Regional Cooperation for Development: An
analysis of the Southern African Develop-
ment Coordination Conference
                                           David S. Cownie
                   We, the undersigned,            as the Heads of Government              of
                   majority-ruled        States      in Southern     Africa, offer this
                   declaration      to our own peoples,            to the peoples        and
                   Governments           of     the    many      countries      who      are
                   interested     in promoting         popular welfare,       justice    and
                   peace     in Southern         Afnca     and to the international
                   agencies who share this interest. I
                                                  Introduction
The term 'coordinated        regIOnal development'           has taken on a new meaning in Southern
Afnca     over the past five years.                 With the emergence           of the Southern. Afnca~
Development      Coordination      Conference        (SADCC)      regional patterns       of interactIOn hav
evolved which are proving to be conducive to ~conomic development                               in the 'southern
nine' states.
The SADCC, as the name Implies, is a highly flexible organisatIOn                             dedicated      to the
economic development          of member states            and the reductIOn of dependence                 on South
Africa.     The nature of the SADCC's goals has been the source of some confuslOn
Some commentators           view the SADCC almost exclusively                    as an organisatIOn           whlCh
seeks to reduce ties with South Africa.                 This viewpoint      is a misrepresentation           of the
objectives of the SADCC. As Weisfelder notes:
          To be sure SADCC is a reactIOn against                     South Afncan         racism and
          economIC       hegemony.           But It IS also necessary             to reiterate        the
          predominantly        positive      character      of SADCC         goals,     namely        the
          promotIOn of economic              independence,      establIshment       of mechanisms
          for eqUItable economic integration,              mobilisatlOn of regIOnal resources,
          and solicitation     of international       support for these objectlves2
 The Situation    becomes       even more clear            when one recognlses             that     the. goals of
 economic     development       and dependence           reductIOn     on South Afnca             are inevitably
 entWined, and that the former cannot occur without the latter.
 The nature of economic interaction                in Southern Afirca is clearly illustrated               in table
 two.   As this table shows, the SADCC countries trade very little amongst themselves,
 while the Republic of South Africa is an important                      trading     partner      for all of the
 SADCC states except Tanzania, Zambia, and to a large extent                           Angola.       The seventy
 of the problem IS further           illustrated     by the fact that South Africa's                GNP is three
  tl;es  that of the SADC~ states                 combined. 3          In addition,     roughly seventy-five
 p cent of Southern Afnca s rail traffiC transits through South Africa~4
                                                        26


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                                                                27


                                             TABLE 2
                   Trade   Statistics     for the SADCC   member-states
                             Percent of total        Importance   of    Importance   of
                            exports to regIOn           R.S.A. as          R.S.A. as
                                 1976-1977             country of          source of
                            (excludes R.S.A.)         export (rank)     imports (rank)
Angola                                0.9                    a                  4
Botswana                              1.7                    3                  I
Lesotho                               0.6                    I                  I
Malawl                                3.7                    4                  I
Mozambique                            4.7                    3                  I
Swazlland                             1.8                    2                  I
TanzanIa                              1.1                    a                  b
Zambla                                1.0                    a                  b
Zimbabwe                            N.A.                                        I
Source:    Nsekela, op.cit., pp. 236, 249, 261-263.
N.A.       Not avaIlable
a            Less than fdth most lmportant
b          = Less than seventh most lmportant
                                               28


                                      FIGURE    I
                   Southern   African   Transportation   Network
Source: Kgarebe,  A. (editor),     SADCC2-Maputo       : The Proceedings   of the Second
        Southern  African Develo ment CoordinatIOn          Conference,  held In Maputo,
        People's  Republic    of Mozambique         on 27 28 November      1980 (SADCC
        Liaison Committee,     July, 1981), p.l0.
                                         29


 Given the nature af the ecanamies                     af Sauthern Africa,           caupled       with the palitical
 destabilisatian      effarts af Sauth Africa5             it IS to. same extent surprising              that a regianal
 arganisatian     such as the SADCC has s~rvived.                    The facus af thiS paper will therefare
 be an thase factars           which have           enabled the organIsatian              to survive and functIOn
 effectively.      The major thesis emerging aut af this study is that it is the pragmatic
 nature    af the SADCC - including                    but nat limited           to ItS practice              of aVOldmg
 supranatianal     institutians,     its flexible nature, and law-profile               integrative         gaals - which
 is ItS strength, and which will pravide the key to. the arganisatian's                          langevity.
                           Fram Arusha         to. Lusaka:     An Historical      Overview
 Althaugh the origins af the SADCC are nat entirely                            clear,      It naw appears            that it
 emerged fram effarts an the part of Sir Seretse                       Khama to. maintain             and expand the
 regianal     caaperative        effarts      af    the     Front    Line States          to     Angala,        Botswana,
 Mazambique,       Tanzania and Zambia ance it was recagnised that Zimbabwe                                    wauld soon
 be independent.             Khama,       the     President      af Batswana,           haped      to. avoid        'sterile
 confrantatian'      between       the Front Line States              and Sauth Africa             ance the war m
 Zimbabwe was over.6             Rather, he faresaw the develapment                    of a regianal arganisation
 cammitted      to the develapment          af member-states}
 Over the period           1977-1978 a number                af backgraund         and technical             papers were
 prepared     which dealt with regianal issues, primarily                   concernmg         transpartatlOn.            ThiS
 was faiiaved in May 1979, by a meeting af the Fareign Ministers                                   af the Front Lme
 States m Gaborane at the invitatian                  of Batswana.         At thIS gathering            it was decided
 that further meetings wauld be beneficial.                     A canference        af ecanomic            ministers     was
 therefare    scheduled to be held within the fallawing                  manths in Arusha, Tanzania.
                                                     SADCC       I
Far the Arusha conference               it was decided to. invite nat only the ecanamic                          ministers
from the fIve Front Line States and Zimbabwe                        but also. representatives             fram Lesotho,
Malawi, SwazIland, and representatives                  fram a 'number af bIlateral             and multIlateral          aid
organisatlOns.         The farmer         were invited due to the recagnitian                       that broad-based
regIOnal economic development                effarts should include all the mdependent                      states m the
regIOn, no. matter haw c1asely they might be tied to Sauth                               Africa.             The      latter
were invIted m an effart to. abtain funding far regIOnal develapment                                   schemes.         ThiS
also.. ensured      that bIlateral        and multilateral         aid arganisatians           cauld express           theIr
aplnIons regarding          the plan af actian            to. be adapted, 8             and also. to ensure that
patentlal      danars     felt a part of the SADCC fram                        the autset,           encauraging          aId
donatlOns.9
The Arusha conference,            known as SADCCI, canslsted af two. meetings.                             The fIrst was
a meeting of Ecanamic                Ministers      af the Frant        Line States          which set the basIC
pragramme of actian in braad terms, and required final ratificatian                                 by the Heads af
States af each of the participant                gavernments.        A secand meeting taak place between
the MInisters of the Frant Line States and representatives                          af variaus aid agenCIes.                It
was at the latter meeting that the rale fareign aid wauld play in the develapment                                          af
the SADCC member states was discussed.                           By the end af SADCC I the Frant Line
natlans had adapted a draft declaratian                    expressing    faur main develapment                 abjectives
to. be pursued WIthin the framewark af the SADCC:
        I.
               the reductian af ecanamic             dependence,      particularly,       but     nat     anly,    an    the
               Republic af Sauth Africa;
                                                          30


        2.    the forging      of links to create       a genUine and equitable            regional   integratIOn;
        3.    the mobilisation        of resources        to   promote       the   ImplementatIOn       of natIOnal,
              Interstate     and regional policies;
        4.    concerted      action to secure international               cooperatIOn      within   the   framework
              of our strategy       for economic I1beration.l           0
                                            The Lusaka        Declaration
The follOWing April, representatives                of the 'southern           nine' assembled       In Lusaka and
adopted     the Lusaka        Declaration,       whICh laid down the strategies                  and priorities    of
SADCC,       first    outl1ned     at Arusha.          The Lusaka           Summit       was delayed        to allow
participatIOn      by newly-independent            Zimbabwe,        and also to allow tlme for careful
consultatIOn       with the non-Front          Line states       of Lesotho,         MalaWI, and SwazJJand to
ensure their partICipation         in the SADCC.
The goals of the SADCC were expressed                        through the publiCation           of a book entitled
Southern     Africa: Toward Economic             Liberatlon.        The volume, edited by the Tanzanian
High CommJssioner           to England,      Amon Nsekela, contained                the Lusaka DeclaratIOn         as
well as sectoral       papers prepared        in a two-year       period before the Arusha meeting. The
book served as the primary document                   of the SADCC.             Future members         must accept
the goals of the book in order to gain membership. I I
                                                    FIGURE       2
                                                   Chronology
 May 1979                      Meeting of Foreign Ministers             of         Gaborone,     Botswana
                              the Front Line States
 July   1979                  SADCCI       - pledging     conference               Arusha,    Tanzania
 April   1980                 SADCC Summit           Meeting      - Lusaka         Lusaka,    Zambia
                              Declaration      signed
 June-July     1980           SADCC     meeting      to establ1sh      SATCC Maputo,          Mozambique
 August    1980               SADec conference           on manpower               EzulwlnJ,    SwaZiland
                              needs and training        requirements
                              in Southern Afnca
 September      1980          SA TCC meeting        of Council       of            Belra,   Mozambique
                              Ministers
 September      1980          SADCC ministerial          meeting                  Harare,    ZImbabwe
 November      19&0           SADCC2       - pledging    conference               Maputo,     Mozambique
 January    19&1              SATCe     minJstenal       meeting                  Maputo,     Mozambique
                                                                                   (continued)
                                                         31


                              FIGURE       2 (continued)
March 1981        SADCC meeting on regional                       Dar es Salaam
                  trade and industrial cooperation                Tanzania
May 1981          SATCC coordinating          committee           Maputo,    Mozambique
                  meeting
June 1981         SADCC Council        of Ministers               Mbabane,     Swaziland
                  meeting
July 1981         SADCC second        summit     conference       Harare,    Zimbabwe
July 1981         SADCC meeting         on energy                 Luanda,    Angola
August    1981    SADCC meeting to discuss                        Lusaka,    Zambia
                  establishment     of a southern
                  African Development          Fund
November     1981 SADCC - third       conference                  Blantyre,    MalawI
March    19&2     SATCC meeting                                   Maputo,    Mozambique
July 1982         SADCC ministerial         meeting               Gaborone,     Botswana
October    1982   SADCC Secretanat          opens   In
                  Gaborone
December     19&2 SADCC energy        conference                  Harare,    Zimbabwe
January    1983   SADCC pledlng        conference                 Maseru,    Lesotho
May 1983          SADCC Council         of Ministers              Dar es Salaam
                  meeting                                         Tanzania
July 19&3
                  SADCC Heads of State            meeting         Maputo,    Mozambique
October    19&3   SADCC trade       meeting                       Dar es Salaam
February    19&4
                  SADCC pledging         conference               Lusaka,   Zambia
Sources:
                  Africa Research        Bulletin,   January-February,        1981, July-August,
                  1981,       February-March,               1982,       July-August,         1982,
                  January-February,         1983, April-May,        19&3, October-November,
                  1983; 'SADCC Summit opened',               in The Dally News (Botswana),
                  February     3 1984, No.23,          p.l;   Kgarebe.     op.cit;    Welsfelder,
                  ~.C1t.
                                           32


 The first priority established         by the SADCC was transportation                       and communications.
 To this end it was decided                   to establish          the Southern          African     Transport    and
 Communications          Commission      (SATCC).          which was subsequently                 based in Maputo,
 Mozambique.        Although the SA TCC was not established                       until September        1980, it had
 been in operation        for a number of months.12                Headed by Luis A. Santos, the Minister
 of Ports and Land Transport           for Mozambique, the SATCC began work on coordinating
 a number of project            proposals.       The SATCC grouped projects                      into six different
 categories:     roads, railroads,      ports, civil aviation,             telecommunications,          and training,
 with major emphasIs being placed on railroads.                         A four stage process was instituted
 whICh allowed SADCC states                to prioritlse       different       projects.      Projects which were
 presently in progress and which did not require supplementary                             funding were given top
 prionty.     Second were new projects for which feasibility studies were undertaken and
 financing was promised.            Third were projects for which feasibility                      studies had been
 undertaken      but which lacked financing.              Last were new projects which were without
 feasibility studIes and which lacked financing.! 3
By establishing      this four stage process, the SADCC member states were responding in
a pragmallc        manner regarding         how to pnoritise            goals, which served both to fulfill
developmental        needs in the areas of transport                    and communications             as quickly as
possible, and also to engage aid organisations                         in the decisions          as to what order
projects     should be Implemented.             To aid in the identificallon              of projects and ensure
project feasibility,       the Danish Consultancy           group of Hoff and Oversaard was hired for
a study of the transport              and communication                sectors.        Their report       involved a
projection      of regional     trade and commodity                flows to the year 2000. Out of this
emerged project feasibility          and utility       studies.llt          As a result of the pragmatism           on
the part of the SADCC member                      states    and the thoroughness               of the consultant's
report, out of a total of 102 projects, 37 were already operational                             as of late 1982, 50
s till needed financing, and 15 were still projected.!5
A second pnority           of the SADCC was agriculture,                 due to the recognitIOn that all of
the countries       were dependent        upon successful           agricultural      development.        The major
step taken        by the SADCC was the establishment                           of a regional         centre   of the
International      Centre for Research         on Agriculture          In the Semi-Arid        Tropics (ICRASAT,
based in India) in Botswana.
Emphasis was also placed on training and on the harmonisation                               of policy in the areas
of mining, industry and energy.              In the area of training, it was hoped that this would
reduce the problem of reliance on expatriates.                       In the areas of mining and industry it
was hoped that this would increase trade between member states in both minerals and
industrial products, and enhance the complementarity                          of regional production.        Finally,
emphasis was placed on the energy sector to reduce energy dependence on non-SADCC
members       as well as encourage           trade      in energy related           products between SADCC
countries, such as oil from Angola or coal from Zimbabwe.
                                                    SADCC 2
                        Let us make our Conference               an important          step
                        forward for the success of the combined efforts
                        of our capacities       and potential. Let us make it a
                       clear demonstratIOn            of our just objectives             and
                       common         commitment             to        an       exemplary
                       cooperation,      rich in imaginative              and effective
                        solutions, for the benefit of all our peoples.l6
                                                        33


In early September          1980, twenty-one          Ministers     from the nine SADCC states                came
together     in Harare,      Zimbabwe         to finalise    preparations       for SADCC2         to be held in
Maputo) 7          The conference         took place the following           November.         Chaired     by Peter
Mmusi of Botswana, the pledging conference                    brought together          over fifty bilateral    and
multilateral    aid donors.        By the time the conference              had ended U.S. $655 million had
been pledged over the 1980-1985 period, with additional                       indications     of support coming
from a variety        of sources.         Discussion    has taken place regarding             the nature of the
money committed.           Of the pledges for aid, less than twenty percent                     was 'new' money
- money that was not already committed                    to SADCC countries)8                Yet as Weisfelder
notes, the distinction       between 'old' and 'new' money is unnecessary:
       If    regional    initiatives      help to trigger        bilateral    support     to a member
       state for a project of recognised              mutual    significance,      then the underlying
       objective is fulfilled even if no funds are              'credited'    to SADCc.19
A majority of the money              went to transportation            and communicatIOn           projects,   with
Mozambique        the prime beneficiary.            This was due        to its geographical         location,  with
ports serving Swaziland,            Zimbabwe,        Malawi,     and    to a lesser extent         Botswana     and
Zambia.        The distribution         of project    dollars for      transportation       and   communication
projects is indicated in table three below:
                                                     TABLE 3
                               Distribution     of Dollars for Transportation
                               and Communication          Projects,     in percents
                      Countries                                               Percentage
  Angola
                                                                                     2.0
  Botswana
                                                                                     3.7
  Lesotho
                                                                                    12.9
  MalawI
                                                                                     5.4
  Mozambique
                                                                                    47.8
  Swaziland
                                                                                     3.6
  Tanzania
                                                                                    11.6
  Zambia
                                                                                     9.6
  Zimbabwe
                                                                                     3.1
  Regional
                                                                                     0.3
  Source:        Tostensen,     op.cit.,   p.104.
                                                        34


                                   The Third SADCC             Conference        - Blantyre
It soon became           clear foHowing the Maputo conference                          that donor commitment           was
somewhat less than desirable.                  By the time Ministers from the SADCC states gathered
In Blantyre,       Malawi one year later, only US $273 million out of the US $ 655 million
pledged      had been committed                 through       legally      binding agreements.20              As a high
government        official from one of the SADCC states commented:
       Some countries            made promises         in Maputo         and then      went   home and forgot.
       This meeting           is to remind them.21
Some twenty            government          and twelve           bilateral      and multilateral         donor agencies
attended      and, although          this was not a pledging conference,                     most donors reaffirmed
their commitment            to the SADCc.22
                                   The Fourth       SADCC         Conference       - Maseru
The following July 1982, a Heads of State Summit was held in Gaborone, Botswana. At
this summit meeting a review of progress made to date was undertaken.                                       The progress
report noted that, out of cost estimates                       of US $ 1,741 million, US $ 450 million had
been allocated,        and US $ 370 miHlOn more had been pledged by donor agencies but not
yet allocated.           The report         also noted that the SATCC was in full operatIOn, and
praised ItS work.
Discussions       also took place regarding                preparations         for the Maseru, Lesotho pl~lrg
conference       to be held the following January,                     1983.     It was noted that an agenda for
action     had been decided               upon, with agriculture                and industry23        being added       to
transportation        and communicatlOns             as the primary topics to be discussed.                  As a report
emergmg from the Gaborone summit stated:
       The adoption           of mdustry         and agriculture            as the focus for the Maseru
       Annual        Conference          demonstrates           the     progress       made     in programme
       articulation       In the      moving towards concrete                project identification       m these
       areas.      The c00rdinatwn            of projects        in these areas, together with projects
       in Transport.          The proliferation        of          sabotage          attacks        immediately
       preceeding          the      Maseru       meeting        inevitably       heightened       the    political
       dimension of SADCc.29
                                    The Fifth      SADCC Conference               - Lusaka
The most recent conference                  took place in Lusaka in early February 1984. The focus
of the conference               turned     inevitably      to the serious drought               situation     throughout
southern Africa.            Requests were made for food aid as well as aid m the form of seed,
Implements,         fertilisers,       and     agricultural         credit     for rehabilitation         of farmlands
devastated      by the worst drought in recent history.                        Aid was requested from over fifty
donor countries         and international         agencies.         Yet by the end of the conference              only US
$ 100 million had been pledged out of a total request of US $ 268 mllllOn, of which a
substantial     portion was in the form of food aid)O
The conference          also followed the tone (!If the Maseru conference,                     dominated by attacks
on South Africa's            destabilisation       efforts     in the region.           Zambian President          Kaunda
opened the conference               with a speech concerning               South Africa's      eff~rts to destablhse
SADCC member-states                 both through economic and mlhtary                      means because to them,
SADCC is the arch enemy'.3l                     President      Kaunda called on donor natlOns to support
                                                             3S


the SADCC in order to lessen South Africa's economic hold on the region.                                  Botswana's
Vice-President        Peter Mmusi, chair of the conference,                    supported      President      Kaunda's
statements       by condemning         economic        destabilisation,       sabotage       and acts of armed
aggression.32
We now turn away from a discussion of the historical                         origms of the SADCC and the
annual conferences          to a discussion of its organisational               structure.      The purpose here
wil1 be to further clarify the structure             and functions of the SADCC in order to better
understand the reasons behind its success to date.
                                    SADCC: Organisational            Structure
 As mentioned previously, the SADCC has avoided the establishment                                   of supranational
 Institutions.       Emphasis has been placed on a decentralised                      decision-making         process.
 Regardless,      certain     mmimal structures          are necessary          in order for the SADCC to
 function effectively.         The following organisatlOnal             structure     was formalised        according
 to the Memorandum of Understanding                  adopted at the Heads of State Summit Meeting
 m July of 1981.
 The organisational       structure   of the SADCC is indicated               m figure     three:
                                                    FIGURE       3
                                Organisational      Structure      of the SADCC
                                                  The Summit
                                                  The Council
      Standing
     Committee
                                                    Secretariat
                                                                         ~
                                                                                                I~  -S-A-T-c-c--l
    of Officials
   The summit," consisting of the Heads of States of member nations                                   is the supreme
  d eClslOn-makmg body of th             SADCC               ""                                   '
  SADCC        olici                 e"          ":      It IS responsible        for the general direction           of
             pes,         and controls activities.          The members of the Summit elect a chair
  w h0 presides Over the annual meet"ng                   D ""                        "
                                               1    s.      eCiSlOns are establIshed          by consensus.
                                                          36


Next is the Council, consisting of one minister from each country, which is respor!sible
to the Summit.        The Council is responsible         for the overall policies of the SADCC, and
also coordinates     and supervises SADCC institutions,              as well as supervises and executes
SADCC programmes:
      The Council adopts a work programme                   for    SADCC         and      designates     a
      member      state     to take charge      of coordination          of activities      in specified
      fields.33
The areas     which     are   covered  by the     various     countries     are   illustrated     in table four
below:
                                                 TABLE It
                                      Division  of Responsibilities
                 Angola                                energy
                 Botswana                              crop research
                                                       animal disease
                                                       headquarters        of Secretariat
                 Lesotho                               soil conservation
                                                        land utili sa tion
                 Malawi                                fisheries
                                                       wildlife
                 Mozambique                            transport
                                                       communica       tions
                 Swaziland                             tlumanpower        development
                                                       training facilities
                                                       health
                 Tanzania                              industry
                 Zambia                                Southern      African    Development        Fund
                                                       mining
                 Zimbabwe                              food security
                                                       land utilisation
                                                       soil conservation
Source:         Thompson,      ~cit.,  p.llti  Weisfelder,     op.cit.
                                                    37


These assignments         have not been entirely         non-controversial.          As one participant        stated:
       the    members        must      have    an extraordinary              sense     of     humour        to
       allocate     responsibility     for finance to Zambia,             industry    to Tanzania,        and
       soil conservation       to Lesotho •.,34
Regardless,      the method of assignment              indicates      that the SADCC members                 seek. to
reduce conflict        between      member states        on such issues, and also indicates                the faIth
placed in each member state by all the SADCC members.                             The CounCIl meets at least
once a year and makes decisions by consensus.
Below the CounCIl are any of the Sectoral CommissIOns established                                 by the SADCe.
Presently     the only Sectoral          CommIssion in existence            IS the SA TCe.         The SA TCC is
responsIble       to the Council.           As with any Sectoral                CommIssIon        which      may be
established,     the SATCC
        will be governed           by a convention           ado pted     by the CouncIl       and ratified
        or acceeded to by the member states,35
Also responsible         to the Council is the Standing Committee                      of OffiCIals.       DecIsIOns
are made by consensus,               and the Committee              meets     at least    once a year.             This
Committee        IS In charge of the sub-commIttees                established     by the Council which deals
wIth functional areas of Interest to member states.
 In July 1982 a SecretarIat             was establIshed        In Gaborone.         Headed    by a ZImbabwean,
 Arthur BlumerIs (36), the SecretarIat             served     four basIC functions:
        a.     general    serviCing of and liaison        WIth SADCC InstItutIOns;
        b.     coordinatIOn      of SADCC property;
        c.     custodIanshIp      of SADCC property;
        d.     such other        functIOns    as    may     from      time    to   tIme   be    approved       by    the
               Council,3?
 Headquarters         In Gaborone,         Botswana,       With a profeSSIOnal            staff     of eight        and
 expenditures      estimated      at one-quarter      million dollars, the SecretarIat            functIOns WIth a
 minImal bureaucracy,38
 FinaIly, and very Importantly,              are the annual conferences.                  Although       these eXist
 outSide the institutIOnal framework of the SADCC, the conferences                            serve as Important
 links between the SADCC member states and donor countrIes.
                                             Regional     Integration:
                               The Unconventional          Nature of the SADCC
                                               Integration      Theory
 RegIOnal integratIon          theorists    have Identified         a number        of obstacles       to effectIve
 integratIon     in the Third World.        RecognItion        of these problems has emerged due to the
 resounding faIlure of regional integration                schemes throughout           Africa     Asia Latm and
 Central    AmerIca         Writer      h       .d    .. d ..                                   "
 F                      •.           save      I entlfie       SIX basIC threats        to regIOnal mtegratlOn.
   Irst and foremost         IS the unequal distribution             of benefits      between      member       states.
                                                          38


Regional       disparities        in wealth,           income,        levels    of industrialisation,           and other
comparable        factors are typically made worse by regional integration.                               This was one of
the reasons behind the break-up of the East African                                 Community)9            In an effort to
tackle     this very thorny             problem,         mtegration        theorists      have devised        mechanisms
whereby lesser developed                partners      would receive benefits from their more-developed
counterparts.40             This has had some positive effects                     in the Economic Community of
West African states, as well as in the Andean Pact.
A second problem has been the ideological                           dIfferences      between member states.             This
was another         factor      leading to the disintegration                  of the East African Community.
IdeologICal differences            frequently       translate      mto different        strategies      for development,
hmdering effective           integratIOn between members.4 I
A third factor           leading to the failure              of regional integration            schemes, according        to
theorists,     is the existence         of weak institutIOnal            structures.      As Bond notes with regard
to Latin America:
        Latin     American         states     simply       have not been               willing         to     create
        Institutional         structures          with        sufficient       resources,         autonomy,       and
        decision-making         authorities       to expedite integration.42
The solution offered             by integration          theorists      is the creation       of strong supranatlonal
mstItutions        which will have sufficient                  power to eliot           compliance        among member
states.
A fourth factor which negatively                   affects regional integration             is external, and concerns
such issues as intrusive               power involvement.                This can range from aid or trade to
multinational        investments.          The negative          Implications     can be factors such as tied aid
or restrictive       trading practices.
A fifth factor, serving as a political threat to regional integration,                               is the polJticlsatlOn
                                                                                                               44
of integratIOn          issues.43        Economics         is 'high politics'        in the Third World.               As a
result, decisions are made in a polJtical rather than a bureaucratIc                                 environment.      ThIS,
argue      integration        theorists,      hinders        the effective        implementation           of integrative
policies and makes compromise difficult ..
A final factor which threatens                   regional integration          in the Third World is natIOnalism.
Proponents       of the argument state that Third World leaders will not be willing to limit
sovereignty       to enhance the effectiveness                 of a regional integration           scheme.
                                        Integrative       Issues and the SADCC
 If one were to examine the SADCC based on the criteria                                     presented      by integration
theorists,     one would hold little hope for the organisation's                        future.     Yet, as this section
will illustrate,       it IS the unconventional              nature of the SADCC that allows it to succeed
where other regional integrative                  schemes have failed.
 Perhaps      the most important                factor      in the success of the SADCC has been the
 avoidance        of supranational             Institutions.           The Secretariat           is one of the few
 supranational        mstitutions       existing within the SADCC, and it is budgeted less than a
 quarter     of a million US dollars.               Following the wishes of the SADCC member-states,
 the     Secretariat        performs        only      the      minimal       funcitons      necessary       to keep the
 organisation       running smoothly.             Regarding the SummIt and the CounCIl, the consensus
 model of decision-making                 is used.       DespIte CritICS of the model, It has served the
                                                               39


SADCC well.            The nine member-states               have managed to maintain                   a high degree of
agreement        across a wide range of issues.45                    Even the routine,            daily work has been
decentralised.        As table four illustrated          and Welsfelder           noted:
         Each of the participants             has been asked,             but not forced,             to select      a
         sector ... for which it will assume                    initiative       and responsIbIlIty ... New
         responsibilities     will be allocated        as the need and capacity                  to handle them
         emerges.46
Therefore, because of the nature                    of the SADCC - its decentralised,                     consensus-style
deCiSIOn-making structure              - It has successfully           avoIded confrontatIOn              among member
states.
A second concern of integration                theorists     is the heightenIng           of regional disparities          due
 to regIOnal Integration.              This is a potential            threat      to the SADCC member-states,
espeCially because of the economic                      strength       of Zimbabwe.             Despite      thIs political
 threat, the SADCC offers no mechanisms                        by which benefits can be redistributed.                    One
 would expect,        therefore,     a maldlstribJtion         of benefits          which would lead to political
 problems.        Although benefIts          have not been distributed                 equally,      most have gone to
 Mozambique rather than Zimbabwe, which has not had severe political                                        repercuSSIOns.
 This is due In part to the focus on transport,                   where projects for Mozambique                    have real
 and tangible benefits for most of the land-locked                       SADCC states.            It IS also due In part
 to the concerted efforts of the nine member-states                          to allow each a say In the location
 of projects In the functIOnal areas to which they are assigned.
 A third concern arises regarding Ideological differences                           between member states. There
  15   Indeed a Wide diverSity of ideological                stances among SADCC states,                     ranging from
  Angola and Mozambique on the left to Botswana and Malawi on the centre right.                                            Yet
  few actual problems have arisen.               This IS due In large part to the low-level                      Integrative
 goals of the SADCC, as discussed earlier,                        and the abIlity of the SADCC states to
  recognlse their common Interest.                All member states are in agreement                       about the need
  for transport      Infrastructure.         One might        pOint to the potential              for future conflict        In
  Issue-areas such as agriculture             or Industry, for example cash crops for export versus
  food crops for domestiC consumptIOn or heavy Industry versus light Industry,                                         yet to
  date very few problems have arisen.                     A possible           reason     for thiS lack of conflict
  might be a fourth factor                found In the Integration                lIterature,      the politlcisatlOn        of
  integratIOn.       IntegratIOn IS Indeed 'high politICS' In the Third World, yet thiS has had
  pOSitive effects for the SADCC. First, efforts                        have been made to accomodate                     other
  member-states         when each country             has drawn up ItS                  sectoral      proposals.       ThiS IS
  Illustrated     very clearly       In the     sectoral       papers        In both       the Nsekela and Kgarebe
            47
  volumes.          Secondly, a number of bIlateral                 arrangements          between      indiVidual SADCC
  member       states     have developed          over the past             fIVe years,         serving     to strengthen
  member-state         Commitment         to the SADCC.              Finally      the fact that integrative             iSsues
  take place within the realm of 'high polItiCS' ensur~s leadership                                  commitment        to the
  organIsatIOn and enhances ItS chances for surVival.
  A fifth factor concerns             intrusive    power involvement                in the region.         This has raised
  problems for the SADCC.                 . The SADCC depends heavily on foreign aid to meet ItS
  development       objectives,    leaVIng room for pressure from donor countries.                            For example,
  the UnIted States has clearly stated its preference                         for bIlateral         rather     than     multi-
   lateral aid, faVOUring Botswana and Zimbabwe, and hesitant                             about giving aid to Angola
  and Mozambique.           Similarly, the European donors are hesitant                       to give aid to Angola or
  ~ozamblque        because neIther are sIgnatories                to the Lome agreement.                 Arab aid donors
     ave expressed their dIspleasure              with Lesotho's          ties with Israel by not attendIng                 the
  pledgIng conference          In Maseru, indicating             the vulnerability           of the SADCC to donor
                                                             40


political attitudes.            Finally,    aid donors have proven to be very selective regarding
what projects           would and would not be funded.                       This also illustrates           the heavy
 Influence donors have over recipients.                    Aid, therefore,        IS perhaps where the SADCC
 member-states         are most vulnerable.
 A final factor          IS natIOnalism,        which integration        theorists       argue is a hindrance            to
effectIVe       reglOnal integratIOn.             Yet this has not been the case with the SADCC,
pnmarily       for two reasons.            First, SADCC member-states                 view the orgamsation          as a
 means by which               Internal     options     can     be expanded,          for example          through      the
enhancement          of export opportunities            and productive         capabilities.        This is especially
the. case since the source of financing                       is external       to the orgamsation,           therefore
cntlcal      trade-offs       between      nation-states       are less necessary.             A second and very
 important       factor    IS the unifYing presence             of South Africa.          Most SADCC           member-
states     feel threatened            by South Africa.            This has had the effect                ot overriding
natlOnalistlC concerns            between African states because of the existence of a very real
external threat.
                                                       Conclusions
We have witnessed             over the past five years the birth and maturation                       of a "danng and
Innovatlve,,48 regional           organisatlOn      whICh finds strength           both in the positive goal of
cooperatlOn        for regional development             and also In the goal of dependence reductIOn on
South Africa.         The unconventional           nature of the SADCC, and its resultant                  success, has
been the theme developed throughout                      this article.      Regardless       of its past successes,
however, there are a number of potential                     threats to Its future.          One problem could be
an increasingly          belligerent     South Africa, With stepped up attempts                     at subverting     the
governments          of Angola, Mozambique,                and Zimbabwe.          Another pOSSibility could be
increasing       pressure      coming to bear on Botswana,               Lesotho, and Swaziland to reduce
their    ties With other             SADCC member-states.                ThiS could occur either                through
increased       conflictual      acts or increased         cooperative      acts, primarily          In the economIC
realm.      One purpose of the SADCC is to lessen this vulnerability.
Another       pOSSible threat to the future of the SADCC is external                           to the regIOn.        The
SADCC's dependence               on aid is severe.       Political deciSIOns made m             Western Europe and
North America will have profound effects on what the SADCC is                                  able and not able to
do.    The SADCC member-states                   are extremely       vulnerable      to the     shifting of political
winds in the West.
In additlOn to the external              threats    to the SADCC, there are possible internal threats.
The most prevalent               IS differences       between      member-states          themselves.       A problem
arose, for example, when Botswana began accepting                            large numbers of refugees from
western Zimbabwe in early 1983.49                       Problems also arose when Mozambique accused
MalaWi of supporting the Mozambique National ReSistance guenIJa movement. 50 Yet
cooperative         acts    between       member-states         far outweigh        any of the negative            acts.
Bilateral      trade agreements          between many of the SADCC member-states                          is more the
order of the day. Cooperative                acts far outweigh conflictual             acts.
Perhaps the future of the SADCC can best be summed                                up in the folJowmg          quote    by
Peter Mmusl of Botswana, the chair of SADCC2:
                           We have embarked on               the     long       struggle        for
                           economIC liberation.          But we can be quite confident
                           that we are not alone in that struggle.                  It will be a
                           long struggle, longer          even than       the     struggle      for
                                                            41


                  political   liberation     and we are reassured              that we
                  can count on the solidarity               of the international
                  community ...
                  The results of this Conference               will not only bring
                  reassurance     to the peoples of free Southern AfrICa.
                  Those who have joined us in Maputo have also
                  brought a message of comfort and encouragement                        to
                  those who are still struggling            to be free.         For our
                  efforts to reduce our dependence               on a racist South
                  Africa     are      also     directed       toward       the      total
                  emancipation      of our continent.
                  A luta continua!51
                                                Notes
I. This IS the opening paragraph of the so-called "Lusaka Declaration",                         signed by the
   nine member       nations     of Angola,        Botswana,        Lesotho,      MalawI,       MozambIque,
   Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe on 1 April, 1980. See Nsekela, A.J.
   (Edltod,    Southern AfrIca: Toward Economic                 Liberation       (Rex Collings,        London,
   1981), p.2.
2. Welsfelder, R.F., "The Southern Afncan                  Development        CoordinatIOn        Conference
   (SADCC),"      in South Africa International,          Vol.l3, No.2 (October.            1982), p. 77; see
   also Green, R.H., "Constellation,           Association,     LIberation:       Economic Coordination
   and     the   Struggle     for     Southern      Africa",      in C.      Legum         (Editor),     ~
   Contemporary       Record,     1979-1980; Green, R.H., "Southern                 AfrICan Development
   Coordination:      Toward      a Functioning         DynamIC?",         in Bulletin,        Vol.ll,     No.4
   (Institute   of Development         Studies,    Sussex,     1980); and Green, R.H., "Southern
   Afncan      Development       Coordination:        The Struggle         Continues",        in C. Legum
   (Edltod, Africa Contemporary            Record' 1980-1981.
3. Thompson,      C.B., Development            Without     Dominance?             The Southern          Afncan
   Development      Coordination       Conference',      in the AssociatIOn of Concerned                 Africa
   Scholars Newsletter,      No.8 (September,         1982).
4. A clear and concise exposition of this can be found                     in an article       by D. Winder
   entitled "Why Black Africa can't Break Hidden Trade                     Ties with S. AfrICa", in the
   Christian Science Monitor, March 25, 1983, p.3.
5. The most blatant efforts have been directed                     against       Angola,       Lesotho.     and
   MozambIque.       In Angola, South Afnca            not only backs Jonas Savlmbi's                  NatIOnal
   UnIOn for the Total Independence of Angola, but has repeatedly                          invaded Southern
    Angola.    See the Africa Research Bulletin              September-October            1979, July-August
    1981, November-December            1981, and Sep;ember           1983. In Lesotho, South African
    troops killed at least 37 people in a Maseru raid in early December                              1982.    In
   additIOn, the underground            Lesotho     LiberatIon       Army allegedly           has the tacIt
   approval of South Africa in its sabotage                 attacks     against Lesotho.           See Afnca
    Report,    March-Apnl       1983; Africa Research            Bulletin,     August       1982, December
    1982, March 1983, April 1983, June 1983, and September                         1983. In MozambIque,
    South AfrIcan Defence          Forces have led a number of raids into Mozambican
                                                  42


     territory,     and have also gIven support                       to the Mozambique              National Resistance
    gueriJla      movement.             See Africa             Report,       March-April         1983, May-June           1983,
     July-f'ugust       1983; Africa           Research          Bulletin,       February       1981, September           1981,
     March 1982, August 1982; Christian                         Science       Monitor, October          22 1982, Aprd 25
     1983, and May 25 1983.                  For Information              on general       destabiJisatlOn     efforts,     see
    "RegIOnal          DestabllJsatlOn             In        Southern         Afnca",          Heanngs        before        the
    Sub-CommIttee              on     Afnca         of      the    Committee           on Foreign         Affairs,      House
    RepresentatIves,           NInety-Seventh             Congress,       December       8 1982.
6.  See HJ!I, C.R.,'ReglOnal               Cooperation           in Southern        Africa'     in AfrICan    Affairs,     Vol.
    82, No.327, 1983, partIcularly                  pages      222-223.
7.  A few authors           have suggested            that the SADCC emerged as a result of efforts by
    the Western powers, especiaJly                     the United States, to implement                   a 'Marshall Plan'
    for Southern          Africa.        ThIs argument             IS less credible,         however,     as indicated        by
    subsequent        actions     by the United States and Europe.                        The United States has been
    hesitant      about      giVing aid on a regional                      level because          the aid would so go
    partIally      to Angola and MozambIque.                          Most European           countries,     on the other
    hand, were not receptIve                     to giVIng aId to Angola                   and Mozambique           because
    neIther country           had signed the Lome Convention.                          Given these factors,          coupled
    With the low levels of U.S. aId forthcoming,                                 indicate     that the 'Marshall          Plan'
    argument        is not credible.          For an exposition             of the 'MarshaJl Plan' argument,                see
    Leys, R. and A. Tostensen,                          'Regional        Cooperation         m Southern       Africa: The
    Southern        Africa     Development             Coordination          Conference',        in ReVIew of Afncan
    Political Economy, No.23, 1982.
8.  Nsekela,      0p.Clt.
9.  Weisfelder,       Op.Clt.
10. Nsekela,        0p.Clt.,      p.3;    see      also       Tostensen,        A., Dependence            and Collective
    Self-Reliance           in     Southern          Africa:        'The      Case      of the        Southern      African
    Development             Coordination           Conference             (SADCC),         Research        Report       No.62
    (Scandinavian         Institute     of African Studies, Uppsala, 1982).
II. Although membership                IS open       to any Afncan natIOn which accepts the document
    Southern Afnca:            Toward Economic                Liberation,      respects     the soverelgmty.                 of
    member         states,       denies      bases        to dissidents,          and accepts          the doctnne           on
    non-Interference            in the internal            affairs     of other      members,        m practIce. only an
    Independent         Namibia will likely be allowed to join (see Hill, op.cit.).                              Given the
    poliCies of the Mobutu                  regime,         it is not lIkely that ZaIre will be allowed to
    jom.        The fInal candidate                South Africa              will be allowed to JOin only when
    II.                                        '
      apartheId      has been liquidated",               an unlikely ' prospect.
12. Tostensen,       op.cit.
13. Leys and Tostensen,             op.cit.
14. ~;      Tostensen,       op.cit.
15. See Appendix One for a list of railroad                            transport     projects.       A complete       list of
    projects in all sectors can be found in AED, Vol.21, January                                   1983, pp. 30-36.
16. Opening        speech       by    President          Samora        Machael      of    Mozambique,        in   Kgarebe,
    op.cit.,    p.28.
                                                               43


17.  Ibid.
18.  Leys and Tostensen,         op.cit.
19.  Ibid., p.85
20.  Tostensen,     op.cit.
21.  Africa    Research      Bulletin,   November-December,          1981, p.6237.
22.  For a discussion of the Blantyre conference                 see "SADCC members gather for key
     progress     meeting",      The Herald (Zimbabwe),             November         17 1981, p.5; "SADCC
     blasts Pretoria        on destabilisation",       The Herald (Zimbabwe),              November      19 1981,
     p.l; "New routes to harmony opened up at Blantyre",                            The Herald (Zimbabwe),
     November 21 1981, p.3.
23.  See "Tanzania       prepares      17 projects",    in the Tanzanian       Daily News",              June     30
      1982.
24.  Botswana, Republic          of, Ministry     of Finance and Development                 Planning, "SADCC
      Maseru International        Conference:        January 27-28, 1983", (mimeo) 1983, p.13.
25.   Arab donors were absent at the Maseru conference                        due to Lesotho's         links with
      Israel.   Only Kuwait attended.             See Africa Research           Bulletin, January-February
      1983.
26.   See "The future for pragmatic               Sadec     looks  bright",     In   the   Johannesburg        Star,
      February 26, 1983, pp.I-2.
27.   See "Millions for SADCC", in Commerce,                  March   1983, pp. II,        13.
28.   Africa Research         Bulletin,    January-February        1983,    p.6717;      see   also   Commerce,
      loc. cit.
29.   op.cit.,  p.6
 30.  See "Pledges      to SADCC fall below            target",     The Herald       (ZImbabwe),      February       4
      1984.
 31.  The Botswana Daily News, op.cit., see also "SADCC                          talks   open    wIth   attack    on
      SA", The Herald (Zimbabwe), February 3, 1984.
 32.  The Botswana       Daily News, op.cit.
 33.  Tostensen,     loc. cit.
 34.  See Thompson,       op.cit.,   p.106.
 35.  Tostensen,     loc. cit.
 36.
       See "SADCC Heads in Gaborone",                    in Commerce,         September         1982;   "Blumeris
       spells out alms of SADCC", in the Herald, September                     8, 1982.
 37.   Tostensen,    loc. cit.
                                                       44


38. Leys and Tostensen,         0p.C1t.
39. See Ravenhill,       J., "Regional      Integration      and Development       in Africa: Lessons
    from     the    East     African     Community",         in Journal     of   Commonwealth         and
    Comparative      Politics, Vol. 17, No.3, 1979.
40. See Axline, W.A., "Underdevelopment,                Dependence,     and Integration:     The Politics
    of Regionalism       In the Third      World",   in International    Organisation,     Vol. 31, No.1,
    1977.
41. See Bond,       R.D.,     "Regionalism       in   Latin    America:    Prospects     for the Latin
    American     Economic System (SELA),             "In  International   Organisation,     Vol.32, No.2,
    1978.
42. Ibid, p.404;   see also Ravenhill,      op.cit.
43. Vargas-Hildago,       R., "The Crisis of the Andean Pact: Lessons for IntegratIOn
    Among Developing           Countries",    in Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 17,
    No.3, 1979.
44. Ravenhill,   0p.C1t.
45. Tostensen,    Op.C1t; Welsfelder,      op.cit.
46. Welsfelder,   op.CIt.,    p.80
47. IbId.
48. So characterised      by Thompson,      Op.C1t.
49. See the Africa     Report,     May-June,     1983, p.39.
50. See the Africa     Report,     January-February,        1983, p.36.
51. In Kgarebe,    0p.Cl t., p.151.
                                                   45


                                                           APPENDIX     ONE
                          SADCC Railway  Projects
                            Project                 Status  Cost   ($m)
       Country
               Benguela railway            projected           45.0
Angola
               Rehabilitation.
               Three years
               North-south     rail        projected             1.0
 Botswana      Southern border-            financing            24.0
               northern border             being sought
               Track renewal.
               Two years.
               Railway telecommu-          financing              5.8
               nications                   being sought
               Rehabilitation.
               Three years.
               Trans-Kalahari              projected              5.0
               railway study.
               Two years.
               Instruments!                 financing             7.2
               signalling                   being sought
               Rehabilitation
               upgrading
               Two years.
               Maintenance      depot       projected             5.0
               Construction
               Two years.
Lesotho        Customs terminal,            financing              1.6
               container    depot.          being sought
               Construction.
               Two years.
               Rolling stock                financing            12.0
                Supply                      being sought
                Two years.
 Malawi         SaJima-Mozambique           financing            10.0
                border                      being sought
                Rolling stock                financing           27.0
                supply                       being sought
                Two years
                                      46


        Country               Project                 Status      Cost   ($m)
Mozambique      Ai mada- Zi mbabwe          operational              42.0
                border.
                Rehabili tation.
                Three years.
                Beira-Dondo                 operational              22.0
                Rehablli tation,
                upgrading
                Six years.
                Dondo-Malawi        border  operational              68.0
                Rehabilitation,
                upgrading
                Three years
                Nacala-Malaw       i border operatIOnal             190.0
                RehabIlitatIOn,
                upgrading
                Three years
                Maputo and Matola           fInancing                  1.0
                yards.
                Study
                One year.
Mozambique/     Machava-Matsapa             fInancing                67.0
Swazlland       Rehab1l1tation,             being sought
                upgrading
                Three years
                Electr If icatlOn           operational                0.6
                of JOint railway
                system.
                Study
                One year
                                            financing                44.0
Tanzanla/       Tazara
Zambia          RehabllltatlOn              being sought
                Four years
                                            operational              38.0
                Tazara
                LocomotIves
                Supply.
                Three years
                                            projected        30.0
                Tazara
                Wagons,
                Supply
                Three years
                                         47


      Country                 Project              Status Cost ($m)
Tanzania/          Tazara,                 projected              15.0
Zambia (continued) New Kapiri-Mposhi
                   station
                   Construction
                   Three years
                   Tazara                  financing               9.0
                   Mechanical equipment    being sought
                   Supply
                   One year
                   Tazara                  financing              36.0
                   signalling and          being sought
                   communications
                   equipment.
                   Supply.
                   Two years
                   Tazara                  projected               1.3
                   Training
                   One year.
Zambia             New rail links:         projected               0.6
                    1. Lusaka-Mchinji
                        (Malawi)
                   2. Tazara-Mpulungu
                        port (Lake Tan-
                        ganyika)
                    3.  Kafue-Zawi (Zim-
                        babwe line)
                    4.  Katete-Moatize
                        (Mozambique)
                    5. Chingola-Nucussueje
                        (Angola)
                    6. Livingstone-Groot-
                        fontein (Namibia)
                    Studies
                    Six months
 Regional           Rolling stock                                   1.2
                                            operational
                    Study
                    15 months
                    Training                operational             1.0
                    programmes Study
                    One year
                                       48


        Country            Project                   Status Cost ($m)
                Transport   of               operatIOnal             3.0
                mmerals
                Study
                One year
Source:         AED.    No.21,  January 1983, pp. 30-36.
                                   49