- 21 - SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS IN BOTSWANA SINCE INDEPENDENCE GIUmRl'A. ~ Introduction 'Ibis paper aims to achieve three objectives: firstly, to provide an overview of developnents in the changing eoonanic fortunes of Botswana during the period under consideration; seoorrlly, to assess the impact of econanic grcwth on various social groups: and thirdly, to suggest measures for reducing poverty (in the lcwer social groups) in the midst of plenty. During the last one and a half decades, Botswanaexperienced one of the highest gra.rth rates in Africa (an average of 11 percent per annum).(1) By 1984, per capita incane had increased fran Us$110in 1970 to Us$910.(2) 'Ibe country also experienced an increasingly rapid rate of population grcwth. 'Ibe grCMthrate averaged 2.8 percent during the 1970s and 3.4 percent in 19tH.(3) During this period of eoorx:mi.c bean, the government made conscientious efforts within an essentially capitalist frame\\Ork to advance eooncmic progress chrough investments in physical infrastructure, expansion of health and educational facilities, and through the creation of a favourable climate for both foreign and local capital investment. (4) 'Ihese measures went a long way tcwards attracting foreign capital in mining, construction and service industries. 'Ibis resulted in employmentcreation and a steady illpI'ovement in the standard of living, albeit to different degrees in different parts of the country. - 22 - '!his picture of apparent success in the eoonanic sphere during the post-colonial period contrasts sharply with the period prior to 1966. Before independence, trends in the ecx:>nany and its future looked very bleak. Prospects for grcwth in the agricultural sector, especially in food production, were gloany due to low levels of technological developnent in subsistance agriculture, relatively pcx:>rsoils and intermittent cx:curences of inclement weather conditions. (5) '!he cattle imustry was umer severe constraints. '!he drought of 1962-66 had wiped oot allIost a third of the national cattle herd. (6) '.lhese negative trems in the territory's eooncmy were 0CllIpCA.1l'ded further by the atsence of Irodern manufacturing imustries (except for beef) to canpensate for losses in agriculture due to the drought. '!he CCA.1l1try was generally umeveloped in infrastructure. '!he road net~rk system consisted of gravel am sand roads of a generally poor standard. cnly 25Kms out of l,300kms was bitumen roads. (7) '!he only reliable transportation system in the CCA.1l1try was the Rhodesian (Zimba.~) railway line running fran North to Salth along the eastern part of the camtry. '!he poor condition of roads hauq:leredeasy canuunications throughout the territory. In addition, other eSsP.ntial social amenities were in short supply. For instance, only a small fraction of the pop.1l.ation had access to fresh piped water. Heal th care service am educational facilities were in soort sUWly. ~reover, the availability of qualified people to run the eoonany was an even lIOre daunting problem at the time of irdeperdence. An OIIerviewof Develq:ments in the Cbmtry Within a period of six years folla-ring imeperdence, positive treme in Botswana's econcmy began to be felt. By 1972/3, C}OVernJIlent revenues fran local soorces had increased frem P4. 5 million in 1965/6 to P28.1 million. (8) As a result of this phencmenal grQfth of revenues, the ooontry was able to balance its recurrent budget without assistance fran Britain. (9) - 23 Expansion in recurrent revenues was paralleled by an increase in developnent expenditure. 'Ihis grew frcrn P5 million in 1965/6 to P30 million in 1972/3. M:)rethan 10 percent of this was IIObilized frcrn local resources. (10) Danestic output (especially in agriculture) IIOre than quadrupled during this period, and per capita incane increased due to a high average grCMthrate during the latter part of the 1960s and beyord the 1970s (see Table 1). A number of factors accamted for these positive trerrls. Firstly, the latter part of the 1960s and early 1970s were blessed with favourable weather conditions. (11) As a result, the period experienced rapid increases in both crops and livestock production. 'Ihe rural econany recovered and the national cattle herd was replenished. 'Ihe Botswana Meat Camnission (~) experienced variable performance due to changes in the supply of animals. (12) OVerall, the agricultural sector was dcrninant in terms of contrihltion to G.D.P. until the mid 1970s when it was overtaken by the mining industry (see Table 1). Secondly, the irrleperrlence period experienced a phenanenal expansion of the ?lblic sector. '!his was engendered partly by the relocation of the capital frcrn Mafikeng in Sa.Jth Africa to Gaboronein Botswana. Relocation entailed construction of new government hlildings, creation of new departments and job ORX>rtunities. Critical in these developments was the continued hldgetary sUfP)rt by the former colonial power. '!hirdly, the period frcrn 1970 witnessed the discovery of diaJIOndsat orapa and cq:per-nickel at Selibe Phikwe. 'Ihe exploi tation of these minerals generated phenanenal ec:::'Ol'OIIic growth in the history of the ya.mg dellOCratic state. (13) 'Ihis development expanded the G.D.P. by IIOre than half, and value added frcrn construction increased by ten fold. '!he mining sector overtook agriculture (livestock production) in G.D.P. contribution(see Table 1). - 24 - Table 1: G.D.P. milliCXlPula, 1965/6 1966/7 1967/8 1968/9 1971/2 1973/4 1974/5 1. l\griculture 11.1 14.5 18.3 23.2 34.2 69.2 61.2 2. Mining 0.2 0.0 0.7 0.2 11.2 15.9 15.2 3. Manufacturing 3.8 2.9 3.6 2.8 5.1 10.1 15.5 4. Water & Elec- tricity 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.3 3.3 6.9 5. Construction 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.9 10.0 21.2 20.3 6. Trade 6.2 6.8 5.0 5.1 17.5 35.1 43.0 7. Transport 2.7 3.0 2.4 3.4 3.8 5.3 5.5 8. Financial Serv. 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.5 5.3 13.2 14.2 9. Social & Personal Services 1.0 1.3 3.5 6.8 8.8 10. General Govt. 4.5 4.9 7.7 9.5 11.9 18.2 24.9 11. GDP at current market prices 32.9 36.9 43.9 51.9 103.8 197.5 213.1 12. Percentage growth rate 12 19 17 20.4 23.0 29.6 Table 1 (oootinued) G[p by Sectors CUrrent Prices, (milliCXlPula, PercentaQes), 1975-1982 1975/6 1976/7 1977/8 1978/9 1979/80 1982 1981/82 1. l\griculture 64.2 70.8 2. 15.5 10.9 10.6 12.4 7.4 Mining 33.9 43.3 3. 23.2 31.5 27.1 17.5 28.2 Manufacturing 20.9 21.0 8.5 4. Water & Elec- 4.2 6.4 7.4 8.2 tricity 11.1 10.9 5. 2.4 2.2 3.5 4.1 3.0 Construction 20.3 17.5 4.2 6. Trade 53.9 5.2 4.9 5.0 4.3 57.9 20.2 22.8 7. Transport 7.6 1.7 22.7 25.5 22.4 8. 2.6 2.0 2.2 2.3 3.0 Financial Serv.17.8 23.4 5.8 9. Social and 6.2 4.5 5.2 5.3 Personal serv. 13.1 12.1 10. General govt. 3.6 3.1 3.5 3.9 3.8 36.1 47.3 13.9 11. GIP at current 176.2 299.2 11.9 14.4 16.1 14.5 market prices 504 689 771 1043 8.3 34.2 855 42 37 12 22 11 ~: Colclough and Macarth (1980) N:l.4 (December 1979{ p.58: Statistical Bulletin, VOlA, , p.35: W:>rldBank (1985) p.10l. - 25 - '!he inpact of mineral exploitation was felt in the country's external trade (see Table 2). Since the mid 1970s minerals (diamonds in particular) have daninated export mrnings. (14) '!his developnent resulted in incrmsed revenue, fran Pl.O million (fran manganese and asbestos) in 1968 to P15.2 million in 1975(15), P99.4 million in 1982 and over P300 million in 1985 as indicated in Table 3. ~se incrmsed inflONs of revenue fran the mining sector, tCXJetherwith incrmsed inflONS of revenue fran the CUstans Union (particularly after the 1969 renegotiation of revenue sharing), (16) and inflONs of external aid (including grants-in-aid) enabled governmentto unlertake infrastructure developnent on a wide scale. Population centres became linked by all weather roads, and the main trunk road fran the southern part of the country to the Zambian border was constructed. '!hese activities generated employment OfPOrtunities for locals at the rate of 10 percent per annum during the 1970s.(17) Fourthly, the country experienced surpluses(18) in the balance of payments (see Table 4) and had a small debt service obligation. ~reover , much of the econanic success in the country was due to an efficient civil service, which played an effective role in the choice of projects and saw to their full implementation. (19) As a result, a lot of medium size foreign capital was attracted to the country. '!his went into manufacturing and wholesale trade which generated grONth output at the rate of 30 percent fran the mid 1970s and beyond. (20) ~se developnents sustained econanic grONth in the country throughout the period unler consideration, except in 1981/2 - 1982/3 when there was a slump in international prices for diannnds. (21) '!he impact of this developnent on Botswanas I econany was innnediate. Foreign exchange earnings fell, and the contriwtion of minerals to the G.D.P. also declined. As revenues experienced a decline, government had to introduce sane austerity measures to reduce expenditures and allocation of foreign exchange resources. - 26 - Table 2: Trends in Export Trade, 1965 - 1982 (P. Million) Exports !Irp)rts Meat & Animal Diamrrls Cower Other 'Ibtal 'Ibtal Trade Products Nickel !Irp)rts Deficit 1965 9.6 0.5 10.1 16.6 - 6.5 1966 10.4 0.3 10.7 18.8 - 8.1 1967 9.0 0.2 9.2 22.4 -13.2 1968 7.0 0.5 7.5 23.2 -15.7 1969 0.2 0.2 2.7 13.1 34.3 -21.2 1970 20.0 44.8 -24.8 1971 17.0 ll.7 2.3 31.0 60.8 -29.8 1972 19.5 19.5 5.8 44.8 84.0 -39.2 1973 32.5 20.0 6.5 59.0 111.7 -52.7 1974 33.6 30.1 8.3 9.7 81.7 121.5 -39.8 1975 38.0 32.1 22.0 13.0 105.1 157.2 -52.1 1976 46.0 37.0 52.0 18.0 153.0 181.0 -28.0 1977 48.0 47.0 40.0 18.0 153.0 227.0 -74.0 1978 28.6 79.3 52.6 32.2 164.1 1979 41.0 215.0 64.0 71.0 391.0 408 -17.0 1980 55.0 223.3 91.0 44.0 413.0 523.0 -100 1981 95.0 375 60.0 69.0 599.0 664.0 -65 1982 79.5 243.2 64.5 80.3 467.4 703.7 -236.3 1983 79.1 463.9 65.8 88.0 696.7 805.9 109.2 1984 62.4 616.0 68.2 198.4 857.1 895.2 38.1 1985 97.6 1,049.0 119.9 317.2 11385.1 1094.6 +290.5 1986 NA 1,130.5 121.0 NA NA NA NA Sa.lrce: Statistical Bulletin, Vol 4. No.8 (December, 1979) pp. 9, 10, 18, 19: see also Statistical Bulletin Vol 5, No. 1 (March 1980) ];:p. 9, 10, 18, 19: '*'rid Bank, Ecannic MemorandUIIIC?!!. Botswana, (CCtcber, 1985) ];:p. 118. - 27 - Table 3: Government Recurrent Revenues in Selected Years (In Millions of Pula) Year Sources Olstans Other Mineral Other or 'lbtal and Exise Revenues Revenues External 1966/67 1.1 2.2 2.9 6.2 1969/70 5.1 2.4 3.1 10.6 1971/72 B.3 3.B 0.9 4.1 17.1 1973/74 20.9 B.9 2.8 8.1 40.7 1975/76 24.9 22.B 15.2 10.1 72.7 1977/7B 37.B 29.0 13.6 24.1 104.5 1979/80 80.2 55.4 76.6 48.9 261.1 1900/B1 102.0 66.4 101.1 48.7 318.2 19B1/B2 104.3 101.7 77.0 51.6 334.6 1982/B3 114.3 132.B 99.4 68.2 450.6 Source: 'nle Mid-Term Review of NDPV, p.6 Table 4: Tren1s in the Balance of Payments, 1975-82 (P Million) Items 1975 1976 1977 197B 1979 1980 19B1 1982 Current Items a) Bal. of visible trade -55 -39 -49 -54 0 -45 -239 122 b) Bal. on services +8 -10 -7 -51 -75 -115 -49 -59 c) Transfer payments +16 +50 +79 -67 -105 +99 +116 +120 Bal. on CiA -32 +1 +23 -33 +30 +61 -17.l -61 Capital Items Bal. on Capital Account +57 +1 +2 +71 +71 +120 +91 +93 Net Error and Onmi ssions -6 +13 +19 +24 Source: Statistical Bulletin, Varioos Issues fran 1977~ World Bank, (1985) p.116. - 28 - 'Ibis negative trend was, ha.'ever, r eversed fran 1983 when prices of diam::>nds began to improve, and the econany resumed its upward trend. Despite the up.orcu-dtrend, however, the i~ct of the dianond slump exposed the vulnerabili ty of the econcmyto changes in the international econCIIIY. '!he heavy reliance of governmentrevenues on a narrow base (i. e export of beef, dianonds and copper) led to a call for diversification of the econany. lbNever, not much was done ta.ards this end except for the emergenceof small and mediUIIIsize manufacturing industries which produced mainly for the local market. Overall, the econcmy remained largely healthy throughout the period urner review. '!he Agriculture Sector Cattle are an important part of life in the Tswana society. '!hey custanarily provide draught Pa.'er as well as essential protein in the form of milk and meat. '!his daninant role of cattle in the subsistence econcmy partly accamted for the developnent of the ~ system which provided access to draught power to households that did not have cattle. Inequali ty in the distribution of cattle, however, continues to grow. A study done by Colclough and M::Carthyfound that abJut 45 percent of households in Botswanadid not have any cattle; that 40 percent of the households o.med up to 50 herd of cattle each; and that only 15 percent of the population amed a1x>ut 75 percent of the total national cattle herdJ22) Since agricultural output was (and stil.l is) associated with access to draught power, those without cattle play a marginal role in agricultural production. Such households are particularly vulnerable to the vagaries of droughts. On the other hand, those with up to 50 cattle contrioote meaningfully to agricultural output and USually keep surpluses to take care of bad years. Big cattle ranchers k-- '-ner la "nal ' ,~"" , Pya margl. role in crq;> production as th" ." , el.r mal.n l.nterest is in the production of cattle for sale. - 29 - rnring the period under review, the government introduced a number of schemes to improve agricul tural output. ~st of these schenes were, haNever, geared towards the 40 percent of farmers owning up to 50 herd of cattle and more. Such farmers benefitted from the master-farmer scheme between 1962-1973,(23) which, unfortunately, did not prove to be a success, and was abandoned. '!his was followed by a more widespread extent ion effort aimed at small farmers. (24) Despite the schemes focus, I extent ion workers concentrated their activities on a small group of successful farmers. Although the scheme also failed, it, nevertheless, had excluded the poor from the benefits of econanic expansion. '!he Arable Lands Developnent Programme (ALOEP) , and other agricultural schenes which were introduced during a period of boom in the ecorx:my, excluded the rural poor, and thus, accentuated the gap between the rich and poor in Tswana society. Similarly, the introduction of the Tribal Grazing Land Policy ('mLP) in 1970, benefitted largely the big cattle ranchers. Big cattle owners seized OJ:PQrtunities provided by 'ImP to lay exclusive claim on tracts of land on which they drilled boreholes for watering their cattle. With access to bank loans, members of the "cattleocracy" were able to improve their cattle breeds in exclusive grazing areas, and thus, maximizedtheir OIP>rtunities for capital accumulation. Canmercial banks were not particularly interested in exterding loans to small cattle owners (i.e. those whoownedless than 50 cattle). Since membersof this group could not raise enough fuI¥ls to buy farms (except as a syndicate) sane of tl.an were 1:xJughtout of their former grazing areas by big ranchers who could afford loans. With the creation of the National Developnent J2Ilk (NOO),OIP>rtunities for credit to both small and big cattle owners became available(25). Non-cattle owners had no access to both camnercial banks or NDB credit. '!his situation facilitated social inequalities in the country. - 30 - In effect, the plight of the 45 percent of ci tizens who do rot o.m any cattle continued to "-Orsen despite phencmenal ecoronic grCMth rates in the country. '!hat this situation obtained, reflected the failure of the state to improve corrli tions of the rural poor on one hand. en. the other hand, it reflected camnitment uf the state to serve the interests of the petty bourgeosie and international capital. ~1oyment Am Inccme Distrirotion IXlring the colonial period, the active male members of the Tswana society "-Orked in South African mines under a contract system. (26) Others found employmentin Scuth African farms and in the construction irrlustry. '!he figures for th::>se who "-Orked on farms and cities are not kna.m, rot it is assumed. that those who "-Orked in the mining irrlustry numbered arout 10,000 during the 1930s and by the time of irrleperrlence, they had increased to about 30,000 men. '!his number soared up to arout 40,000 or a third of the total labour force during the early 1970s. (27) 'lbrough the system of deferred payments, mine "-Orkers brooght hCllle lIOney which had implications for the rural econcmy. Despite low exploitative wages deferred payments insured that poor membersof the society had access to cash. Since irrleperrlence, and the advent of ecornnic 1xx:Jn in Botswana, many ~rkers began seeking employment locally. With the expansion of to.ms, government activities and retail trade, job creation grew at the rate of 10 percent per annLunin the 19605.(28) Formal employmentincreased frem 20,000 in 1960 to 62,000 in 1977 and to 122,000 by 1985. 'lbese figures, 1'lc7.Iever, represent only 20 percent of the lal:n1r force that was joining the lal:n1r market per annum. IXlring the 1960s and 1970s the active lal:n.1r force was grQolingat the rate of 5,000 to 6,000 per annum,(29) • lblever, only 50 percent foorrl formal euployment during this period of econcmic bocm. li::Jwever, the - 31 eoonanic boom by-passed the laoJer strata of society. AIlongst those who fOllJ'rl employment, industrial workers received relatively 1011 wages. Professionals and top civil servants earned fairly high salaries. (30) It should be noted that Botswanainherited an extremely inequitable salary structure fran her former colonial master. 'I'he ratio of salaries of senior civii servant to that of 10lier industrial class workers was 40:1. '!his salary structure remained in operation until the 1970s, whensuccessive salaries review commissions decided to reduce the gap as shOlinin Table 5. Unskilled workers, like the rural poor, marginally benefitted fran the econanic boom, whilst civil servants and the business community accumulated cash incanes and property. '!he high salaries of civil servants and private sector employeesgave them access to commercialb:mk credit for investment in cattle, real estate, small retail businesses and luxury goods such as cars. 'Ihrough various avenues to credit and high salaries, the civil servants, politicians and managerswere able to maximize their opportunities for acclUllulation and the reproduction of their class through education and salaried jobs. '!hus, to this extent, the ecorrmic boom exercebated class differences. Despite attempts to reduce the gap between the highest and lowest salary groups, unskilled labourers oontinued to receive meagre wages. '!bey could not afford reasonable housing in urban areas, nor were they able to educate and support their families effectively. '!he Self Help fbusing Agency (SHHA) introduced in the mid 1970s, (31) has hardly solved the problem of housing anong the poor. AIthough sane of them secured small long term loans at 1011 interest rates, they could not raise enough camterpart funds to build decent houses. '!be scheme benefitted the skilled, technical and senior clerical workers who had reasonable cash earnings. - 32 - Table 5 Olange in Government Salary Scales (PUla) 1964-78 m::REASE ~ ~ ~ Categories of Labour 1964 64-70 1970 70-4 1974 74-6 1976 76-78 1978 % % % % Unskilled Labourers 166 27 211 150 528 20 634 13 713 Skilled Labourers 317 17 370 79 729 12 977 20 87l Junior Clerical 318 17 372 42 528 20 636 8 6B4 Senior Clerical 576 2 528 45 768 20 9~ 26 1,164 Technical 1,488 -7 1,380 32 1,824 21 1,208 10 2,424 Mnin/Professional 2,172 -1 2,160 25 2,700 21 3,264 31 4,288 Department Head 5,790 -7 4,400 18 6,360 20 7,644 33 10,176 Permanent Secret. 6,030 -7 5,580 23 6,864 20 8,244 45 11,976 Ratio Perm See/Unskilled 36/1 26/1 13/1 13/1 11/1 Mnin/Unski11ed 13/1 10/1 5/1 5/1 6/1 Mnin/Junior Clerc. 7/1 6/1 5/1 5/1 6/1 Urban Cost of Living Index 63.2 74.6 100 125 156 %Increase in Index 18 34 25 25 - Salrce: ~lough and Macarthy, Dis~il::Ali~185~ CeJ:ttral '!he Political Statistics Office, Ec:annv of Botswana, Rural ~. Ion ey In ~, 1975. p. 72. - 33 Conclusion This paper has briefly shownthat Botswana experienced one of the highest econanic grCMth rates since independence. The government was able to invest in the developnent of human resources and physical infrastructure. A number of roads, and social facilities such as schools, hospitals and health care centres were established in many parts of the country. However, the lowest socio-eoonanic groups were by-passed by the benefits of econanic growth. It has been argued that the poverty in which about 45 percent of rural households live was not alleviated. Instead, their situation deteriorated further as a result of policies which tended to favour relatively rich membersof the society. Social inequalities in the rural areas intensified expotentially. In towns, only a small percentage of the active labourforce found formal employment. This was partly because of limited industries, and partly because of the utilization of capital intensive methods in potential employment sectors, like the mining industry. In any case, ~rkers received wages that were too low to help them suh>ist aoove the poverty trap. In oonstrast, top civil servants were paid high salaries and got access to credit which enabled them to maximize their chances for accumulating wealth. Government salary structures and policies of canmercial banks helped to accentuate class distinctions over the years - a situation which maynot augur well for political stability in the future. This paper concludes by suggesting sane remedial measures to alleviate ooth rural and urban ~rking class poverty. It has been proposed that a long term financing programme caJpled with other instruments aimed at the rural poor may improve their condition over the long run. It has also been suggested that salary adjustments should have as their primary objective the creation of a decent standard of living for everytx:rly. The unskilled labourers also deserve decent housing and have an - 34 - obligation to provide for their families, like members of the bureaucracy. '!herefore, equity in the distribution of resarrces must be a major concern for goveI'I1m:!nt. 1. World Bank Mission, Botswana, Public Experrliture and Deve10pnent in Botswana. (Gal:x>rone1986) p.8 2. ReIxIDlic of BotlMUla, National Deve10pnent Plan, 1985-91 (Gaborone, GovernmentPrinter 1985), p-p9 and 12: also see Replblic of Botswana, '!he Midterm Review of NIP V, Gaborone, GovernmentPrinter, 1983), p. 5. 3. C. Colclough and S. ~thy, '!he Political Ec::orony of Botswana: A study of GrCMth and Distribution, (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1980), W. 65-69. 4. World Bank Mission ~.Cit p.8 5. C. Colclough and S. McCarthy, ~.Cit. p.54. 6. World Bank Mission, ~ Cit p.8. 7. Calculated fran ReIxIDlicof Botswana, National Acccunts of Botswana, 1964-66. CSO (June 1968), p.6: also see Hans-Erik Dahl, "Econanic and Social Developnent in Botswana, 1966-78" in Olarles Harvey (ad), Papers on the Econcmy of Botswana, (IoD:lon, 1981, p.ll. 8. ~ p.10. 9. C. Colclough and S. l-k:Carthy, ~. Cit p.55. 10. RepJblic of Botswana, Statistical Bulletin. Vol. 4 No. 4 (December, 1979) p.35: also see Republic of Botswana, NatiOnal Developnent Plan 1985-91, ~ Cit, p.l4. - 35 - 11. C. Colclough and S. M:::Carthy,~ Cit, p.l0. 12. Republic of Botswana, National Developnent Plan, 1976-81, (Gab::>rone,GoverrunentPrinter, 1977), W. 184-185. 13. C. Colcoogh and S. M:.'Cathy Op Cit p70: also see NDP 1985-91 Op Cit p.28: '!he Midterm Reviewof NDPV ~ Cit p.84. 14. Statistical Bulletin (December1979) Op Cit p.27 15. Republic of Botswana, National Accounts of Botswana, (1973/74) p.6-1. 16. Hans-Erik 1Bhl. "Econcmic and Social developnent 1966 ~ Cit P.11: Vbrld Bank Mission, (1986) ~ Cit p.19. 17. '!he Midterm Reviewof NDPV. Op. Cit p.6 18. Statistical Bulletin in (December, 1979) ~ Cit p.36: also see NDP1985-91 ~ Cit p. 29. 19. C. Colclough and S. M:.'Carthy, ~ Cit, p.61 20. '!he Midterm Reviewof NDPV ~ Cit. p.11 21. C. Calclough and S. M:.'Carthy,~.Cit W. 111-112. 22. Ibid 23. B. Lever, Jl.gricultural extension in Botswana" University of Reading, Developnent Study, Reading. No. 7 (1970) pp29 and 34. 24. C. Bord, ''Wanen's Involvement in Jl.griculture", Gab::>rone (1974) mimeop.42. - 36 - 25. Lavid Jones, "Arable agriculture in Botswana: a case for sub3idies" in C. Harvey (00) Op. Cit p.3l. 26. C. Colclough am S. M::Carthy, Op Cit. p.1l8. 27. Ibid, p.135 28. Central Statistics Office, Report on the Pcp.llation Census, (1971) p.lll. 29. Statistical Bulletin, (December1979), Op Cit. 30. ~ p5: also see C. Colcloogh am S.McCathy, Op Cit p.l77. 31. Central Statistics Office, Rural Inccme Distribltion SUrvey in Botswana, (1974/75), p. 72. Bond, C., 1974 ''bien's Involvement in 1lgriculture" [MimeoJ Gaborone. Central Statistics Office, 1971 ~rt on the Pq:lu}ation Census. Prmter. Gal:lOrone. Government 1975 ~al Incane Distrih.1tion Survey in Botswana. GovernmentPrinter. Gaboione 1979 Statistical Gaborone. Bulleti!!. Government Printer • 1968 National Printer. of Botswana. Government - 37 Colclough, C., and ~thy, S. 1980 'n1e Political Econ:my of Botswana: A Stlrly of GrCMth and Distribltion. Oxford University Press. Oxford. Dahl, H. E. 1981 "Econanic and Social Developnent in Botswana, 1966-78" in Harvey, C., Papers on the Econany of Botswana. Heinemann. lDmon. Jones, D. 1981 "Arable Agriculture in Botswana; A case for Subsidies" in Harvey, C., Papers on the Econany of Botswana. Heinemann. London. lever, B. 1970 "Agricultural Extension in Botswana" University of Reading, Conference Paper No.7. Republic of Botswana 1977 National Developnent Plan. Government Printer Gaborone. 1983 Mid-Term Review of NrPV. Government Printer. Gaborone 1985 National Developnent Plan, 1985-1991. Government Printer. Gaborone. W:>rldBank Mission 1986 "Public Expenditure and Developnent in Botswana". Gaborone.