 
by 
eaoh  seller  to  ths  early  transfer  of  hia  land , 
tr 
:la nd  to  teng ota  lIould  Mve  been  imprq ctlCA1.  ResietAnee 
Fur
in  the  hope  thllt  he  could  obtdn  higher  prioe s ,   would  effective.ly  beve  IItoPPIld  ths 
been  unjustly. ciiscrim1r.ated  againat  i£ 
early  date  would 
later  "trqnsfera  were  conoluded  at  higher  prices .  StUl  another  f�ctor  WAS  the  ra1uotllnoe  of  the  Jap!lnese 
Government  to  add  fuel  to  the  infllltioMry  fire  by  inorea ses  in  the  land  prices  of  the  nation. 
the 
J"'pAnese 
peroent  interest.  Bonds  "ere  i asued  i n   donomiM"tions  ot  ! l ,OOO ,   /lnd  reaidulll  t'rII otions  of 
prioe  "ere  paid  in  O!Ish .  Purchasers  of  land  "ere  permitted  to  pay 
all  or  J"lrt  of  the  purch"so  price  at  ths 
balanoe  to  be  paid  in  24  e qUll l  IInnusl  .1nst dlmentcs  with  interest  at  ) . 2   percent .  Pay­
ments  for  the  lAnd ,  plus  other  expe nses  ooinoident  "ith  !n nd  OIInership,  m.y  not  in  any  ye� r   exceed  one-third 
of  the  fToss  inoome  from  the  19nd  in  that  yellr .   I n  event  of  orop  fAilure  or  1011 
IDII Y  reduoe ,  defer,  or  C/lnosl  the  sMuel  p!¥JlIent. 
Purohessra  of  lIInd  under  th1s  pl'Ogrqm, werB 
t h!U lmortlZ1ltlon 
tinue 
poaes  were  required  to  sell  their  !Rnds  bqck  to  the  gover�1ent  on  terms  simil,r  to  those  of 
contI"l ct .  Hl  uture  land  tI'llnSllotions  were  made  subject  to  'lpprov..,l  by  the  'lrri cultur. l  lAnc1  oQlll/l
By 
oultivated  lsnd ,  of  which  (as  of  )1  March 
'Ite' d  by 
ox1m!l
Araq )  to  a
pol sturs  land  hqd'  been  Aoquire d ,  
of  pasture  land  swdt  purohase . 
been  Roqu J .red  "s  of  2' Mql'ch  1950  far 
propm  for  i liorOR oing  the  total  oulttv'ilted  are .. 
Tec18 illlod  'Ind  sold  to  indi

peroent  of  totnt  oultivqted 
respectively,  S5/., �99  'ilcres  of 
�n  estImated  sddltloMl  266, 059  "cres 
�e  of  the  e .. me 
of 
which  588, 240  Aores  h'ld  heen  sold . 
In  addit ion  to  cultlVllted  snd  Pllature  18nd,  2,961,112  a ores  of  land  hAd 
pert  o,f  II  lo'ng-rllnge 
acros  IuId  been 

2  It!lroh  1950,  the  JAJ)!IIleSe  Gov�rrunent  had  acquired  under  the  land  reform 
teD'lnts  thus  haa  been  reduoed  from  en  estimated 
ppr
(ll  poI·oent) . 

without  spe,cUic  IIpprov" l   of  the  government.  Tengnt-puroha aers  de

during  the  alllo,rti Zlltlon  period  or  fA lling  to  use  tha  lJlnd  for  s frlou1t\lXAl 

rsclllm"tion  qnd  future  reSAle  to  O'1Iner  famera 
the  country. 
-s old  to  1 ndlvidUll ls  for  priV1\te  reclll mation. 
land  reform  proprRm,  approximately  )0,000,000  po rcels  of  land  !lare 
100 .. 1  tllx  office 
" CY  of  bounduies  And  'l.:leqMcy  of  tttle . 
, 
office .  Formlt l  Aoeaptn nce  by  the  l"eristry  of riCO 
in 
8S  e.oh  pRrcel  ""a  tr'l ns ferred  first  to 
entries 
l
ete 
registrAtion  "� 9  virtu"tly  oomp

In  order  to  tr;qnsfer  title  leWllly ,   e q ch  pflrool  .,� s  first  cheoked  w 1th  the 
@'lstry 
e
titl

tI"'l llsferrad . 
snd  tl)eregfter  II1th  the  10CII l  l'lnd  re(tiatry  office  118  to  Acelll"
!!rit  of  trqnsfer  ",s  then  filed  ,.ith  the  lIInrl  re
cc;mstit1,ltos ,   in  Jllplln ,  a  leiJIl  re(tistrstion  of 
.  lnolJl1lueb 
the  Jspgness  Government  "nd   theredter  " .. s  retrq neferrod  to  the  ne"  purchqser ,  some 
the  officiAl  lq nd  reFis try  book  were  entq i led ,  This  giwent10  tesk 
set,  )1 
by  the  deqdl1ne  "hleb  h'ld  been 

permitted  to  uae  the  l"nd  sa  o ollater  1  for  lOans  during 
to  discon­

1950)  4,62'7 , 819  IIcres  hAd  been  resold .  Tho  cultiVAted 

6 , )00 ,000  ecree  (46 
dates, 

During  thia  inl tilll  ,ph/l se  of 

r�rm  price s ,   the  government 

AS 
1950,  667 , 72) 

theit"  purohAse  contrgot 

the  ori8iool 
llssiona. 

te1y  1 , 670,000  " crss 

prOCl'tlm 4 ,

8  a crss  of 
area  oper­

L'tllroh  1350. 

period 

60,000,000 

31  Maroh 

purohqse 

not. 

the 

vid

of 

).65 

rin

700

wt l

of 

,  (II' 

pur

By 

si

65

g 

s

,

in 

be 

owner 

instanoes  where  the 

A  small  reservoir 

The most  important  of  these  provisions  are : 

Although  tho  land  reforc  program  is  dedicated  primarily  to  oreating  owner-farmel's ,   total  el1mi'll8.tion  of 
of 
land  subjeot  t o   taMney  i s   considered  essen­
preaerved  to 
f:ara  tenanoy  i s   not  oonsidered  feasible. 
food  production.  Flexibility  in  the  land  tenure  pattern  must 
beoomes  tel!lporarily  unable  to  cul­
tial  to  a  program  of  t� 
program  therefore  also  i�ludea  provisions  to  insure  fair  tenancy  prso-
reform 
prevent  withdrawal  of  land  from  oul"tivation 
tivate  for  himself.  The  land 
25  percent 
e1.eraonts 
e:nd  15  percent  from  upland  fields ;  and  (4)  rent  cOlltruot  oancellation  or  alter­
tices  for  those  "ho  re.msin  as  tenants. 
lease  with  all  prinoipal 
the 
by  the  land  oommi,ssion.  A  model  lesse  contract  f01'1ll  to  be 
of 
produoti!)n 
ubjeot  to  approval 
been  widely  diatributed . 
ation  B
landlorda  118  a guicie  in.  dral'l1ng  up 
'Cor  the  l.,nd  puroh. sed,  the  owner  reoeived  e  subsidy  on  thAt  portion  of 
so f,lxed 
arca  puroh�Bed  whioh  corresponded  in  size  to  his  retention  rqte ,  This  subsidy  R verq eed  'inO  PIlr 

olearly  stated ;  (2)  cash  payment  of  rentl  ())  rent  oeiling  of 

In  addition  to  prioes 
the 
Reflecting  the  depreciation  1n  the  v�lue  of  the  yen ,   the  officiql  OCCUpAtion  rAte  ch.oged 
tan  for 
$1 .00   at  the  t ' me  b1sio  19nd 
1'101111 
11,747 

pgddy  fjelda  B nd  ¥l)O  per  t .. 
prioe  to  producers  of  br<7nn  rice  r08e  from 
in  November  1949 . 

for  upLq nll  fields . 
leeislot � on  n.s  en�cte d ,   t o   ¥360  to  �1 . 00 
¥220  per  bqle  (60  kilograms ) 

q S   of  tr.i�  dq te ;  
in 
Hovember  1946 

to 
from  �15 
the  of-
to 

their  OIm  oontraots 

used  by  tanants  and 

a  written  farm 

from  paddy 

reform 

bt:IB 

( 1) 

n 

260 

Y.ay  1950 

�ppendix  E 

SUPR.EME  CC\'M�NDER  FOR 

GENER�L  HE�DQU�TERS 

Natur.l  Resources  Seotion 

THE  �LLIED POI'/ERS 

�GRICULTUR\L  Cc{)PER�TI1TE  PROGRUI  IN  JAP�N 

ApprOximately  6 , 246 , 000  farmers  are  engaged  in  f�rmi 

�verq ge  fq r

tiv.ted  lAnd. 
opera te  only  about  one  0 
h
r
operations  makes  it  essential  that  they  pool  their  eff 
tent  in  order  to  a chieve  economio 
;
stabilit
t�
e
ec�me  effeotive  on 
id 
with  i��:
trolled  oooperative  a ssocietions  in  a ocord 
r 

15  December  1947  '

acti
on  w 

e
h
0 

��

�

l

I 

�

ng  Js pan  s  14 , 900, 000  �crea  (6 , 079 , 800  oho)  of  cul-
.  The  extremely  small  size  of  their  individual 
through  cooperation  to  the  greeteat 

d
a �
�
�
9  mum  pr  uotion.  TOIIqrd  this  end  leg!  la 
d
-
�he  establishment  of  demoora tic,  fq�r-o�n-
for 
i
reoognized  oooperqtive  principles. 
DB  ona 

esourc

a
�

� 

y 

mers 

, 

R1storio� l  Development  of  Agriculturq l  Coopera ti
v

es 

system  of 

Cooperq tive  a ssooiations  replace  a 

�

hi

a gricultura l  9 8sooia -

°lled 
�  year later, 
te

t-oontr
on  enac  d  thAt  year  established  as socia -

mono  Usti 
ch  bed  been  devaloping  in  Ja pa n  sin�  l899
i
WA 

ons 
qns  0  mprove  fgrming  prA ctioe a .   Membershi 

� '   ���:���
industrial  cooperatives  were 
Ory. 
B
iness--espeoia lly  in  rurq l  areA S .   �lthough  this 

�
i
simi larly  authorized  to  fAoilitate  trqde  and  e�sen�i���;
19"  provided  for  voluntary  membership  a nd  permitted 
d
cultur� l  oooperative  movement  "9S  from 
i ts  ince  tion
rilY  a  government-sponsored 
o
unt1 l l943  government  contro,l  over  cooperativesPin 
by  19 ndlord  snd  business  groups .  The  �g
e
a griculturql  producti on. 
ns  (I/�)  a nd  industria l   coopera tives 
ini
�
�
vil19 ee ,   town ,   � nd  city.  These 
n  e .. c 
-1 
a 
in  e"eb  prefsoture ,  and  the  46  prefe oturq l  NO��i  :
ship  W'l S  oompulsory  for  a ll   f.rmers .  This  s  stem  o f  
ment  A nd  served  to  regulate  a grioulturgl  pri�e s  Bnd 
bring  1n  rurA l  capitql  for  the  Wqr  effort .  The  No 
gy 
communit ies  in  the  war  effort. 

some  egree  of  independent  a ction,  the  Japa nese  a 
movement .  From'i932 
pri
, se  as  the  government  sought  to  increAse  and  direct 
�s90ciations  tended  more  And  more  to  be  dominated 
rwnl��i�n
ve
li!3  oombined  the  sgrioulturd  a ssa-
monopolistio  ss aociation  (Nogyo-
single 

ve 
�
ere  a  era  sd  into  a 
orpAnizetion  ,,�s  oompletely  oontrolled  by  the  govern­

uction,  to  hAndle  oolleotions  A nd  rqtioning,  Bnd  to 
were  one  of  the  1mportqnt  meq ns  used  to  police  fBnD 

0 
i  "ere  federAted  into  a  prefeotura l  Nogyoka i 
natloD!ll  Nogyoka i .  �lelDber­

�t  the  Seme  time  coo 
Ultu

�
c!
i:�
(5angyo 

tIaW  °i

a  e  g 

��

�

i ­

ri

Ok

�

1 

1 

n 

�

O

n

�

r

19 

No 

ed 

be 

133 , 

equi

as  a  preliminary 

Abolition  of  this  totalitarian  struoture  was  reco 

Site  to  fostering  and  eticaur 
to  t�
N 
prormllgated 
4
��

gndzed  by  the  Supreme  Commander  for  the  Allied  Power 
�ng  an  agricultural  cooperative  movement  free  from  d  � 
e  eoonomio  and 
of 
dvanoem
r:q

t10n  by  nonagrarian  interests  and  dedicat
�
armer.  lB." 
a�p�o�mately  179 , 180  inco�porated  a���:lt�!i
a
��iO��
���i��  �fYl
aBBociation�
�gr 
s in�e  i�at 

�g�������a�s:�������nB�:rW��! :a ��;.�6 ��ef�����a����u��:rO:ia!!������o!�'��� 
r-
aeso�iations  were  prohibited  from  trana-
���
�
�
ui
as���at���:�B
�nd�e;ic�����
q
al  practice
ve  bee
en 
l
al 
the 
n  succeBsfu� 
national  Nogyokai 
l:��d d��r�: �5�ny co

d  were  required  to  prooe� wi
t
�,�������
more  t�an  49 
cooperatives  Li  ui�tr
rrress but  he;  b 

9ines
l
:asa�l�!!��
time. 
ou  ural  assoolations  to  new 
n

-
�gyOkai  and  praotice  associations  has  oontinued 

ogyokai 
liquidation  of  these  organization;  vnll  be  co

the  dissolution,  by  14  August  19�5�
t

transferred  from  looal 
efeotura 

and  the  46 
Genera�,  h:ever, 

r
p;�!iIc!

i
mplicat

�sBete  valued  at 

made  substantial 

oultural  a

�
lli
q 

�����;::

ent  of 

�re

has 

ons . 

on  of 

s�
a

0  -

!��

:�� 

��

th 

an

�

i o

bu

bi

ro

oc

mp

s

1 

�

a

n

h

i

t

a

O

�

o

o

e

i

c

.

1948, 

By  15  �pril 

four  months  After  the  new  Coo  ar 

b; 
tives  had  obtA ined  a pprov.l  from  the  prefe otur 
4ugust  1948,  "hen  the  Nogyoke i  "ere  required 
operqtion .  By  thnt  dgte  about  200  federlltions  bad  be 
wholeSAle  purchA sing  s nd  marketing  serv1.ces 
La",  15 
mini strqtive  A uthori ties .  The  number  of  oooperAtives  e n�
pven 
reoord  shows  that  in  the  brief  spaoe  of  two 
T h  
table ,  Agricultural  C ooperativea  and 
Japanese  farmers  acconplished  the  reorganizatinB•  f  t� 
s 
e 
associations 
into  member-oontrolled  oooperatiV:�  0  Thi
oooperatives  anywhere 

p  ative  LAw  became  effective ,  more  thA n 
��n���ts  of  their  ert�oles  of  inco
continue  Op8l"lhons ,  22,148  oooperatives  were  in 
by 
en  orgol nized 
loca l  cooper�t1ves  to  provide  them  with 
the  e na ctment  of  tha  Cooperative 
erDB ry  of 
�  ���
in 
federRtions  had  been  a pproved  by  the  e d ­
, 
n 
years 
the 

ment-oontrOlled  agricultural  and  praotioe  ' 
eat 

De cember  1949,  neq rly 

without  equal  in  the  history  of 

000  10011 1  �oo�r

feder"tions  a a   o f   31  Maroh 

ll��v::con

probably 

the  world. 

orAtion . 

Federatio 

lQ50  are 

over
a 
s 

ooopera-

On  15 

in 

3) ,

l!�

rp

1 

B 

t 

;

v

�

• 

5 , 000 

AGRICULTUR�L  COOFER�TlVES  4ND  FEDER'TIONS 
As  of  31  March  1950 

Business  Arell 

Stock 

Indi

ua

C

rative

vid

l 

oopa
Nonstook 

prefecture 

Less  than  a 
Pre feoture 
or  more 

16 , 997 

16 ,441 

78 

9 

s 

Total 
33 ,438 

87 

tions 
Feder
a
Nonstock 

105 

29 

Stook 

639 

376 

Total 

744 

405 

TOT�L 

�PPROVED 

7

1

5 

, 07

16,450 

33,625 

1 , 015 

134 

1,149 

M ndle,;! 

pe rcen

t 
71  peroent  of  1

36 

Volums  of  business  rscords  of  coopor�tivcs  �or  the  fiscal  ye� r  ending  31  I�rch  1949  shows  t�t  they 

of  A ll  fel'll\e r   purohases,  61  peroent  of  'Ill  farmer  8tl les,  64  percent  of  finanoial  deposita, 
0ll na  t o   fllnnera . 

snd 

of  31 

cember 

�8 

De

1949, 

m

mbershi
a

p  in 

cooperatives 

a ssooiate  membere .  More  tha n   90  percent  of  sll  ferm  households  were  represented  in  at  19J!8t  one  oooperative, 
In  most  Village s ,   general 
a nd   a  8ubst .. nt l e l   number  of  hou(leholde  pArtioipated  in  two  or  more  IIseooiJ.\tiona . 
e  the  primary  credit,  muketing,  purcilnsing,  processing,  lind  other  eB!ent18l 
d

prov

'tot'lled  8, 300,000,  of  whom  450,000  "era  nonvoting 

coopeI'atives  nOil 
purpoos 
services  used  by  fArmerS. 

i

FEDERA.TIOlf3  OF  AGRICULTURAL  COOl'ER.A 
31  March  19;�

As  of 

VES  BY  FUNCTION 

Funotlon 

Credit 
l'urcha sing 

i
ng 

rket
Ma
lI'e1fllre 
Rura l  industry 
GuidR nce ,  eduoation, 
Bnd  information 
Livestock  marketlng 
Sericulture  ma rketlng 
Reclqm'ltion 

rec1gmation  purchA sing 

production  snd 

Others 

TOT�L 

Approve
by  Central 
Government 

d 

46 
5 5  
55 
25 
6 
65 

32 

41 
37 

29 

391 

Y 

Approved  by 
Prefectura l  
Government 

1 
20 
3 0 
13 

56 
17 
152 
217 

12 

200 

718 

Tota

l 
47 
75 
85 
.38 
62 
82 

184 
258 
49 

229 

Org>!nizetion  li nd  Functioning  of  New  Coopera tives 

!J./ 

totg ls  for  fede  t 

The 
� 
nUlllber  1n  exieten09, 

10ns  clasaified  by  f 
owing 

to  inc 

1  t  unc 

omp  e  e  rsports  from  some  prefectures. 

ions  lire  less  than  the 

t 

1, 109 

� 

c.s e   of 

cOoperative  eS80clatl 
or

0.£  incorporation 
It 
DlSy  not  both  1D!lk�  l08
or,  in 
"\;ion,  ell ch  member  mu
speoified  in  tha  II rticle:�/ 1!�s
the   appro'V'l l  o f  tha 
1s  vested  In  the  �i;;:�;;
gram 

on  m ... y  cMrge  expenses  snd  require  co  t 
g't
;Y 
e
�e=i� d
III  non:�
o
t  h 
t  on
ga  Z9 
�
orporll  on.  Only  members  may  hold 
responslbUity  tor  M rr
cu  ure  end  Forestry
�f 

n 
Mp,l.t" l   stock  or  nonstook 
:s lts .  LiabUity  for  s 
on,  the  '.!moant  of  the 
shl,lre ,  g nd  the  mqximum  number z��  ;:;

i 
rr�rY
lt

share  �
s

i ze  8S  s 

author! 

9 
Yl n

tion

the 

liS 

�i 

:!

to

0 

s

b

n

�

n

n

e 

t��:s

ot�:d  �

u
t
0 

8 i n   sccordll nce  wlth  Its  II rtlo1es 

s  w  C

t� 

nonetock  assooietion 
e  IImount  of 
share 
the. 
to
k  a S80oia �  
s
o
O)'lO  member  DIlly 
is 
f  stook  ls  subj eot  to 
Ul"JIl 
OOOpel'llti 
pro-

In� �'1P1tq 1 
t�r  ft

OWl] 

(!r  cu 

ve 

gr 
Farmer  Interest 

. 

nd  Partlclpetio  i 

__ 

n 

C 

c 

l'll" 

Fermer  i ntere
B�  end 
members  snd  the 
o
formed  by  oooper"tl�s:r
of  the  ele
tions  held  dUring  til 
o
euditors  eod   about  69 
e 
r 
the  agrioUltura l  8S8OCr:
t
mea sure  ot  tr
franchise  by  farmers . 

s
t 
10n  in  coopern tives  i
1t,  mArketing,  lind  pu�c�:���c�r���rtio�  of  fermere  Who  ere 
0  �  own  in  the  election  of  oftlcill1s  of  the 
n  rural  Jspen  par-
spr  nil  of  1949  showa  that 
bi lew  No  133 

C�1 
r
r�  economio  a ffai rs  into  new  h9nds  th 

new  cooperll tivss . 
coope�tlve  directors 

AnalYSls 
and 
T�en
ud itors  111 
d
��
n  olltes 
substqatial 
i 
I
exercise  of  democratio 
roug l 

lo
19  Novembsr  1947 �

percent  of 
nt  of  federetion  di reotors  end  ftUd,l.tors  had  ne

r  of'  1e!l��s�01�Shsd 

pert!  1 
i�r;! O:�f  t

e  cre
d

ansf
e

ectors  or 

shown  b 

n  OOp8l'1l tlves 

p  n 

0.1' 

86 

pa 

e s  

�

s 

h 

�

8 

s

s

c
om
ember 

milnities.  Flfteen  or  more  farmers 

The  new  oooperstive  sS80ciatlollll  orga nized  pursU/Jnt  to  Lew  No  132  have  sS  th&ir 

objsotive  maxi­
mum  l!ervios  to  �rtioipeting  members  rether  thA n  payment  of  dividends  on  invested  Ol.lp,l.t9 l .   They  ere  inoor­
rises ,  authorized  to  pe rform  pr� cti0911y  a ny  economio  s�rvice  which  will  contribute  to  the 
POrated  enter
p
.  )'emberehlp  is  volun­
� dvancement  of 
e
may 
t�rm 
ona  vots.  Nonf'lrmers  residing  within  t he   busines s   "rse  o f  the  Orf/lln1zat1on 
Eaoh  (IIDner  m
ie
any  individual  who  per­
in  a grioulture .  T

tary. 
roay  be  qssoo
sona lly  CArries  on  or 
whose  Ilct1vities  IMke  them  eligible ,  end  the  pe rtioipl!tion  of  women  is  enoOUl"lI ged .  The  business  area  i
fined  �y 
lin  sd
their  members  with  techni
product  su.ch  �s  silk  cocoons  or  fruit . 
the  fol101ling  table .  

tion  to  the  rener>l l  purpose  locd  coopera tives ,  sevsr"l  types  of  spec1>l11zed  a s sooiations  provide 
rtlcu
la
d 01ln  of  the  number  of  cooperatives  by  function  1s  shown  in 

a
l  production  information  And  spec

to  perform '.!  wide  voriety  of  servioes. 

is 
h
i s  definition  Inoludes  all  of  those  w i thin 

the  ",rholes  'of  Incorpor� t io n .   Coopera tives  are 

orl!en i Ze  e  oooperlltlv

privileges  except  votlng. 

l  supplies ,  8 S   well  liS 

te  membera  wl�h  ell 

lII8rketi.ng  s  pt

defin
e

househould 

primary 

eng<lpes 

uthor

fermer 

bl16Qk

hllB 

l �

ill

e8 

s  de­

A 

A 

ca

r 

a 

d 

a 

i.

d

AGRICULTURAL  COOPERATIVES  BY  FUOOTION 

As  Of  31  March  1950 

II 

Funotion 

Stook 

Nonetook 

Total 

General  purpose 
Serloulture 

Livestock 

olamation 

Re
Frults 
Tea 
Firswood  and 
charo0ll 1 
try  ra
Poul
Da iry  fllrming 

ising 

Others 

TOTAL 

l3,417 
136 
495 
1 , 348 
101 
33 

4h 
86 
321 
1 , 092 

1,627 
10,613 
491 
3,057 
63 
4 

4 
18 
- 69 
504 

15,044 
10,749 
986 
4,405 
164 
37 

50 
104 
390 
1 , 596 

17 , 075 

16 ,450 

33 , 525 

l

The  to
sten
lsss  than  the  number  in  e
reports  from  some  prefsotures .  

for  oooperatlves  classified  by  funot ions  are 
oe ,   owing  to  inoomplete 

xi

ta

s 

Tw o   or  more  cooperAtives  lIIIIy  orf!s n1 ze  a  federntion  of  agricultura l  cooperatives . 

feder>ltio na  /flSy 
perform  a ny  sctivity  whlch  the  loeel  cooper!l�lvea  lire  authorized  to  porform,  subjeot  to  certA l n   restrioti
Such 
ons 
conC1)rn!ng  the  simultnneous  performl.lnce  of  VqriOUB  functions .  If  A  feder":t
d  in  receiving  de­
posits  end  IIIIIklng  lOBns,  It  is  prohibited  from  perform.1ng  sddi tiol"l8l  functions  not  connected  with  thslUJ  aO­
ing  in  ed
tivities .  Feder�t10PB  en
minor  services  direotly  related  to  the 
ta
performanc-s  of  their  III!I jor  function. 
prefeoture  are  pro­
hibited  from  simultaneously  engaging  in  puroh/.ls1ng  a otivitles 
produots.  However,  a  marketing 
ing 

ucetions l ,  caltlll"l l ,  
a ll
sly  to  engage  in  businesa  a ctivitles 
Fe..:e
rsti ons  "hose  bUBinees  area  Is  lar

handle  special  supplies  required  in  the  production  and 

lIIIU'ket­
its  msmbers.  Federations  are  listed  by  lUnction  in  the  table,  FederatiOns 

g'!ge
thsir  ma j or  func.tion  a rs 

al! 
er  thon  8 
g

the  generol  mllrketillg  of 

d  welfAre  Il otivities 

v'1rlouB  ferm 

allowed  Sim

fcdel'lltion 

sxcept 

neou

is  en

'Inc! 

ga g

� 

not 

lo

ul

p 

the  pr
odU
Agricultural  C

or 

cts 
ooperati

it  markets  for 
ves 

Funotion. 

by 

or 

TA9 L.E  I.- POPUL.A T I O N   I N  THE  13  VI L.LAGES  IN  DEOEM9ER  1949 
AND  PEROENTAGE  OF  QHAN GE  DU R I N G   SURVEY  PERIOD 2J 
Percent  Change  '2/ 
Jun  47-nec 48 

Population 
Dec  48 

Village  and  Prefecture 

13  villages 

total 
11 rural  village's 
2 urban  villages 

Hok�...i!I.lc.1o 

.. �UTa, 

=acb1 1 

.. 
�tsu 
.. 
l'o'kolJ08hl .. .mUra, 
IWilto 
uqk8 
V1 
Nobuta':mura,  Nagano 
Kerako-mura,  Sal tam. 
Futomi-murs,  Chiba 
Kawashlro-mura,  Shizuoka 

N1iS�te. 

Nikalco-mura,  Nara 
Yoshida-mura,  Sbimane 
Oble-mura,  CkF.yama 
Alai-muraJ  Kagawa 
RODami-mura,  Fukuoka 
Swe-muTa.  Kumamoto 

125,960 

55,890 
70,070 

30,234 
3,272 
9,583 
3,667 
5,471 
2,752 
5,757 

11,437 
3,19< 
4,050 
4,569 
39,836 
2,140 

5.3 

0.3 
9.7 

7.5 
0.1 
1.5 
-1.1 
-0.9 
-2.6 
2.2 

-0.9 
2.2 
0.3 
0.:-
11.4 
3.8 

Total 

2  urban 
11  rurol 

su 

Ebe
MlzuftBke 
t
Yokogoehl 
Nobuta 
Kanka 
Futomi 
Kswashlro 

Nik.ieo 
Yoshida 
Obi. 
Aioi 
Honam1 
Su;y. 

� 

TABLE 

BI RTHS,  DEAT H S ,   AND  N A TU R A L   POP ULATION 

2 . -
I N OREASE  D U R I N G   1 9 4 9   OA L E N DAR  YEAR 

Yi11.g.  81rt.ba 

"uOl 

... � 

4,938 

2,484 
2,454 

1,037 
113 
624 
141 
227 
132 
280 

117 
m 
155 
212 
1,417 
106 

l)eatb. 
1,786 

990 
796 

315 
70 
192 
56 
92 
4) 
10) 

195 
63 
59 
82 
481 
35 

Percent 

Natural  Increase 

-

"""'-
&I 

2.5 

2.7 

2.4 
2.4 
1.3 
4.5 
2.3 
2.5 
3.2 
3 . 1  

1.6 
1.7 
2.4 
2.8 
2.3 
3.3 

1948 
!!I  June  1947  .n� 
�  Increase  except  where  minus 

nec.oiler 

sign  cenotes 

cecrease 

AI  Equals  Ducbor  of births  minus  number  of deaths,  remainder  divided 

by  tot.l  popule.tio
n

. 

TA B L E  

REG U LAR  AND  N E W - TYPE  RESI DENTS  2J I N  DEO E M BER  1 9 4 9  

3. -

Rogular  llo.ldonu 

Percent  of  Total 

Village 

Total 

Tot.l  13 

109,510 

Populat.lon 
87 

11  rural 
2  urban 

Ebetsu 
Mizu"ake 
Yokogoebi 
Nobuta 
Karako 
Futomi 
Ka .... sshiro 

Nikoido 
Yoshida 
Obi. 
Aio! 
Honalli 
SIIY" 

50,317 
59,193 

24,192 
2,867 
9,l.68 
3,61,6 
4,675 
2,l..02 
5,211 

9,803 
3,11\7 
3,798 
3,315 
35,001 

90 
84 

80 

99 
88 
99 
85 

91 
87 

86 
99 
94 
73 

91 
88 

1,91.5 

Total 

16,450 

5, 573 
10,977 

6,042 
405 
11 5 
21 
796 
350 
546 

1,634 
5 
252 
1,256 
4,�35 

195 

Nf!."-1"ypft  ReoHlonto!l 

PDrc�nt.  of 

Ilumber 

Civilian 
Repatriates  R;'lI"lri.t.e  Evacuees 
�Illt.ry 
2,827 
5,250 

B,37) 

1,178 
7,195 

4,382 
42 
11 
1 
0 
21 

9? 
502 
1 
104 
340 
2,813 
59 

2,163 
3,087 

1,442 
319 
)7 
8 
48 
174 
42B 

-

689 

9;  ... 
269 
1,645 
92 

2,232 
595 

218 
44 
67 
12 
748 
155 
21 

443' 
0 
53 
645 
)77 

44 

Total 

13 

10 
16 

20 
12 
1 

15 
1 
13 
9 

14 

6 
RI 
12 
27 

9 

Civilian 
Retla triates 

ToW  pooulat.1on 
Military 
Repatriates 

Evacuees 

7 

2 
10 

14 
1 

1lI 
EI 
1 
EI 
2 

4 
0 
3 
7 
7 
3 

4 

4 
5 

5 
10 

� 

6 
1 
7 

6 

2 
RI 
6 
4 

4 

2 
4 
1 

1 
1 

1 
14 
RI 
6 

RI 
4 
0 
1 
14 
1 

2 

Nell-tyue  re"sidents  are  civilian  repatrIates,  uilitary  repatriates,  and  evacuees. 
less  than  0.5 percent 

TABLE  4.  - PERO E N TAGE  OF  CHANGE 

I N  N U M BER  OF  R E G ULAR  AND 

N EW -TYPE  RESI DENTS  D U R I  N G   SURVEY  PERIOD 

Village 

Tot.l 13 

'rUral 
2  urban 
11 

Ebetsu 
¥izuwake 
Yokogoshi 
Nobuta 
Kusko 
Futomi 
KallBshiro 

Nikaido 
Yoshida 
Obi. 
110i 
Ronami 
S!O'o 

Regular 
Residents 

5.2 

2.5 
7.6 

1.9 
-0.2 
4.2 
0.6 
4.7 
-2. 1  
2.7 

2.3 
2.5 
1.1 
4.2 
11.@ 
3.2 

Total 

6.@ 

-15.0 
2).0 

37.6 
2.) 
-61.4 
-69.4 
-25.0 
-5.9 
-2.7 

-16.3 
·.-68.7 
-9.7 
-8.9 

9.6 
S.C 

... 
� 
II 
_
CiviliaD 
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TA B LE 
• 

1 2 .  - P E R C E NTA G E   OF  FAR M ERS  IN  EACH  OF  F I V E  

F A R M   T E N U R E   G R O U P S  

I N   J U N E   1947 Q/ 

TA B LE 

1 3 .- PE R C E N TA G E   OF  CHA N G E   IN  N U MB E R   OF  FAR MERS 

I N   EACH  FARM  TE N U R E   G R O U P   DURING  S U RV E Y   P ER I O D   � 

o o o o o £�  � � O O � � 

'" 
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0 '"  
@ .... 

Owner-Farmers 

OWning 
or  More 
90% 
of  land  Gulth'ated 

Owner-

OImer-TenantE  Own-

ng 

1
or 

Land 

LeEr 

Than 

Tenants 
CuI ti va ted  �ning  �:o 
9� 
Land  or 
Less 

Owner .. Farmers 
OWning  90%  or  More 
of  Land  Cultivated 

Onner .. Tenants  Own-
ing  Le..  Than  90% 
of 

Tenants 
Cultivated  Doming 
No  land 
or  Less 

10-50% 

OWner-

Laod 

Cultivators  s./  50-90% 

V1lla.ge 

Total  13 

rural 
2  urban 

11 

Ebetsu 
JUzu"ake 
Yokogoebi 
Robut
s 
Karako 
Futomi 
J{aw8shiro 

Nikaido 
Yoshida 
Obi. 
Aioi 

Hauam! 
Suye 

Lend10rds  !i./  Culti .... tor. 

50-90% 

10-50% 

9 

6 
19 

27 
4 
8 
3 
9 

r 

9 
2 
4 
3 

3 
4 

!<I 

27 

26 
30 

29 
24 
9 
12 
12 
57 
20 

5
1 
57 
8 
19 
31 
35 

22 

23 
19 

20 
27 
11 
51 
29 
29 
25 

23 
12 
11 
19 
17 
26 

6 

1

18 
10 

7 
16 
26 
20 
29 
9 
23 

3 
5 
30 

18 
16 
9 

defint�lon. 

..  tbo 

Than  10% 
26 

27 
22 

17 
29 
46 

14 
2l 
5 
24 

14 
24 
47 
41 
33 
26 

Village 

Totol  13 

11  rural 
2  urban 

ke 

Ebetau 
Yh
uws
Yokogoshl 
Nobuta 
Karako 
Futo
i 
m
Ka.aehiro 

Nikoido 
Yoshida 
Obie 
Aiol 
Hooami 
SW· 

lAndlords !lI 

-96 

-100 -92 

-93 
-100 
-100 
-100 
-100 
-100 
-100 

-100 
-100 
-100 
-100 
-91 
-100 

112 

III 

117 
54 
1
209 
954 
135 
89 
16 
116 

3 
57 
10 
9 
3
50 
10 

2

14 
/ 
22 
-17 

-40 
-58 
-83 
34 
46 
-4 
28 

39 
-56 
165 

17 
35 
116 

-32 

-34 
-
9 

1

-94 
-42 
-100 
-85 

-48 
-11 

-7 

24
8 
-71 
88 
-86 
1 
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Than  10% 

-70 

-79 
-33 

-23 
-55 
-100 
-86 
-64 
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-82 

-48 

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aha 
t 
Less  than  0 . 5   percent 

sid  I 
� 
TA B L E   1 4  - PERCENTAGE  OF  L A N D   OWNED  BY  LANOLORDS  AND 
1 9 48 
OWNER- C U LTIVATORS  A PR I L   1 947 

A N D   DEC E M B E R  

, 

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Village 

Total  13 

11  rural 
2  urban 

Ebetsu 

o o o o o  .... 

� 

0 0 00 0 00 
:;!, 

0 0 00 0 0  

i

UlIake 
lA
z
Yokogoshi 
Nobuta 
Karflko 
futon 
Ka
w

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Nikai do 
Yoshida 
Obie 
Aioi 
ona
H
Su,ye 

mi 

Owned  by  Landlords 

Jli 
Owned  by 

and  Rented  to  Tenants  Owner-Cult! vators 
Apr  47 

nec 

Apr 

Pee 

46 

40 
50 

50 
20 
58 
28 
40 
10 
3:1 

34 
42 
73 
29 
58 
29 

4S 
7 

8 
7 

6 
3 
3 
10 
12 
5 
9 

4 
14 
12 
7 
23 
10 

47 

4S 

51 

57 
46 

46 

77 
40 

70 
49 
8
8 
63 

66 
57 
25 
70 

42 
?l 

88 

90 
86 

87 
94 
94 

90 
e.7 
93 
90 

85 
94 
85 
93 
75 
86 

ot��; �� 

Apr  47 

Dec  48 

5 

2 
7 

7 
3 
3 
0 
1 
2 

1 
1 
2 
3 
0 

:I 4 

3 

3 
4 

4 

3 
2 
2 
11 
2 
5 

0 
1 
2 
1 
0 
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The  first  DurchRfle  cf  lane  by  the  government  WBS 

31  ltarcb  1947. 
Final  cisposltlcn  of  small  amounts  of  la
an� 

hrine

n

0)- by  thu  govenunent,  h,qr.  not  yet  been  rtIflrle. 

d ,  OlIned  by  tp.l1'1plef1: 

V 

BI 

s

r. 

TABLE  I S . - PERC E N T A G E   OF  FARMS  BY  S I Z E   OF  OPERAT I N G  

U N LT S,  A P R I L   1 9 4 7  

Less 

1-2 
Tan  A/  Tan 
t.ban 

2-3 
Tan 

3-5 
Tan 

5  Tan-
1  Cho 

Cho 
1-2 

1 

5 

6 
2 

b/ 
ii/ 
4 
4 

'l 
2 
39 

3 
7 
4 
12 
5 

1 

6 

7 
5 

2 
1 
'3 

1] 
3 
1'1 

6 
8 
6 
5 
11 

11 
S 

6 

6 
4 

1 
4 
!lI 
5 
12 
8 
7 

7 
I, 
4 

IG 
9 

p 

17 

1e 
1] 

5 
6 
35 
12 
1n 

If 
14 

?3 
16 
14 
19 
22 
7 

3:1 

36 
16 

7 

If 
29 
37 
29 
19 
48 

50 

2q 
47 

JB 
36 

'0 

23 
1� 

10 

If 
49 
38 
33 

2] 
1 

9 

1,0 
2/, 

10 
17 
39 

Villege 

Total  13 

II  rUlel 
22  urban 

Ebotsu 
:'�1zU1fake 
Yokogoeh i 
Nobuta 
l(arako 
Futomi 
i{a"ashiro 

a 
0 

Nlkaic1
Yoshl£J

Obi. 
Aioi 
Honsl\i 

Suye  ' 

2  Cho 

and  �ore 
11, 

4 
50 

7f. 

2? 
9 
1 
2 
0 
0 

.12/ 
Q 
!lI 
0 
0 
16 

�/  Includes  39  CarlA  househol c!s  thRt 

8:'  houeehold s  r81.sj n �   sllkltorms  c.r  keepir_f'  chtckens 

did 

2J. 

not  operRte  any  len�  such 

W  Less  thnn 

er

e

t 

r. �  p

c

n

s  sign  denotes  d ecrease 
Incre8S8  except  ",here  min
Leasiog  out 
u
Leasi

cbo  or  more 
g  out  lee9  than  oDe  cbo  or  DaDa 

009 

n

sl 
EI 
W 

TA B L E   15  - F A R M   H O U S EH O L D S   OWN I N G   NO  LAN D   OR  HOM E  
SITE  AND  PERCENTAGE  O F   CHANG E ,   APR I L   1947 - DECEMBER I948 

Number 

Percent  of  ).11 
Households 

FAnn 

Village 

Apr  47  nec  48 

Apr  4

7 

nec  48 

Percent Change � 

Apr  47-Dec  4 

Total  13 

379 

11  rural 
2  urban 

313 
66 

ake 

Ebetsu 
Y!
Yokogoehi 
zuw
Nobuta 
Kareko 
futo
i 
lll
Ka"8shlro 

Hlk.ico 
shic
Y
Obi. 
o
Aioi 
Honaroi 

o 

S�e 

48 
25 

8 
42 
10 

2 
9 

30 
139 

10 
35 
18 

3 

164 

121 
43 

29 
22 
20 
8 
10 
1 
9 

36 
5 
3 
4 

3 
14 

4.

3 
4.6 
.4 

3

3.7 
5.6 
3 . 8  
1.3 
1.3 
0.8 
1.2 

2 . 6  
38.1 
2 . 0  
5.6 
2.7 
1.2 

1.� 

1.8 
2 . ]  

2.2 
4.9 
1 . 8  
1.3 

1.3 
0
1. 
.
1.2 

3 . 1  
1.3 
0 . 6  
0.6 

1.2 
2.0 

!!/  IncreaEE.:  e
x

c e

t 

Fign  denotE-£'  dt:creaee 

p

where  minus 

-56.7 

-61 . 3  
-34.8 

-39.6 

-13.6 
-52.4 
0.0 
0.0 
-50.0 
0 . 0  

-20.(1 
-96 .1. 
-70.0 
-88.6 
-�2.2 
0 . 0  

T A B L E   17. - P E R CENTAGE  OF  C H A N G E   I N   N U M B E R   OF  FA R M S, 

BY SIZE  OF  OPERAT I NG  UNITS, 

A P R I  L  1947- D E C E M B ER  194 8 

Village 

Total  1  Tan  ll/ 

leSB  than  1-2 
Tan 

� 

3- 5  5  Tan-
2-3 
Tan  Tan  1  Cho 

2  Cho 

1-2 
Cho  and  More 

Total  13 

1 

11  rural 
urban 

2 

Ebetsu 
�1hul1ake 
Yoko!toshl 
t!obtlt& 
Kal"
ko 
t'
Futoml 
KA.'!�shiro 

Nika1ro 

'ioBhlcla 

Obi. 
Jdd 
H('Inami 
Swe 

51 
3 

:I 
sI 
£I 
1 
-1 
0 

I 

-d 
2 

S/ 
5 
r:/ 
2 

-4 

-4 
6 

0 

0 
-34 
0 
-
1
2) 
-2 

7 

-21 
13 
5 
-1 
7 
-100 

-1 

-3 
7 

7 
-75 
-13 
22 

-14 
1, 
11 

7 
5 
" 
-17 
7 

6 

7 
3 

6 
400 
-38 
-4' 
-1 
-3 
2 

33 
7 
-5 

2 
12 

4 

� 
-5 

-32 

(1 
8 
-4 
4 
0 
5 

II 
4 

4 
-2 
8 

-1 

-2 

14 

17 
1 
2 
1 
5 
0 
' I  

J 
3 
2 

7 
0 
," 
4 

-6 
0 
-1 

_2 

-45 

0 
? 
-2 

0 
-� 
0 

II 
2 

-7 

-40 
2 

2 
-2 
-95 
-50 
-25 
0 
0 

-100 
0 

0 
0 

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I-

TAB LE 

L A N D  I N  P RO .J E CTED  REOLAMATION  PROJECTS  A N D  

E X P E CTED  N EW  SETTLER  HOUSEHOL D S ,   DE C E M B ER 

18.-

TABLE 
I N  J U N E  
1 9. 

- A G R I C U  LTU R A L   PRACTICE  ASSOCI AT I O NS 
AND � N FORMAL  SERV I C E   GROU PI N G S  I N  

1 947 

DE C E M B E R  

Total L8nd 
In  Projeoted 
Reclamation 
Projeots 
(cho) 

Land 
to  bo  Used 
R.sidont 

1>7 

Farm. Households 
(cho) 

V111age 

Total 

10 

5,270 

rural 
urban 

8 
2 
Ebetlill 
Miz\l1lake 
Yokogosh1 
Nobuta 
Karako 
Futon 
Kalll'Bsbiro 

1I1ko1do 
Yoshida 
Ob1. 
.1.101 
BODami 

Suyo 

261 
5,009 

5,000 
27 
12 
W 
85 
']/ 
22 

W 
26 
4 
28 
9 
57 

S8 

79 
9 

0 
N.I. 
17 

0 
11.1. 
5 

4 
11.1. 

14 
4 
10 
9 
25 

,!I  Eatlloate.  only 
'fd  No  land  available  for  reclarlatloD 

Not  applicable 

IIA. 

TAB LE 

ESTI MAT E D   PERCENTAGE  OF 

STAPLE CROPS  NEEDED  TO  MEET  DELIVERY 

20.-

Q UOTAS, D E C E M B E R  

Village 

Rice 

Total 

13 
11 rural 
urban 

2 

55 

56 
51 

F2letlU 
lI1.uwaka 

50 
54 
Nobuta 
YokogoBbi  60 
34 
Xarsko 
Futon 
liD 
KB;wlIlshiro 
5 
42 

lIikaido' 
Yoshida 
Obi. 
Aio1 
Holl8lli 
Suye 

41 
47 
68 
27 
53 
liD. 

!I  Estimate. 

Wheat  alld 
Borl.,. 

1 9 48  9J 
S1Jset  lIhite 
potatoes  potatoee 

53 

59 
29 

23 
liD 
liD 
25 
58 
42 
17 

J,4 

45 
41 

NIl 
liD 
54 
24 
59 
15 
J,4 

50 

58 
47 

47 
59 
76 
64 
40 
31 
71 

, 62  
10 
74 
48 
45 
73 

liD 
19 
63 
23 
41 
57 
10col  village  off1ciala 

NIl 
53 
liD 
liD 
liD 
NIl 

110  dato  ."a1lal>la 
lOlU'Ie by 

liD: 
T

BLE 

1948 
...  Sottlor 

Households 
II 
Expocted 
on  Reolamation 
project. 

599 

99 
500 

500 
11.1. 
7 

6 
39 
NA 
9 

NA 
6 
0 
12 
0 
20 

, 

by 

to  bo  Uoed 

land 
....  Sottlor 
Hou.ohold. !I 
(cbo) 

II 

5,182 

182 
5,000 

5,000 
RA 
10 
12 

80 
N.!. 

18 

NA 

12 
0 
18 
0 
32 

TAB LE 

1 948 

iDeal 
.I.gricultural 
Practioe  ASBIl8, 

iDcal  InfoI'Ml 
Service 
Groupings, 

JUD  47 

D.c  48 

Pel'Cf3nt 
!norene 
in  Informal 

Praetice 

Group.  over 

.bens 

213 

195 
18 

NIl 
NIl 
34 
)4 
16 
7 
9 

3) 
liD 
50 
NIl 
18 
12 

259 

233 
26 

NIl 
NIl 
37 
41 
28 
10 
11 

33 
NIl 
60 
NIl 
26 
13 

21.6 

19.5 
J,4.4 

liD 
liD 
8.8 
20.6 
75.0 
42.9 
22.2 

0.0 
NIl 
20.0 
NIl 
J,4.4 
8.3 

V1llage 

Total 

9 
rural 
urban 

8 
1 
EbetBu 
Mizuwake 
Yokog\lohi 
Nobuta 
Karako 
Futo�i 
Kawashiro 

ll1kaido 
Yoshida 
Obio 
Aioi 
HonalDl 
Suye 

No  data  available 

ND. 

CONS U M ER  GOODS  IN  KAR A K O ,  

OFFI C I A L   A N D   B L A C K - MA R K ET  PRI C E S   F O R   FA R M   PRODU CTS  AND 
D ECE M B E R  

AND  DECEMBER 

21.-

!ll 

1 9 4 7  

IDeree88 

iD 

12-Month 
Period 
(peroent) 

Dec 

(,.en) 
48 

(yen) 

Dec  47  DtC  48 
yen) 

1948 

lucrease 

1a 

12-Montb 
Period 
(percent) 

1,750 
t,427 
1,023 
96 
87 

3, 595 
2,922 
2 , 260 
173 
173 

12,75�  15,000 
105.4 
117.5  12,160  13,760 
120.9 
9,130 
250 
80.6 
320 
99.3 

6,850 
175 
215 

17.6 
13.2 
31.4 
42.9 
48.8 

300 
69 

185 
550 

83.3 
166.2 

2,500 
150 

3,000 
450 

20.0 
200.0 

Ite. 

Unit 

(yen) 
Dec  47 

FaI"ll  Products 

Rice 
Soybeans 
1rb.eat 
Sweet  potatoes 
potatoes 

Wbi to 

Consumer  Goode 

KokU 
KokU 
KokU 

!i/ 

kan sI 

10 
10  kan 

Cotton  textiles  tOI' 
work  clothes.. 
Rubber-soled  shoes 
COmlllercial  ferti-
llzer  (a.-oniua 
,illate) 

Hand  scythe  tor 
h8.rvestlng 

Suit 
Pair 

kan 

10 
Piece 

!I 

.. illoge 
pric 

rant....  Karako  iB  r.lati".� 

highor thOD 

"",re 

Info ...... ticn tro 
.. king  l>laok-wkot 

�  Ona  koku  eq\l&lo  330  po""".  of 

Ona  Un  equal.  8.267  poundll. 

:p 

for 

otrtoiolJl  and 
r1co, 
t6'" pl'O<fucto 
•• 

301  po""".  or nut, 

or 
in 

283 

265  481) 
67 
10 

570.0 

81.2 

1,000 

1,200 

20.0 

120 

150 

25.0 
o
010"  to 
, 
ky
.c""to  ar"" •• 
po"""- or  0071>_0. 

To

FAR M S   IN  DECEMBER 
A

22.-

NUM BER  OF AN I M A LS  AN D  FOWLS  ON 
AND  PERCENTAGE  OF 

TA BLE 
FOWLS  IN  DECEMBER 

23.-

FARM  HOUSEHOLDS  W I THOUT  AN I M ALS  A N D   WITHOUT 

AND  PE R C E NTA G E   OF  CHANGE  DURING 

1948 
C H A N G E   DUR I N G   SU R V EY  P E R I O D  

1 948 

S U R V E Y   P E R I O D  

.l.ni .. 

l'owls 

la 
Peroent, 
Incr-oeae 

IIU111ber 

in 

Doo  48  Jun  47-1)'0  48 

Percent 

Number  in 

Doc 

Jun 

Chenge AI 
47-De.  48 

48 

4,394 
5,702 

4,949 
658 
5?3 
429 
521 
184 
277 

9 

16 
4 

1 
10 
5 
18 
31 
24 
42 

11 
8 
7 
10 
3) 
4) 

who-ro  ,ainu. 

)2,)27 

23,869 
8,458 

3,306 
1,385 
8,299 
667 
1,026 
07 
7
1,49) 

3,026 
. 980 
3,195 
2,015 
5,152 
1.076 

14 
14 

14 

8 
20 
)1 
1 

!!I 
48 
-23 

1 
16 
18 
2 
18 
24 

, 

perc.nt 

e1.gn  "onotOfl  dODreiae 

13  10,096 

Vi

llage 

Total 

rural 
urbaD 

11 
2 
Ebetlu 
li1"",ake 

Nobuta 
Iokogoab1 
Karako 
Futo.1 

. 

_ •• hi,.. 
Nika1do 
Yoshida 
Obie 
Aioi 
Horuml. 

178 
501 
341 
435 
753 
347 
_y  InarooDO  axo.ept. 
hi  Lo •• 

81.0'0 

than 

0.5 

268 

flollseholds Without Animals 

Households  lI'ithout  ,owle 

Total 

Village  Do. 

Percent  of 
All  1a,.. 
Householde 

Total  12 

10  ruro1 
2  urban 

Ebetsu 
Ki"",oke 
Yokogo.b1 
Nobuta. 
Kareko 
Futon 
Ka ... ashiro 

Nikoido 
Yoshida 
Obi. 
Aioi 
Ho 
Suye 
..... 

1 

48 

3 .641 

2.996 
645 

354 
78 
564 

liD 

191 
134 
525 

1,001 
9? 
178 
193 
291 
35 

J,4 

48 
)2 

27 
17 
51 
liD 
25 
52 
68 

86 
26 
36 
31 
14 
41 

Percent 
Change  AI 

Tot-al 

Percent 

or 
Bouaehold. 
ill hra 

Jun  47-Dea  4!  Dec  I,l\ 

-5 

-7 
) 

2 
-12 
-6 
liD 
-S 
-3 
-14 

-2 
-26 
-1 
-8 
-17 
3 

2,135 

1,316 
825 

538 
57 
234 

liD 

123 
161 
132 

363 
54 
51 
105 

287 
10 

26 
21 

41 

41 
13 
21 
liD 
16 
63 
17 

33 
15 
21 
8 
41 
4 

PerC8t1t 
CbaDgo 111 

lUll  47"Do.  48 
-10 

·_22 
16 

-

1 
-49 
-49 
NIl 
9 
1 
-14 

-4 
_21 
-17 
46 
71 
-64 

, 

!I  lncre.8E1  except  where  minus  sign denotes  decre8.D8 
lID:  No  data  available 

27.  - P E R C ENTAGE  D E C R E A S E   I N   DEATHS  FROM  ALL 

TA B LE  C A U S E S   N OV E M B E R   1 9 4 5 - NO V E M BER  1948 
Percent  Decrease  in  Number, 

, 

Death  Rate 

per 

1,000 

Kov  47-Nov 

48 

Nov  47-Nov  48  as 

Compared  .ith 

Nov  45-Ho ..  46 

!I 

Nov  46-Nov  47 

W 

Village 

Total 

13 

rural 

11 

2  urban 

ets
u 
ke 
Eb
Mizuw
a
Yokogoshi 

lfobuta 
Karako 
Futon 

KS1f8Sh1:ro 
o 
Nika
Yoshida 
(lJie 

id

Aioi 
Hanam! 
Suye 

1.2 

13 

11 

9 

11 
13 

12 
9 

11 
12 

14 
19 

11 
13 

12 
17 

21 

26 
16 

28 
0 

12 
49 

64 
38 
26 

9 
6 

14 
19 
5 
39 

19 

21 
17 

)0 

24 
7 
35 
54 
40 
17 

19 
3 
19 
11 
7 
29 

ne

eterm
tra
i
from  the  n'Wllber  av 

d  by  sub
N

ct
5
4

1�g  D
-"aT 

umber  of  deaths  during 
vidin
by  the 

and  d
i

g 

46 

Nov  47  Nov  48 
-
Ullber 
45-
D

NoV 

y  D

Nov  46. 
Detel'1lined 
s�tra
cL
r 
from  the  nUTI.\l
b! 
4
s
"aV 

in 
N

!J 

umber 
and 

47 

of 
d
i

�

1l

v

Hov  47. 

deaths 
v

Nov  47-11ov  48 
ding  by  the  DWlber  Nov  46-
i

during 

TA B L E   2B - DEATHS  CAU S E D   BY  C O N TA G I O U S   D I S E AS E S , 
'
E  OF  ALL  DEATHS  AN D  PERC ENTAGE  OF  DEC R EASE 
PERCENTAG

N O  

V E M B E R   1 9 45  N OVEM BER  1948 
-
Percent  Decreaee  in 

Percent 

of  all  Deaths 
Nov  47-Hov  48  Nov  45-Nov  46 

Hov  47-Ho.  48 

!I 

1 . 5  

1.4 
1.6 

1.0 
7.3 
0.0 
4.7 
3 . 8  
0 . 0  
1.4 

0 . 0  
1.6 
2 . 3  
0.0 
2.0 
0 . 0  

73 

81 
57 

84 
50 
100 
60 
90 
0 
67 

100 
75 
50 
100 
9 
100 

as 

Huaber, 

with 

Ce"PoJ'od 

Hov  46-Hov  47 

l!I 

59 

66 
52 

50 

0 
0 
+100 sf 

83 
0 
50 

100 
67 
+lOO U 
0 
52 
0 

Village 

Total 

13 
rural 

11 

2  urban 

Ebetau 
Mlzu"ske 
Yokogoshi 
Nobute. 
Xarako 
Futollli 

KawlUlhlro 

o 
a 

d
d

lksl
N
Y
shi
o
Obi. 
Aioi 

HaDami 

SU70 

m

net
d  b�  9ubtra
trom  the  DWlber  Nov 

ne

.

i

Hov  45-11ov  46. 
neUnnnod 
froD 

b�
iD 

tra
.ub
DWI  er  aT 
H

ct
4

ct
5
4

ieg  Oumb
46 
-1'10V 
i 
:�
6-

D'"'
47 

v 

o�i�

e
a 

�d 

�:

�� :;r��: !�;� Ho  48 

- .. 

:::

iD 

d 

t  deathA 
0 dlddlns  by 

the 

duriDg fto

v 
DUllber 

47-lIov  48 

!I 

W 

TA B L E   3 1 .  - P E RC E N TA G E   OF  CH A N G E   I N   N E W   U P P E R  
S E C O N D A R Y   S C H OOL  9J  E N R O LLM ENT  D U R I N G  S U RVEY 

TA B L E   32.-PERCENTA G E   OF  ALL  HOU S E H OL D S   IN  W H I C H  
O N E   OR  MORE  M E M BERS  A R E   AFFI L I ATE D   W I TH  R EL I G I OU S  

Village 

Total 

P E R I O D  

.!Y 

llale 

emal

e 

F

GROUPS 
, 

DEC E M B ER  1948 

Shlntoism 

9.J 

Village 

Shrine 

Seotarian 

Total 

7 

rural 

urban 

6 
1 

Ebetau 
Mlw"ue 
Yok
o
Nobuta 

gosbi 

Karako 
Futo1ll. 
Kaw

ahlr

8.

o 

Hikaido 
Yoshida. 
Obi. 
Aioi 
Honam 

8\11e 

10 

11 
9 

lID 
-19 
4 

lID 
lID 
lID 
13 

41 
0 

lID 
lID 
9 

-1.2 

1.2 

17 
7 

lID 
-11 
32 

lID 
lID 
liD 
14 

52 
0 

ND 
ND 
7 
-17 

5 

-4 

1.2 

lID 
-46 
-56 

lID 
lID 
lID 
1.2 

21 
0 

lID 
lID 
12 
0 

TotAl 

13 
rural 

11 

2  urban 

Ihetsu 
ake 
¥izu
"
Yokogoshi 

Nobuta 
Rar
ko 
a
Futon 
J(n"8sbiro 

ikaid
o 
H
Yoshida 
Obio 

Aioi 
Hon&m1. 

Su.ye 

Level  of  senior  high  Bchool 
Increase  except  1Ihere  minus  sign  denotes 

!I 
.hi 
NO,  No  data 

a
vai

l

ble 

a

reas
c

e

d

e 

AI 

l!I 

68.8 

96.1 
48.5 

68.3 
100.0 
100. 0  
100.0 
100 . 0  
97. 5 
100 . 0  

92.6 
88.9 
91.9 
90.7 
34.9 
100.0 

4 . 5  

2 .5 
6.0 

2.6 
0.6 
0 . 0  
0 . 1  
0.0 
0.0 
1.5 

sf 

ud

B

sm 

h

d

i

53.0 

96.3 
21.2 

9.7 
78.2 
100.0 
61.7 
5 5 . 7  
100.0 
83.2 

82.7 
93.7 
84.6 
98.3 
29.1 
99.4 

hris

iao

t

i

y 

t

C

0.4 

0.7 
0.2 

0.2 
0 . 0  
0.0 
0.0 

1.0 
0.0 
0.2 

2.3 
0.0 
1.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.0 

9.6 
2 . 6  
0.4 
1.5 
8.3 
0 . 0  
ffiliated 
a

with  more  than  one 

type  of 

Wa.nr  households  are 
religious  organization. 
Sh

Shin

W  Shrtno 
organizat101'\9  of  shrines  It'b,ich 
or 

government-sponsored 

to  (Jinjya 

in

the 
Shinto 
the  Shinto 

or  Xokka 
D

by 
selves  remain  uodiaturbed 

to)  refers  to  religious 

lIIovellenh 

and 

pt..rt. 
troll  1868  to  1945 
te
Stat. 
Shinto) .  The  Shrjno  Systet.  W8S  diseatabl1.bed 
m 
irect
The  shrines  them­

ShriD!)  s:ra
,  15  Decetlber  1945 . 

as  local,  independent 

leo  known 

became 

as 

iv

(a

es

a 

Sh

13 

in
order  to 

to  sBcts,  which  the  government 

and  operate 
Shinto)  lI&S  formerly  used  to  refer  to 

orp:ll1.zatioDs . 
religioua 
Seetarl!Ul  Shinto  (K,yohai 
the 
in 
to 
Shinto  sects.  The  various  organizations  of  Shrine  are  also 
technically  Shinto  sects, 
to  them. 

distinguish  them  from  Shr
nonreligious.  Tbe  term  i.  used 

dssignate 
used  to  apply 

but  the  term 

ine  Shinto , 

elassified 

Is  neve

today 

all 

which  wss  said 

be 

to 

r 

as  religious, 

tcho 
46-Mov 

47. 

No 

.. 

t  i:::::: �:: 
:� 

in  1946-47  to  t_o  death.  in 1947-48 
death  in  1947-48 

one 

1946-47  to 

d  th 
th
d

::

:  in 

r.J 

TA B LE  29. - C R I M E S   REPORTED 

16  MAY  1 9 4 7 - 15  NOVEMBER 

1 9 4 8   A N D 

PERC E NTAG E  OF  CHANGE 

FROM 

1 6   NO V E M B E R   1 9 4 5 - 1 5   M AY 

1 9 4 7 

Percent 

Change 
l!I 
1n  Major 
Crimes 

69 

10 
80 

138 

U 
-100 
0 
300 
0 

!I 

MI 
-50 

U 
100  !I 

-100 
70 
0 

Per

e

t 

c

n
Cbange 
W 
in  Ninor 
Crimes 

29 

64 20 

)0 
-53 
191 
-40 
-7 
75 
50 

-17 
150 
171 
63 
6 
267 

ri

rte

es 
�ep
C
:n
d 
:.!ay  47-
Nov 
48 

o

ent 

Per
of  To

c
Population  !I 

l 

ta

Percent  Change 
In  Number 
mp

p./ 
h 
it
ar
Nov  45-Yay  47 

8.9  Co

ed  w

ll

V

i

a

ge 

. 

1 

1 
3 

4 

£I 
4 

£I 
1 
1 

£I 
1 

£I 
1 

2 
£I 
1 

30 

63 
22 

31 
-53 
189 
-38 
0 

60 
50 

-18 
150 
200 
44 

10 
267 

August 
dgn  denotes  decrease 

1948 

Total 

13 

11  rural 
2  urbaD 

Ebetsu 
tl.lz
u1'f
Yokogoahl 

ake 

Nobuta 
ka 
r
a
Ka
F'UtOlIi 

l(e..-l!!IiJIhiro 

Nikaldo 
Yoshida 
Obie 

Aioi 
Han
a

mi 

2 , 529 

629 
1,900 

1, 159 
14 

378 
10 
46 
16 

12 

103 
5 
21 
13 
741 
11 

ot  1 
minus 

a

nopulatlon  8S 
where 
except 

51O"e 
§!  Baeed  on 
'!l/  Incre
se 
�
sf  US8  �An  o. 5  �e1'eent 
e 
!lI  P.t'eeftt�e  16  hiBb 
!I  Ilono  in  Nov  J. 5-'(a;r  £7 
270 

IIIIllor  ClueD  repo,rted 

No 

ror
beuuee  0 

f

e

it
h
t

h
e
e  a 

e

1 
��

� �

d  1n  this  village 
ber  (one)  in 

Nov  45�May'  47. 

TA B LE  30.- P E R C E N TA G E   OF  C H A N  GE  I N   NEW 
L O W E R   S E C O N D A R Y   S C H O O L   E N R O LL M ENT.Qj 

D U RI N G   S U R V E Y  PE R I O D  

.!Y 

Village 

Total 

1Ia1e 

'ellBl. 

TABLE  3 3 . - P E RCENTAGEOF  H O U S E HOLDS  HAVI NG  R A D I O S   AND 

TA B L E   34.- P E R C E NTAG E  OF  P ERSONS  OF  VOT I N G   A G E  

P E R C ENTAGE  TA K I N G   N EW S PA P E R S   IN  J U N E   1 9 4 7   A N D  

I N  

W H O   VOTED 

I N   HOUSE  O F   REPRESENTAT IVES  ELECTIONS 

D E C E M B E R   1 9 4 8 

I N   A P R I L  1 9 47  AND  J A N UARY  1 9 4 9  

Total 

13 

ll =al 
urban 

2 

Ebeteu 

WiBuwalce 
YokogoEibi 

Nobuta 
Karako 
Futon 

shlro 

Ka1la
i

aldo 
N
Yoshida 

k

Obie 
Aioi 
Manami 
5\11e 

21 

22 
20 

7 

14 
31 
7 
30 
-14 

17 

58 
27 
35 
8 
36 
27 

20 

20 
21 

4 
' 7  
25 
3 
38 
-15 
23 

60 
22 
29 
1 
44 

8 

22 

26 
18 

11 
22 
40 

11 
21 

-14 
12 

55 
32 

44 
16 
28 
53 

!I  Level 

of  junior 
Increase  except  where 

alnus 

hIgh .sehoal 

e  gn  e 

•  d  notes  d

1 

ecreaee 

W 

Percent  Having  Radios 

SY 

Percent 
Taking 
Daily  Newspaper 

Villoge 

Jun  47 

nec 

48 

Jun  47 

nec 

48 

Total 

13 

rural 

11 

2  urban 

Ebetsu 
Mizu
w
Yokogoshi 
Nobuta. 

ske 

ahlro 

K

Karako 
Futomi 
"
a
8
aldo 
da 

l
N
k
Yosh
i
Obi. 

Hoi 
Hanam! 
8uye 

53 

61 
48 

70 
65 
50 
70 
60 
50 
75 

80 
20 
60 
47 
30 
20 

64 
68 
61 

90 
75 
65 
80 
85 
50 
80 

80 
30 
70 
52 
40 
25 

81 

76 
85 

90 
70 
80 
60 
70 
50 
90 

70 
75 
90 
85 
80 
40 

83 

76 

88 

90 
70 
80 
70 
70 
50 
85 

70 
85 
90 
85 
85 
40 

• 

y 

EstllMtes.  based  on  reports  of  assembled 

illage  leaders . 

v

Village 

Total  13 

11  rural 
2  urban 
e

su 

t
Eb
\4izuwake 
Yokogoshi 

shiro 

Nobuta 
KBrako 
Futollli 
W
K
a

8
Nikaido 
Yoshida 
Obie 
Ai
i 
o
Hon8Illi 

Suye 

Fercenta,g-e 

in 

Voting 
1947 

pr

l 
i
tions 
c

le

A
�

Percentage  Voting 

In 

January  1949 
Ele�tionB 

69 

69 
71 

66 

66 
57 
60 
70 
68 
83 

74 
85 
44 

65 
75 
79 

. 

It 

75 

79' 

72 

64 
71 
74 
71 
89 
72 
92 

77 
98 
65 
84 
78 
85 

271 

T A BLE 

35.-

P ER C E NTAG E  D ISTR  
I 

B U T I O N   OF  BAL LOTS  BY  PART I E S  

IN  AP R I L   1 9 4 7   AND  JAN U A R Y I949 £] 
All  Othe

Independents 

COIDInunists 

DelDOorot.1a 
hpr  47 

Lib

rals 

e
Jan  49 

'!J/ 

21 

27 
16 

3 

6 
14 

5t: 
L 3  
77 

, 0  
2 
7 
39 
20 

25 
78 

34 

45 
23 

16 

49 
21 
40 

72 
84 
53 

1� 
33 
40 
82 
28 
69 

Village 

Total  13 

11  rural 
2  urban 

Ebetsu 
!aozuwakp, 
Yokogoshi 

Nohuta 
KBrako 
Futomi 
Kawa

hir

o 

s
Klkaido 
Yoshida 
Oble 
Aiol 
HoDBmi 
suye 

Democrats 

Apr  47 

Jan  49 

Soc ial  remo crats 

J.pr  47 

Jan  49 

23 

28 
19 

15 
54 
52 
15 
31 
19 
16 

25 
59 
6 
8 
19 
13 

1� 

20 

16 

16 
1 
26 
21 
6 
10 
3 

50 
24 
19 
1 
15 
13 

)0 

22 

J? 

21. 
26 
36 
18 
l 
2
1 
26 

8 
18 
37 
55 
45 
3 

16 

9 
24 

n 32 
11 
6 
5 
0 
8 

4 
2l 
8 
9 
25 
2 

Apr  47 

Jan  49 

ilpr  47 

Jan  49 

Apr  47 

4 

4 
4 

2 
3 
4 
3 
4 
1 

12 

1 
8 
3 
5 
4 

gj 

9 

9 
9 

8 
6 
12 
15 
14 
2 
13 

6 

13 
J. 
6 
10 

1 

4 

1 
6 

15 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 
0 
11 
0 
0 

18 

18 
19 

41 
3 
2 
8 

1 
3 
6 

64 
8 
15 
1 
7 
6 

? 

1 
1 

2 
11 
0 
0 
0 
1 
19 

0 
3 
0 
0 

1 
gj 

s 

r
sJ 
Jan  4>=J 

21 

27 
14 

37 

1 
30 
18 
3 
3 
4 

22 
9 
29 
2 
22 

14 

or  F.epresentatl ves 
. 
t,  In  1947 

•• oopcrratives  and  others 

P.OU38 
....
�he  L\�e ·o.l  P 

In  elftCtion  for 
a 
Can� 
J 
"'
�I  Inhluc!IlS  "'It.t-nlll 
/ 
�/  Le ••  �1u>n  O. 5  p�ent 

TA B L E  

L A N D   US E ,   D E C E M B E R   1 9 4 8  

3 6 .-

( pe r c e n t ) 

Total 

Cultivated 

(cho)  Total  Fa�dy  UplBnc 
Uno 

Permanent 

Pasture 

For6'lls 

Village 

Total  13 

11  rural 
u,-ban 

'2 

Ebetsu 

ii'l.\lwake 
YOkllgoshi 
Nobuta 
rako 
K

a

�toJd

... 

1\B" 

" 

blr't . 

l': lkaico 
ic8 
Yos
h
Oble 
}'iol 

� 

34 

26 
46 

1.l,506 

24,2'17 
17,229 

15,907  47 
31 
2,,27 
'97 
1, 558 
27 
l,o<� 
52 
24 
37 

1,180 
1 , 545 
J.7S 
1,
81 
2
9, 516 
526 
2, B6a 
1,;22 
1,132 

72 
4 
75 
12 
34 
34 

12 

17 
6 

4 
22 
59 
13 
15 
14 
17 

68 
3 
70 
10 
31 
22 

22 

9 

40 
43 

38 
9 
17 
37 
101 
20 

4 
1 
5 
2 
3 

12 

9 

13 
3 

3 
6 
0 

0 
� 
2 

32 

0 
26 

0 
0 
0 

0 

39 
57 

11. 

13 
61 
0 
71 
42 
52 

23 

0 

A9 
20 
B6 
25 
<'5 

T AB L E   37  - P E R C E N T A G E   OF  ARAB L E   LAND  BY 
J UN E   1 947  AND  DECEM BER  1 9 4 8  
O W N E R S H I P  

c 
� 
June  1947 

Building 
SiteS 

Waste-
lAnds 

2 

1 
2 

1 
2 

2 
2 

6 
3 

3 
3 

5 
Y 
1 
16 
1 

16 

3 
35 

36 
0 
1 
0 
0 
19 

Y 25 
1 

£I 

!/ 1 
0 
25 sf 

Village 

Total  13 

11  rural 
urhtin 

2: 

EbetSl: 
::17-11Wti'kc 
Yoko['oshl 

Nobut& 
Karako 
I'Iltol:i 
Kawashiro 

NikeiCo 
Yos!lira 

(blo 
A1('1 
Hot.fI.!!:! 
Suye 

G

oup 

r

I 
46 

39 

50 
50 
20 
58 
28 
40 

32 
10 

34 
42 

7� 
29 
58 
29 

Group 
II 

51 

58 

4� 
46 

40 
77 
70 
49 
68 
63 

66 
57 
25 
70 
42 
71 

Group  G

up 

ro
IV 

GroUP 
I 

III 
1 

2 

-
b '  
' 

3 
£/ 
2 
2 

5 
2 
2 

0 
1 
2 
1 
0 
0 

2 

1 
4 

4 
0 
0 
0 
6 
0 
3 

9./ 
C 
0 

C 
0 
£I 

7 

8 
7 

6 

3 
:; 
10 

l� 
5 
10 

15 
4 

V 
6 
23 
10 

December  lC,lI 

II 

roup  I "roup  roup 
IV 
4 

III 

89 

92 
e6 

'87 

97 
94 
90 
87 
93 
90 

85 
91. 
87 
94 
75 
86 

£/ 

0 
2,/ 

0 
() 

0 
0 

0 
£I 
0 

0 

G 
0 
0 
0 

£/ 

7 
!./ 

7 
0 
3 
0 

�/ 
£/ 
0 
2 
1 

2 
£I 
4 

I . 

.. 
o 

Ofloner_c:ult1vatorl 

na6  ltV 

!:I  GrmJp 
by 
ploBJ  Group  I't' ,  
£,,'  Lus  than 

O. S  percent. 

\...u  lAndlortla  snc) 
, 
III 

r 
II, 
r:tt1d  out, 
o,.ne� 
o.n61"g  d l!Sposal .. 
bv 
...  p 
• 
O'lnled  by  gcvel�n 

roup 

G 

Group 

w  eo 
ahrir.es  aoo  tem ... 

0  D 

M E M B E R SH I P   I N   G ENERAL  P U R P O S E   AG R I C U LT U R A L   C O O P E R A T I V E   A S S OC I AT I O N S  

TAB L E  

36.-

V.embers 

¥lomen 

cer.t 

Pe
of  Total 

r

Total 

N\nr.ber 

11, 179 

1,337 

7 ,746 
3 ,t31 

1,431 

1,

423 
4 
13
585 
744 
368 
840 

1,445 
4R6 
520 
789 
2 ,000 
414 

707 
630 

30 

50 
8 

;& 

3 
35 

21 

gj 

2S9 
19 
20 
150 
600 
88 

12 
9 
18 

2 

12 
1 
4 
3 
1 

4 
20 

4 
4 
19 
30 
21 

Associ.l" 

Nuu:blJr' 

1 ,317 

841 
476 

6) 
1C 

72 
20 
56 
0 
115 

330 
157 
30 
48 
413 
3 

ltonvot.1� 

Percent 
of  Total 

14t 
lJ 

14 
4 

2 
6 

3 
8 
0 
14 

23 
)2 
6 
6 
21 
1 

Total 

144 
95 

4'1 
1t. 
16 
12 

12 
16 
1< 

NI:' 
Ill' 

h'D 
13 

9 
9 
17 

12 

Board  of  f.lrectol'B 
New 

�1embel'S  of 
Fo)'me

r 

�ogyokal 

0fficers 

tr�embers 

Percent 

Number 

105 

73 
32 

9 
9 
1J 
7 
11 
1C 

Nt 
�T 

ND 
8 
8 
8 
14 

10 

Total 

of 

73 

77 65 

56 
56 

�2 58 
t9 
83 

1m 
hT 

hll 62 
89 
89 
82 
83 

19 

22 

17 
7 
7 

1 
5 
5 
2 

Nt' 
rJl 

hl) 
5 
1 
1 
3 

2 

Informal 
Neighborhood 

nec  48 
Groups !if 

Local  Agrlcult\,1ral 
Practice 
Assoc!E.tlcns 

JUIl  4, 

£I 

403 

278 
125 

99 

8 
37 
41 
28 
10 
11 

33 

12 
60 
25 
26 
13 

347 

239 
lOS 

90 

8 
34 
34 
16 
7 
9 

33 
11 
50 
25 
lS 

12 

ona!li 

'H
Suyo 

V!ll�e 

Tot.81  13 

11 

roI'Rl 
2  urhan 

Ebetsu 

sf 

Uh.uwake 
Yokogoshi 

obuta 
ko 

N
K
1'
Futolll

6

a

l 

K8'NEshlro 

Nlkeic.o 
Yoshicle. 
Obl. 
Aloi 
Honami 
SW· 

Dlesolvec1 

W  Im!ependent  of  the  ne
'" 
y  This  1IIicespread  v11l8ge  hfl<!  t1l0  genf)ra  purpos 
BI 
y  Estimated 

general  purpose  agricult 

1948 

in 

1 

ural  coo  erati'fe  associations 
e  agricultural  cooperative  associe.t,ions .  

P 

data  available 

ND:  No 

272 

RESOURCES  SECTION 

NATURAL 

REPORT 

136 

NUMBER 

1950 

November 

L I S T   OF  N AT U R A L   R E S O U R C E S   S ECTI O N   R E PO RTS 

Roportl  No 

1. 

P 

olbllltr  or  R epe  ... nono  Fro"  Jope. ' .  

•• 

NAtural  Resourcos 
Food  Position 
and  1946 
aao1e  Prob1 ....  or  Lb,. 
In  Japan 

of 

Japen  Pro""r 

191.5 

tor 

oal  lUning  Industry 

C

31 

4j 

Oo� 
1)  �ov 

45 

1. 5  

and  UUllzat.lou  ot  "Koaolll 

14  HoY 

tho  KAnuraat.uro  ot  H.iSh-

.ad 

Paper 

Cultout'e 
-U1hw:.5te- for 
Orad. 
Ow'nerahlp  and  Adlllnlat.r.tlon 
Foroot. 
AdminlotraU 

11'1  Japan 

or  tbo  Jap"""'O  lUniDg 

Japan" 

ot 

2 .  

3 .  

4. 

S. 
6. 

7 .  

Jndustrr 
Rice  Crop  LaDIes 

•• 

Nov  4 5  

24 

26 

Noy  4S 

RepC't't  No  59. 

1  Doc  1.5 

Reporl  No 

!<oport  110 

�porl  II. 
Roporl  No 

Roporl  No 

R.port 

Report 

Hs 

110 

Report 
". 
8. 
Iteporl.  No 
heport  N.  10. 
9. 
Roport.  No  11. 

Reporl  No 

12. 
SUppl .... nt' 

Iteport  N. 

13. 

N. 

�.porl 
14. 
Reporl  K.  15. 

RepOrt  No 
R.pOrt 

16. 
110  17. 
�po.t  110  18. 

19. 
floport 
Reporl  Ho  20. 

110 

Reporl  No  21. 

Report  No  22. 
Report  No  23. 
Report  No  24. 

Report  No  25. 

P..eport  No  26. 

No 

Report 
27. 
Report  No  28. 

Fi.eport  No  29. 
(teport  No  )0. 
Report  No  31. 
Report  No  32. 
Report  No  33. 
Reporl  No  34. 

... 

1945 

tbe'l' 

Japan  Proper 

tro. A,hara .
-111 

Condition.  in 
of 
!later-lal 
Stockpile. 
UnlUluo1 
Food  P.alllon  of  Japan  Proper  10 

LoS'  .ad  LwOber  iD  Japan 
roodotutt. 

Japan 

th

• •• 
For 

in 
191.6 
try  SIlWll10n 
iD 

•• 

EoU""t • •  r 
o 
Bolcl<ald. 
Source'  of  Phosphate  tOT  Japan 
Sauro ••  ot  Pho'phate  tor  Jap6.D 
Porost 
SundlllS 
J>rodu<>Uon  of  th

For,at  Co;,po,lt·lon
Volu,.. 

Tlab.r  by 

A.r6&e, 

aDd 

Ja_ 

, 

iD 
.. 
h l ng  Jnduotry 

or 

o  Pl 

R.qutre=CD't.  ror  Japan 

Holckaid. 
ld.."etocx  Peed 
Proper 
SoU.  ot  /lTuohu  and  South.""  Houshu 
.artUso  Malnis-t.rat.1on 
lIiDo<ol  Industry 

t.he  Je-p&rIo 

of 

•• 

Yfold.  ot Hold<aido 

OU 
S.Il.  or  HolckaHo  aruI  Kortllorc  Honohu 
Vogotable 
Suppq 
The  Coal  Industry  of  Japan  in  Re
Ysa
Japanese  FiBhing  Areas 

So"',  In 
n 
Ja

Relation 

t.  Pood 

ent 

iD 

pe

e 

r

c

ot 
Agrlcul .. 

tn 

tbo  JApa.nolo 

:.l1n.eral  Induatl7  SLaUat1cB 
.. oture 

U.O<I  In  th. lIanut 
Jap&n 

Korea,D 
Poodot..rt. 
Alcoholic  Bevor.so-
Gbarll.ot.orlat1c.a  or 
tura1- CooporaUt'e  4'dOolatJon 
Eati!ll!l.te  ot  tbe  Charcoal  and  Firewood 
Situation  in  Japan 
Product1on ,  Consump
of  Bamboo 
'Estimate  or  the  Pulp"DOd  Situati
Japan 
The  Honksiko  Colliery  Disaster 
Tho  Lll'eetoclc:  Tnduutf'7  in  Japan 
Tb.  Japan 
.
L\lIIbor 
.. 

..  Salmon  Indu.try 

Produotla'n  1.n 

Japan 

hrtoUl 

Korea 

n 

o

t

in 

erc1&.l 

eo 
Veneer  and  Plywood  Manutacturing  in 
Japan 

•• r •  .in 

ion,  and  Stookpiles 

Report  No  35. 
Report  No  36. 

,Wineral  Industry  of  Korea  in  1944 
tbo 
Food  Position  01"  Jspan  for  the  Rtce  Yesl" 

(Rodoed  liar  46) 

Report  No  37. 
Report  No  38. 

Report  No  39. 
Report  No  40. 
Report  No  41. 

I\eport  No 
Report  No  43. 
42. 
Report  No 

44. 
Report  No  45. 

Report  No 
Report  No  47. 
46. 
Heport  No  48. 

Report  Ho  49. 

191.6 
Fiehel"ilJ.O  Education  and  Research  in  Japan 
A  S\lT'I87  of  Timber  CODtrol 
SiDea  1941 
HfiSroeaot.rlc  Power  in  Japa.n 
foro.try  SHuation  in 

Japan 

in 

tutioDs  in  the 

II,yuobu 

and 

Japo,nee.  Ruearch  lost.! 
Pleld  of  MiDlng 
Geo101!)' 
Japanese  Agar-Apr  lnduetry 
IItdrology  of  Japon 
Nlneral  Resources  ot  JapaD. Proper  1925-
1945 
Statistics  of 
1926  to  1946 
The  Imperial  Forests  of  Japan 
The  Foreatry 
Forestry  and  Forest  Industries  in 
Shikoku 
Japanese  Petrolewa  Drilling  Methode  and 
Equipment 

Production  in 

Situation  in 

Fro! 

Ja

pan 

t 

Southern  Korea 

fleport  No  50 . 

and  Steel  Yetallurg  of  the 

Iron 
Japanese  Empire 

51. 
Report  No 
Rfllport  No  52. 

Reporl  No  53. 
Report  No  54. 
Repot't  No  55. 
Report  No  56. 
Report  No  57. 
Report  No  58. 

60. 
Supplement : 

Supplement I 
Roporl.  No  61. 

Reporl  No  62. 
Report  No  63. 
Report  No 

Supplement

64. 
: 

Report  No  65. 
Supplement : 

Report  No 

66. 
Supplement. 

Reporl  No  67. 
Report  No 
68 .  
Report  No  69. 
SupplBJtI8ntl 

aeporl  No  70. 

Supple

e

ra

nt a 
Report.  No  71. 
Report  No  72. 
3 .  
Report  flo 
7
Report  No  74. 

Report  No  75. 
Report  No  76. 
Report  No  77. 
Report  No  78. 
Report  No 
Report  No  80. 
79. 

Reporl  No  81. 
R.eporl  No  82. 
Report  No  83. 
Report  No  84 .  
Reporl  No  85. 

Report  No  86. 

Report  No  87. 

r

Report  No  68. 
Report  No 
Repo
t  Ko  90. 
89. 
Report  No  91. 
Reporl  No  92. 
Report  No  93. 
Report  No  94. 
95. 
Report 
No 
Reporti  110  96. 
Report  No 
Reporl  No  98. 
97. 
plement : 

Su
Reporl  No 
Report  No  100. 
99. 
Roporl  No  101. 
Reporl  No  102. 

p

Foreetry  Education  in  Japan 
Economic  Controls  in  tbe  Japan.se  Coal 
Industry 
.lt. 
Dololl.

Cobalt 

RolO\IJ"c •• 

.. 

1n  JaPf-D 
J.pon 

P. ••• W'a 

iD 
Japa.a 

iD 

Jopon 

Pulp  IndlUltry 

}'ort.n her  1n 
Tbo 
Wood 
la�);Ol  Doposlt.  in  Jape" 
Th.  Poro.try  Sltuatlou 
HODDbu 
The  AgricultUTal  Exporl.oont  Stations  or 
Japen 
Limestone,  Lie,  and  G7PBWI  Resources  in 
Jo_ 
DescriptloDIl  or  Gyp8um  Producing 

Norlh.rn 

111 

Areal 

D 

um

of 

BDd 

Cons

ptio

J.pe. 

and  Mines 
L1D'!J�tone  Production 
rungDten  and  Molybdenum  :ieta11urgy  ot 
Jope. 
FeM'Olll101  WeW1urQ 
OlD.oary  of  Jopon . ..  Plilhori ...  Tera 
Chromlte  Re.aoW'O 
rlptlo".  or 
lC.l.n811 

•• 
ChroJdto 

Prod\lOing 

of  JapelS 

Do •• 
Zinc-Lead  Resources  ot  Japan 
o.od 
Deacr:tptions  ot  Z:l nc-Lead  Producing  Areas 
and 
Nines 
Sulfur  R
our
u
TleeoriptioD e 
duclD8  A.rea. 

JapUiose  Sulfur  Pro-

ot  Japan 

b ... 

Min 

.a •• 
ot 
&nd 

•• 

ft •• 

roduo ing 

lald ,  ""nchur!.& 
auroe.  ot  JApan 

a.,.lto  Ro.our<>oo  iD  Japlll 
l'Il,bun  Cod 
Il"OD  Ore 
D-esoriptJons  ot 
Iron  Ore  P
and  lUbes 
Pyrite  ReBourc8"  ot  Japan 
Descriptions  ot  Pyrite  ProduciDg  Areas 
and  Mines 
Japono.e  FlJIhing  Oo.r 
lIol,ybclenws 
Japanese  Wba.l.lng 

Japan 

in 

Bonin  Island  Area 

'reau 

.... T.mper.t.u.r.  Ce.:rbonizatlon 

1n  the 

Lo 
Ja;i<ul 
'luo:rep�ltr  JW50W"c.e.  of  Japan 

ot  Coal  in 

Jape" 

I.pan 

Tonancy  in  Japan 

.. ourc ..  ot JapeD 

Serlculturo  in 
l'ung3tan  � 
P1rothrum  10 
Fe.n 
Pet.roaun  No.omool  ADd  Production  in 
JapeD 
Orapblto  ReBo.urco..  ot  Japan 
Tin  Iletallurg 
IMd  lI.etallurQ 

lapan 

J.p"" 

J.o 

iD 

ot  Southern  Korea 

llJ.no.ra.l  Re8ourcel!l 
MagnesiUli  Metallurgy  in  the  Japanese 
Empiro 
Field  Experiments  with  FertUbere 
Japan 
Aluminum  Metallurgr 

the  Japanese 

1a 

EmplN lI1.t  Kot .. 
II1n1ng  tar 

iDg  tor  Bird.  1. 

JapeD 

aoetlo  £J>ldwe 

Oll  1n 

1n 

J.p". 

R.toure 
.

.Blrk 

.  or  Japen 

iD  Japa. 

1!.rcuJ'T 
An'tiJ:ot\1  RaIG1.lrOO. 
111"\'1111,81"  Practice.  111 
Japa.r.oa8 

ot  Japen 

J.pa� 

....  Flebe rloa  J>rodIl4t!ou,  1908-�6 

rood  Cl"Op  DUM.OJ  and  Cont.rol 

J.pe 
Zina  l!otelluTg  10  Japan 
Jap&:>oID  Pot.rol
Iron  S�  Rosource.  ot  Jtpau 

,.. 

.

!)OlarlP{i0nll  c! 

IrOn 

IUn,. 

Pald ,  Holcka1do 

&a.u! 

ProcIuctloL  S�at1.I.1 •• 

lI.Ango.n ... 

Ioh1lcar  C.d 
lIota11lc 
Japano"  Agrtoultllra1  lAnd  Stott.ti 
JapaDue  OrnithologJ"  ana  *-aalogy 

lIotoUur81  III  JapaJl 

•• 

World 

floporl  No  103 . 
Reporl  No  104. 
Reporl  No  105. 

The  Coal  Fields 
Dur1ng 
The  Japaneaa  Tur.lA.  FJ.hAr.l� 
Cell!!lnt  Industry  ot  Japan 

of  lI'r 

WK,'  II 

... hu 

16  .lUj!' 

46 
21  .lUj!  46 
26  .lUj!  46 
3l AUj!  46 
10  Sep 
15  Sep 
46 
30  Sap  46 
46 

10  Oct  46 

15  Oct  46 

15  Nov  46 

30  Nov  46 
26  Jul 

48 

30  Nov  4

6 
5 0..,  46 
46 

23 
Dec 
15  Jan 

47 
47 
28  liar 
30  Jan  47 

6  Jul  48 
10  Feb  47 

5  liar  47 
11  Fob  47 
17  Feb  47 
26  F.b  47 

21  Apr  47 
4  liar  47 

7 
47 
Jim 
5  ""r  47 
liar  47 
14 
4  Apr  47 

16 
47 
Apr 
18  Apr  47 
25  Apr  47 
47 
29 
Apr 
47 
9 
JIq 
25  Jim  47 

25 
30 
7 

lun  47 
47 
Jun 
lul  47 
18  Jul 
47 
28  Jul  47 

!Uj!  47 

6 

.lUj!  47 

18 
26  AUj!  47 
AUj!  47 
3  Sep  47 
5  Sop  47 

29 

10  Sep 
47 
17  Sep  47 
30 
7 
Sop  4
10  Oct 
47 
15  Oct  47 
25  Oct 
47 
10  Mov  47 
15  No. 
47 
17  Jul 
48 
Nov 
28 
47 
18  Doc  47 

26  Ju  48 
30  Jan 
48 
10  Feb  48 

9  liar 

Ap1"  48 
48 

29 

4h 
46 
4h 

4h 

11  Doc 

45 
Doo  �5 

11 
17  Dee  45 
27 D.e  1.5 
22  0 ..  �S 
31 

n..,  45 
46 

15  liar 
JOll 

10 

20 

Jan 

4h 

1.6 

21  J&II  46 
26  Jan 
46 

29 

Jan 
2  Fob 
4  rob 

Feb 

14 

20  reb 
2�  Peb  46 
4h 
liar  46 

1.8 
22  liar  46 

liar  46 

27 

1  Apr  46 

5  Apr  46 

15  Apr  46 
Apr  46 
1.8 
Apr  46 
1.8 
25  Apr  46 
26  Ap7 

6  Me,y  46 
46 

8  liar  46 
14  Ma.Y  46 

4 1/07 46 
31  Ma.Y  46 

10  Jun  46 
12  JWl 
4h 
17  Jun  46 

25  Jun  46 
Jun  46 
1  Jul  46 

28 

5  Jul  46 

Jul  46 
12 
19  Jul  46 
26  Jul  46 

Jul  46 

Jl 

7  AUj!  46 

31  Oct  46 

Continued 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 
REPORT  NUMBER  136 

1950 

November 

NATURAL  RESOURCES  SECTION 
REPORT  NUMBER  136 

November 

1950 

LI ST  OF  N AT U R A L   R E S O U R C E S   SE c..T I O N   RE P O R T S  

( CO N T I N U E D )  

D I S T R I B U T I O N 

Report  No  106. 
Report  No  107. 

Report  No 
IDS. 
aeport  No  109. 
Report  No  110. 

aeport  No 

Ill. 

Report.  No 
112. 
Report  No  113. 
Report  No 

114. 
Report  No  115. 
Report 
116. 
No 
Report  No  117. 
Report  No 
1.18. 
Report  N o   119 . 
Report  No  120. 
Report  No  121. 

Report  No  122 . 
Report  No  123. 
Report  No  124. 
Report  No  125. 
Report  No  126. 
Report 
127. 
No 
Report  No  128. 
Roport  No 
129. 
Roport  No  130. 
Report  No  131. 
Report  110  132. 
Report  No  133. 

Roport  No  134. 
No  135. 
f.eport 
Report  No  136. 

Copper  in  Japan 
Petroleum  and  Ha tunl  Gss  Production  in 
Ja.pan,  1946  F�9cal 
Crop  Statistics  for  Japan,  1878-1946 
Canned  Crab  Industry  of  J span 
Reconnaiaa&nce  5011  Surve;y 
A.  Kanto  Plain  Area 
B .   Kyuahu 

Japan 

Year 

ot 

Kyoto  At"6Il 

Japan 

c. 
D .   Sbikoku 
Engl1sh-JaplUlen  Terms,  Mining  IllId 
PetroleUJII  Induetl1' 
Lignite 
Refor99tation  In  Japan 
Mining  Practices  at  Matsuo  Pyrite  M.ine, 
J8.PaD 
J.abestol!l  Resources 
Wildlife  ConaervatloD  in  Japan--

Aquatic  Resources  of  the � Area 

ill 

ot 

Ja

pa

n 

ot 

Japan 

i1aterCowl 
Important  Trees  of  Japan 
Coal  Fields  of  Eastern  Honshu,  Japan 
Sy.tematic  Liet  of  Economic  Plants  in 
Japan 
Pearl  Culture  in  Japan 
High-Yield  Pulping  Processes  in  Japan 
Newsprint  in  Japan 

�:a!:8�a

::ling  Industry  Prior  to  1946 

Fur 

Sealing 

Japaneee  land  Reform  ProgralD 
Gold  and.  Silver  in  Japan 
Japanel!le 
Fire  Cl.a7  Resourcee  of  Japan 
Gl08s8,ry  ot  Japanese  ForestrJ'  Terms 
Coal  Fields  or  "estern  Honshu,  Japan 
Coal  Fields  of  Hokkaido,  Japan  (Other 
tban  hbikar1) 
o,.ater  Culture  in  Japan 
White"are  Raw 
The  J apanaGe  Village  in  Transition 

Wate,'1a.l 

Resources  of  Japan 

30  Apr  48 

8  Jun  4S 
Jun  4S 
29 
26  Jul  4S 

5  Aug  4S 
17  Fob  50 
Jun  50 
Sop  50 

23  Aug  4S 
31  Aug  4S 
18  Sep  4S 

23  Sop  4S 
22  Oct  4S 
30  Nov 4S 
31  nec  4S 
17  Jan  49 
30  I14r  49 
26  Apr  49 

21  Oct  49 
31  Oct  49 
3  Nov  49 
15  nee  49 
23  nee  49 
1  Mar  50 
15  Mar  50 
Jun  50 
Jul  50 
Jul  50 
Ju1  50 
Jul  50 

Aug  50 
Sep  50 
Oet  50 
Nov  50 

No 
No 
No 
No 

No 
No 

No 
No 

1. 
2. 
3 .  
4. 

5. 
6. 

7 .  
8 .  

No 

9. 

No  10. 
11. 
No 
No  12. 

No  13. 

No  14. 

No  15. 
No  16. 
No  17. 

No  18. 
No  19. 
No  20. 

No  21. 
No  22. 
No  23. 
No  24. 

No  2 5 .  
26. 
No 
No  27. 
No  28. 

No 
29. 
No  30. 
No  31. 
No  32. 

P R EL I M I N A RY  S TU D I ES 

ForlDOsan  !t.etal  am  Mineral  Statbtics 

NoY 

g:�i� ��a�II'8111  of  Japanese  Cos.l  and  Lignite 

Japan  for  tbe  1947  Rice  Year 

Food  Position 
ot 
(as  of 
46) 
Japanl s  Big  Fiehing  Companiae 
Japanese  Food  Collection  Program  with  Emphasis 
on  Collection  of  the  1946  Rice  Crop 
Garcet  Resources  of  Japan 
ConsUllption  of  Expendable  Nateria1e  by  Japanese 

I 

�
:

�o��

e  Quartz  Crystal  Resources  in  Japau 

Seed 

::
Japanese 
Oyeter 
Ns1t'sprint  in  Japan 
Experimental  Smelting 
CbromiUII-Hickel  Ore  in  Japan 
1947  SUllller  Grain  Colleotion  and  Related 

Expo:t't 

Refining  QC  Iron

and 

Program  for  1947 

�;�i::;" Distribution  in  the  Japaneee  Mineral 

Indust%'1' 
'Pyrophyllite  Reeources  in  Japan 

ot 

Japan 

1947  Fall  Crops 

Briquette  Industry  in  Japl1n  in  1947 
The 
Yatel-ial  Consumption  in  tbe  Japane l!l6  Mining 
Industry 
Col1eotion 
Sources  or  Coal  in  Eaet  Ada 
lla.chineI7  Dbtribution  in  tbe  JapanSI!I8  Coal 
Mining  Industry 
The  Coated  Paper  Industry , of  Japan 
Utilization  of  �.Bthane  as  F\1el  in  Japan 
The  Cigarette  Paper  Inoustry  of  Japan 
Japanese  Sponge  Culture  Experiments  in  the  South 
Pacific  Islands 
Outlook  for  Japanel!le  Agriculture 

ill 

of' Bauxite 

Asia 

in 

Sources 
Je.psnese  Government  ForestI7  Research,  1947 
Japanese  Wildlife  Sanctuaries  and  Public  Hunting 
Grounds ,   1948 
Japane.e 
Talc  Resourcee  in  Japan 
Fisheries  Cooperatives  ot  Japan 
Materials  and  Power  Used  in  Nonferrous  Smelting 
and  Refining  in  Japan 

lIhal1ng  �1tion,  1947-4S 

AnteroUe 

No  )3.  Forest 
No  34.  Japane.o 
No  3 5 .   Electric  Furnace  for  Smelting  Low-Grade  Ores 

"haHng  EJoped1tion,  1948-49 

Production  in  Japan 

Anteret!e 

Fuel 

No  36.  �:v;i:�ent  ot  Agricultural  Cooperatives  in 
No  37.  ;:�::t  Area,  Volume ,  and  Gro1l'th  in  Japan 

No  )8.  Japanese  Fishing  Fleet  Statistics,  1948 
No  39.  Forestry  and  flood 
Japanese  Foreatl"7  Bibliography ,  1940-48 
No 
No  41.  Japanese  Antarct.ic  Whaling  Expedlti('ln,  1949-50 

in  Japan 

Control 

40. 

­

12  Jun  47 

29  Oct  46 
15  Nov  46 
31  Dee  46 

3  reb  47 
13  flar  47 

11  I14r  47 
1  Apr  47 

47 
1  � 
10 
47 
MOT 
3  Jun  47 
6  Jun  47 

19  Jul  47 

19  Ju1  47 
19  Aug  47 
24  Sep  47 

27  Sop  47 
22  Nov  47 
10  Dee  47 

17  Dee  47 
4S 
17 
�or 
7  Apr  4S 
28  Apr  48 

5 
4S 
»OT 
6  �.ay  4S 
Jun  4S 
1 
9  Jun  4S 

18  Sop  4S 
2  Oct  4S 
Oct  4S 
14 
13  Jan  49 

r  49 
26 
12  Ju1  49 
31  Oet  49 

V .. 

18  Nov  49 

24  reb  50 
12 
50 
11.81 
16  Ma1  50 
Jul  50 
Aug  50 
Oct  50 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 
er. 

Supreme  Commander  for  the  A l l ied  Powers. 
Chief  of  Statf  • 
Office  of  Comptro
ll
G-2,  Civil  Intelli gence  Section . 
G-2,  Japanese  Language  and  Area  Course 
G-2,  Technical  Intell igence  Detachment 
G-2, 
T
Adjutant  Gener
Petro

a
eum  Advisory  Group. 

tor  and  Interpreter  Service. 

raDs

al 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

0-4, 
l
Civil  Affairs  Section. 
Civil  Co�unication8  Section  • 
Civil  Historical  Section  • 
Civil  Informatio.n  and  Education  Section. 
Civil  Transportation  Sect ion  • 
Diplomati c  Section  • 
Economic  and  Scientific  Section. 
Engineer  Section  • 
Govern
eo
me
Public 
Public  Information  Office.  •  • 
Health  and 
Regional  Civil  Af
Secretariat  A

Weltare  Section. 
irs 

ied  Council  tor  Japan 
T�5 

t ion  • 

nt  S

fa

•  • 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

ll

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
77 
2 

3 
1 
2 
557 

- 2  
21 
13 
9 
1 
1 
25 
24 
2 

•

•

•
s 

ioer ,  Fleet  Activitie
Civil  Affairs  Of
Counter  Intelligence  Corps,  First  Dis
rict  • 
f
Counter  Intelligence  Corps,  Second  District. 
Counter  Intelligence  Corps,  Third  District  • 
Counter  Intell igence  Corps ,  Fourth  Dlatrict. 
Counter  Intelligence  Corps,  Fitth  Distriot 
Counter  Intelligence  C orps ,  Sixth  District 
Department  ot  the  Army  • 
Headquarters ,  Eighth  Army,  Library  Branch, 
Ryukyus  Military  Government  Section. 

Spec ial  Services  Section  • 

t

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Natural 

• 

• 

Resources  Section 

Chief  of  Section  • 
Office  of  Deputy  Chief 
Agri culture  Division 
Fisheries  Division  • 
Forestry  Divis ion
Mining  and  Geology  Division. 
Administration  Divi s ion. 
Library. 
File  •

. 
,

. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

subject  to  change

(

) 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1,825 

15 
2 

10 
1 
50 
2 

:2 2 
25 
5 
100 

P R O C E D U R E   F O R   O B TA I N I N G  C O P I E S   OF  N AT U RAL  R E S OU R C E S   S E C T I O N   R E PO RTS 

Government  agencies,  colleges,  industrial  organizations, 

tain  a  list  of  instit
The  Adjutant  General,  Attnl 

u

t ions  where  report s   are  available  for  reference  pUl'poses  by  addressing  an 
D epartment  of  the  Army,  Wuhington  2 5 ,   DC . 

inquiry 

individuals  i n   the  United  �tates  may  ob­
to 

and 

Reports  may  be  purchased  in  photost
a

of  Commerce,  W
issuing  agency  should  be  c ited  as  Natural  Resources  Section
Allied  Powers.  � 

shington  2 5 ,   DC.  Orders  should  include  the  number  and  co
a

m

, 

AGAo-I, 

t  or  microfilm  from  the  Office  of  Technical  Serv

ces

US  Department 

General  Headquarters,  Supreme  Commander  for  the 

i
plete  title  of  the  report ,  and  the 

, 

Forei gn  diplomatic  miss ions  should  addres

requests  to  GHQ,  SCAP ,  Attenticn  riplomatic  Se cticn. 

s 

Associate  staff  sections,  civil  aff

irs  teems,  and  other  military  org

address  requests  to  GHQ,  SCAP ,  Attent ion  Natursl  Resources  Section. 

a

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command  should 

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on  the  following  page) 

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670S-FEC P&PC-IO, 50-3M