- 38 - MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION SINCE INDEPENDENCE U. IWti AND D. TAYIDR Introduction It is difficult fer the old to remember and the yamg to visualize what life was like in the newly-independent Botswana of 1%6. 'lbere were very few paid jOl::Gin the rocrlem sector within the coontry. r-bst peq>le depended on their crops for food, and their cattle for cash incane. Sane went to work on the mines in South Africa. lDbatse am Francisto.m were larger than the new capital city, Gaborone, which had only just ceased to be one huge building site. Overall, the cnmtry was very much poorer than it is today, both in national incane and in average personal incanes. '!be government was unable to cover its recurrent experrliture fran danestic revenues and continued to rely on the annual grant-in-aid fran Britain until into the 1970s. As a result, Botswana \>as illlDlediately categorized by the United Nations as one of the 25 least developed camtries in the world. Over the last twenty years of in:iependence, ho.iever, there have been very many significant changes. In this paper, we attE!lllptto give an accamt of policies and achievements in the fields of education and ~r developnent since irnepemence We la' !ann' ng • exp 1n manpower p 1 am its relationship with natiOnal developnent planning and try to slni how varioos POliCies in the educational sector have been related, or IlOreoften not related t the - , 0 IIlal'lpoWer - 39 planning process and projections arising from it. The Role and Developnent of ManpcwerPlanning in Botswana At the time of independence, manpowerplanning \\as increasingly becoming the basis for e:1ucational planning in developing countries, though it took some time before it was firmly establishe:1 in Botswana. The very beginning of manpower planning in Botswanacan be traced back to the establishment of a Standing Advisory Committee (of officials) on Recruitment, Training and IDealization Policy in 1%1. The Cammittee produced a White Paper in 1962 proposing inter alia measures to improve teacher training, secondary and technical education as well as bursaries for post secondary education. other Committees of a similar nature soon followed. In 1%3, there was a Localization and Training Cammitteeand in mid-1964 an Advisory Public Service Cammission. The establishment of these committees reflect concern with how to staff and manage the small government administration which had been run from Mafikeng, outside the rorders of the Protectorate. A number of studies concerned with manpower needs of the COlntry, particularly those of the Public Service, included the following: 1. The Developnent of the Bechuanaland Econany or the "Porter Report". 'Ibis was the report of the Ministry of Overseas DevelopmantEconomicSurvey Mission in 1%5. 2. Report on Localization and Training or the "Luke Report", dated 1965. 3. Secondary Level Teachers: Supply and Demandin Botswana or "the Michigan State Shrly" carried out by Jolm W. Hansonof the AmericanCouncil on Education from 1968. 4. Further Education in Botswana 1969 or the "Pickard Report" • This was a report of a mission to study and make recanmendations concerning technical, camnercial and other vocational education and training in Botswana, Lesotho and S\o.aziland. - 40 - 5. Report of the Academic Plarmer to the Universi ty ~f Botswana, Lesotho am So.eziland or the "Alexander Report, 1969. 6. "MenorandlU\l to the Governmentof Botswana on the Mission of Dr. S.G.L. Nigam, lID Regional Manpc7Ner Advisor for Af~ica fran 19 April to 23 April 1970". or the. "Nlgam MeIooramum". '!his consistErl of general advlce to government regarding InaI'lpCMerplanning and stressed the need for "••• a detailed establishment eJ'XIUiry •••• as early as possible both in the p.ililic and private sectors". 7. Report on the Canmission on the Salaries and Corrlitior:s of Service of the Public Service and the Teaching Servlce or the "OkohReport". Concern with manpcwerneeds can probably be explained by the fact that, at the time, there were very few Batswana with qualifications required to function in managerial, technical and professional positions. As a result, the Transitional Plan for Social and Ecornnic Developnent (1%6) emp,asized localization and training for the administration of the country. '!he plan statErl that, "the primary aim in the field of Erlucation is to create in the srortest possible time, with such financial means as may be available, a stock of trained local ~r capable of serving the cnmtry's enemy" (Transitional Plan, 1966:52). Government set targets to reach self sufficiency in high-level manpcwerby 1990 at a plannErl growth rate of six percent annually. '!his figure was closely tied to the anticipated overall rate of econanic growth. All posts of a non-specialized administrative nature were to be localized by 1972. '!here was also sane concern to retain teachers in the service and it was sed ' ' propo to reroc>ve dlscrepancies between the salary structure of the teaching service and that of the Public Service. Unlike the TransitiOnal Plan, the first National Developnent Plan (1968-73) was concerned with wider issues such as equitable distriootion of' the of 1l1CCme, possibility introducing a minimumwages policy al'k1 the need for a labour migration policy. '!he secom Natl'....... ~1 Development Plan - 41 - (1970-75), however, reintroduced the concern for local manpower. '!he Plan noted that only 10 percent of the jobs that required 680 people with diplana am degree qualifications were held by Batswana. It was estimated that category II manpower (i. e. people with a minilllUlll of five years seoorrlary education) would be fully localized in 10 to 15 years. In 1973, Colclough carried out a manpo.ler Employment Survey which introduced a wide basis for manpower planning. '!he "Colclough Report" was a pioneering stlrly which recanmended that: IIOre attention be paid to localisation priorities not only in governmentrot in the private sector as well. '!he report also recamnended that "vigorous efforts should be made to increase the participation of wanen in the formal sector" , and that a student counselling service be established to help avoid the unrealistic career aspirations of students and that adult education and the informal sector be given due attention. '!he Employment Survey provided a lot of needed base-line data am what appears to have been well-founded recamnerrlations. IkMever, inadequate machinery existed for the implementation of the recamnerrlations. In 1978, M. Lipton prepared the first (and only) report dealing with'l1aN to provide full employment in the country. Although many of the recamnerrlations were afPiI'ently too radical for the time, the report led to the establishment of the EmploymentPolicy Unit within the Ministry of Finance am Developnent Planning in 1980. '!his unit later (see especially NDPV) adcpted manyof the recamnerrlations fran previous studies. Qle of the first tasks of the unit was to reactivate the National Employment, MarlpoIoler am Inccmes Council (NEMIC), a tripatriate consultative body, for which the unit provides the secretariat. '!he third National Developnent Plan (1973-78) was the first to contain long-term (1978 to 1988) estimates for cadres with different educational level requirements. Government had realized that the need for skilled manpowerin the very rapidly growing ecooc.my of the country had been grossly umerestimated - 42 - in previous plans. At last, manpower planning had (theoretically) becane nr::>refully integrated with econanic planning: implementation, however, lagged behind. 'lbe fCAlrth National Development Plan (1976-8l) reiterated government s I policy to link post-primary education to manpower needs. In general, future requirements for skilled Batswana were shawn to be greater than it had been forecast in the previous plans. Pressure for formal employment fran large numbers of the population had became evident. A full-scale manpcMer study was to be undertaken in 1978. HcMever, thi s a~ently did not take place. Nevertheless, the plan cautiOned that not IlOre than 25 percent of the lalx>ur force could expect to be in formal employmentby the year 2000. The employmentstrategy included: to maximise the rate of job creation associated with the growth of the llOdern sector, and to spread such employment to the villages as well as the towns. to provide increased ogx>rtuni ties for productive self-Ellployment and informal sector employment,particularly in the rural areas and on the urban fringes. The fifth . NatIonal Developnent Plan (1979-85) oontains a separate dlapter on education which reflects to a large extent the 1977 White Paper on Fducational Policy based on the recanmerrlations of the National CcmniSSI' on """ ...... e on J:UucatIon. Ul Plan recognizes the increasing need f . . . or SkIlled manjJOl\'er, especIally In maths and science. In 1983 . , the concept of a IDld-term review was . tr . In edUCed and government took this cgx:>rtUnl ty to strengthen the . . . IllanpcMerIn the oontext of natlonal developnent Planning. In the sixth (current) National Deve ~r issues a""""""- lopDent Plan (1985-9l), the oot to feature as . be expected, consid . the praDlllently as could erIng trerrl of think' . few years. Neverthele Ing In the preceding SS, IIIClllpcwer lanni integrated within different p. ng issues are sector, e.g. education, health, - 43 agriculture etc. '!he DeveloplleI1tof the Etlucational System At the time of independence, the educational system was underdeveloped. '!here were 250 primary schools and nine secondary schools including Gal:x:lrone Secondary School which had just opened in 1965 and was regarded with great pride by the departing colonial administration. '!he University of Botswana Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS)had only recently been established at the RaIla Campusin Lesotho as a regional secular institution serving the three countries. '!here were al:x:lut40 citizens who held a Bachelor's degree, and the majority of secondary school teachers were expatriates. IDbatse and Serowe 'I"n:: I S were in existence to train primary school teachers, rot there was no provision for training secondary school teachers except through the degree progranune at UBLS. UBLS, hCMever, had only a handful of Batswana students, most of whan were destined for non-teaching jobs anyway. '!he Department of Education fell under the Ministry of Labour and Social Services with the former Headmaster of Moeng College, Mr. B.C. '!hema, as the Minister. It occupied just a few roans on the first floor of the present Ministry of Education building. '!here were no Camnuni ty Junior Secondary Schools although Mo1efi,. Seepapitso and Kgari Seche1e schools were not dissimilar to the i11-equipped and poorly-staffed canm.mity schools of more recent tires. Institutions such as the Polytechnic, Botswana Agricultural College, Institute of Developnent Management, National Institute of Health, Department of Non-FormalEducation etc., did not exist. Just before Independence, and shortly thereafter, a good deal of energy went into the determination of responsibilities and the formulation of laws and regulations governing the fledgling system of education. Primary schools were placed under the newly-formed Tam and District Q:luncils. '!he Botswana Teaching Service was established in 1966 after the enabling legislation - 44 - had been passed in 1964. '!he main piece of Educational legislation was passed in 1966 and came into effect in 1967. Regulations governing the registration of schools and the levels of school fees were prOJm.llgated in 1967. Regulations governing corporal punishment in schools came into effect in 1968. '!he Ministry of labour and Social Services (which included the Department of Education) was re-named the Ministry of Education, Health and labour in 1968. It was not until 1970 that the separate Ministry of Education was formed, with B.C. '!hemaas Minister of Education. '!here \oRiS steady growth in both primary and secorrlary school enrol1oonts in the late 1960's but few new institutions were set up by the government urxier its severe b.ldgetary limitations • '!he three I tribal' secordary schools (Kgari Sechele, M::llefi and Seepapitso) were taken over by government in 1967, and Patrick van Rensrorg opened his second scbx>l, at Torx>t.a,in 1968. !bwever, the increasing number of sec:xn3ary school places \oRiS llCWhere near the level of demandfor places, especially in the climate of heightened expectations after independence. As a result, there emerged between 1968 and 1969, the first set of entirely-unaided private secondary schools in Kanye, lDbatse, M::llepolole, M:>chudi and Mahalapye (IDE, 1984). 'Ihese schools were regarded as inferior and were largely ignored by government. '!hey, nevertheless, absorbed significant numbers of candidates for secondary school places. Botswana Agricultural College was opened in 1967 and Francistcwn TJX: in 1968. '!he Francistcwn TJX: \oRiSestablished to provide the base for upgradin;J skills and qualifications of the manyulXJUalified primary school teachers through a canbination f o correspondence tuition and vacation courses. '!he Franc' town IS TJX:, however, had no full-time stldents in its ea 1 r y years. In 1968, government apprOVed the establishment of Mar prestigious indepenient school 1'lcM u-a-Pula as a . , . ' ever, controversy over this decISIon erupted In 1970. In 1969, there were three ' SIgnificant devele>pnents in the education system: the tr ........ in '-'Auctionof a new primary school - 45 curriculum, the establishment of the National Brigades Ccordinating Camnittee and the opening of an office and activities of the Department of Extra-Mural Services of UBLS, which marked the very beginning of a universi ty presence in Botswana. In 1969, Pickard (1969, para 812) madea projection of the output of Fbrm 5 leavers up to the year 1985. 'Ihese projections make an interesting canparison with actual outcanes (see Table 1). '!he late 1960 S were the heyday of I SWanengHill School urrler the pioneering leadership of Patrick van Rensburg (Van Rensburg, 1974). '!he brigades, the diversified curriculum, the practical \o.Ork, the camrunity involvement and the student participation led to SWanengbeing held up as a lIDde1 of innovati ve and I relevant I education for deve10pnent, and a much-qtDted example in conferences, reports and lxx>ksoutside Botswana. But the establishment of the Swaneng Board of Governors in 1970 led to diminishing vision and increasing bureaucratisation, and eventually to complete takeover by government in 1975. Much the same pattern was repeated at similar schools, notably Shashe River School, Madiba Fiiucationa1 Training Centre and Tutume camnunity College at different stages during the 1970s. '!he first priority in the years ill\Jllediate1y after imepemence was the training of high-level manpowerand it was tb:lught that this required emphasis on secoMary and higher education. '!he limited furns available were therefore afPlied IIDre to the expansion of secoMary sc'OOoling than to the primary sector. '!hus, total primary school enrollment increased at an average annual rate of 2.3 percent per annum (frcm 72,000 in 1966 to 82,000 in 1972) whilst enrollment in government and government-aided se<:.'OIdary schools increased at an average annual rate of 43 percent (fran 1500 in 1966 to 5600 in 1972). But, by the early 1970's it was increasingly recognized, rK:>t only in Botswana, that expansion at the secondary level depemed on a sourXi base of primary schooling, that equality of - 46 - educational cgx>rtuni ty demanded a rore extens i ve primary education system, and that primary education calld have a rore direct and inuoediate impact in such fields as agricul ture and health than in manpc:wer training. '!he E!DJIilasisaccordingly shifted sanewhat back fran secomary tc:wards primary education in Botswana as in many other develCFing ca.mtries. Table 1: Number of Form 5 1eavera Projection (Pickard Report) 1970 231 247 1971 304 270 1972 372 378 1973 490 503 1974 5~ 512 1975 565 686 1976 609 837 1977 654 841 1978 699 1017 1979 743 1148 1980 832 1182 1981 921 1424 1982 1011 1481 1983 1100 1557 1984 1189 1596 Soorce: Pickard, 1979. aiucation Statistics. '!his shi ft in policy was embod' ed . 1 1n the National Development Plan for 1973-78 and given 1IOSt h b 1 of primary school f f "':1 Ie form in the reduction b" . ees ran R6 to R3 in 1973. '!his resulted in a 19ger 1ncrease ln enrolments in that one . six previous years' year than 1n the ccmbuled. Since then . enrollment has i ' total pnmary ncreased at a rate of . plpils per year. approxllllately 10,000 - 47 - Another significant developnent in the early 1970's was the grOllth of university teaching and buildings in Gaborone. 'lhe Department of Extra-Mural Services (OEMS)had been operating fran the building which is new occupied by the National Institute of Developnent Research and Dxumentation (NIR). Teaching of full-time degree students in Gaboronebegan in 1971 after the decision to devolve mst Part I (the first two years of University) teaching to each of the three CCA.1lltries (Botswana, Lesotho and SWaziland). 'lhe construction of the original buildings on the main canplS took place between 1971 and 1973. OEMSran the first major Radio Learning Groop campaign "'lhe People and the Plan" in 1973 and the 1\dvanced Teachers' Certificate coorse was transferred fran Francistam Tl'C to the university in the sameyear (and renamed the Oiplana in Secorrlary Education five years later). 'lhe only UBLS graduation ceremny ever to be held in Gaboronetook place in 1975, srortly after which the Lesotho government precipitately nationalized the university's buildings and other assets in Lesotho, after failing to reach agreement with Botswana and Swaziland on the further devolution of physical facilities, staff and teaching. 'lhe universi ty was re-consti tuted as the University of Botswanaand SWazilandin 1976. In 1973, the Botswana Extension College was established to offer examination and lXll'1-formalcoorses by correspoD3ence. In 1974, the National Centre for vtx::ational Training, later to becane the BotswanaPolytechnic, opened in Gaborone. Private, unaided, canmuni ty secor¥lary sc1'xlols were included in the published Education Statistics for the first time in 1973, causing a jl1llp in the figures for that year (see Afperrlix A). Fifteen of these sch::x)ls were established in the first ten years after indeperrlence, plus seven senior secorXIary sc1'xlols, mking a total of 22 new scb:Jols, of which only two (lDbatse and Selebi-Phikwe) were directly initiated by government. 'lhis reflects, in part, the level of pcpllar deman1 for secon:iary scb:Joling and the extent of CCIlIIII.lnity initiative in satisfying the deman1 for sch::x)ling. It is also due partly to a deliberate policy of caterilVl for expansion by enlarging - 48 - existing schools rather than creating new ones. But it is rotable that the numbers of scbJols and of school places came about BDre as a result of historical forces than as a result of a carefully calculated response to either manpowerneeds or social demand. In 1974, B.C. 'lhema retired as Minister of Fducation and was replaced by K.P. ~rake who has retained this portfolio in the Cabinet ever since. Undalbtedly, the single I10st important report on education in Botswana to a~ in twenty years of independence is the 1977 Report of the National Camnission on Fducation, entitled 'D3.ucation for Kagisaro'. By 1975, the government felt the need for a canprehensive review of the system and a blueprint for future policy. In December of that year, the President aRlQinted the Canmissior.of six men (no wanen) , of whan t\«<) were Batswana, one American, one British, and one Ethiopian with the SWedish'Ibrsten Husen as O1airman. 'lhrooghout 1976, the Camnission got together several times, comucted sane studies and camnissioned others, held consultation meetings, received submissions, set up task forces on curriculum areas, and travelled the country for institutional visits, meetings and interviews. '!heir report, in t\«<)large volumes with 156 recamnendations, was subnitted in April 1977. Noting that "D3.ucationmayhave gram roch, but it has changed little" (National Canmission on D3.ucation, 1977:.1) since independence, the camnission recanmended a new strategy for educational developnent incorporating six major changes in policy: 1. "Immediate priority for quantitative and qualitative improvementin primary education: 2. Provisi<;>nof nin: ye:u-s of schooling, with the last three ye:u-s In day Junior secondary schools for all by about 1990: ' 3. A re-orientation of the curriculum: 4. Introduction of a national service leavers; SCheme for Form v - 49 - 5. Greatly increased emphasis upon part-time learning, oot of school education and the caobination of learning and work and 6. Elimination of major discontinuities in the present education system'. (National Camnission, 1977r p.51). The report had remarkably little to say aboot either manpc7Ner needs or vocational training. The government's response to these proposals was embodied in White Paper No. 1 of 1977, the "National Policy on Etlucation', which accepted the main thrust of the report and manyof the specific recamnerrlations, whilst expressing reservations about others and rejecting a few. But the importance of the National Camnission lies less in the Report itself than in the base of information and analysis it has since provided and in the thinking and discussion it has stinn.1lated. Etlucational debate in Botswana has been so BUch better-informed in the last ten years than it was in the first ten years after independence. Following the CamnissionI s proposals and the increasing availability of fuI¥3.s, both fran daoestic mining revenues and fran external dCXlOrs,the late 1970's were markedmainly by the establishment of new insti tutions, progranmes and management structures. 1976 saw the establishment of the Unified Teaching Service, with responsibilities for the employmentof primary school teachers taken over fran the local camcils. There \eS a big Radio Learning Group campaignon the Tribal Grazing Lard Policy in June-July 1976. In that year, an agreement was made with the W:>rld Bank to provide their first education loan to Botswana, interned mainly to finance six new government secondary schools plus Matsha carmunity College in Kang as a centre for both formal and non-formal education for the peoples of the Kgalagadi. The Boipelego Etlucation Project was set up to administer these furrls and see to the construction of the new schools. The Boipelego Etlucation Project has since becaDe the permanent implementation unit of the Ministry of Etlucation for all major dooor-funded deve10pDentprojects. - 50 - '!he Ministry's Department of curriculum Developnent and Evaluation was set up in 1977 and the Department of NJn-Fbnnal Education in 1978, the latter incorporating the Botswana Extension College. A feasibility study was corrlucted in 1977 on the idea of establishing an AutClOClti ve Trades Training School and ~ was established in 1978 to provide training and managementsllglOrt for the growing brigade IOOvement. '!he National Camnission on Education was re-convened in 1979 to clarify, rea:>nsider or elaborate on sane of its earlier reoatlllleMations, notably those dealing with policy of Ehglish-MediumPrimary Sc'OOolsand on the transi tion fran the 7-3-2 structure to the proposed 6-3-3- pattern. '!he National Developnent Plan 1979-85 was prepared during 1979 and incorporated many of the policy changes and new empi1ases deri ved fran the National Canmission s I original and suwlementary reports. '!here were also conflicts and controversies in the late 1970's. Patrick van Rensblrg was in plblic diS?Jte with the government in late 1977, and the financial crisis of the SerCMe brigade reached its peak in 1978. Government was plblidy sUIlX>rtive of the brigade 1lk)vementthough widely seen as unofficially hostile. '!here was a bitter diS?Jte between the Ministry of Education and Maru-a-Pula SCh:lolover the issues of whether this ScOOolshalld be subject to or exEllpted fran the Private Secon:lary Schools Regulations of 1978. '!here was also oonsiderable oontroversy OVerthe plans for the introduction of the national service scheme, which eventually got the name Tire10 Setshaba. '!he late 1970 S were also I marked by efforts to improve the quality of education in various ways. A new primary sc'OOol curriculum was in preparation, to be intrOduced frcm 1980, and the USAID-funded Primary Education Improvement Project was launched in 1981 to provide pr-.. .... -.1. ce "-" f fu leaders in the prilM ...... ed . 1mng or ture uca.bon sector. In line with a rE!<:lal1lleOOation of the National Camtission CJl"NA .......... _. , "'---U'II..ut began to - 51 - provide professional sur:port for the unaided private secorxiary schools, and the first financial grants (P2O per student) to these schools were made in 1980. '!he demise of the regional Examinations Council and the grCMth of the new Department of CUrriculum Developnent and Evaluation stimulated professional developnent in subject panels, syllabus and test construction, materials production and related in-service training. Primary school enrollment increased fran 83,000 in 1970 to 172,000 in 1980, secomary school enrollment increased fran 3,900 in 1970 to 18,300 in 1980, and the nl.llllber of Batswana university students increased fran 200 in 1970 to nearly 1,000 in 1980. Primary school fees were finally abolished in 1980, again in line with a recamoemation of the National Camnission. In the same year, the Serowe brigades collapsed (van Rensburg, 1984), the National Centre for Vocational Training was upgraded and renamed the Botswana Po1yteclmic, and the National Service Scheme, Tire10 Setshaba, was started as a pilot project but on rather different lines fran those proposed by the National Canmission. '!he National Literacy Programme was launched in 1981 and has since grown to a point where there are 40,000 adult learners in awroximate1y 3,000 literacy groups spread allover the camtry. Also in 1981, the BotswanaTraining Centre, which had been established in 1962 to meet the p.tblic service need for training particularly in clerical, secretarial and bookkeeping skills, was transferred to the Office of the President and renamed the Botswana Institute of Administration and Commerce. '!he AutCJOCltive Trades Training School opened in January 1982. In the same year, the Universi ty of Botswana and Swazilam was dissolved and the University College of Botswana was reconstituted as the University of Botswana, with Professor John Turner as the first Vice-Qlancel1or. '!hus, UBBSbegat UBLS which begat UBSwhich begat OCBwhich begat UB- all in a single generation of less than twenty years. - 52 - '!he major treoo of the early 1980I s has surely been the rove tCHlrds uni versal access to sec:x>rdary e:lucation through the Camnuni ty Junior Secordary Schools (Slertlam am Taylor, 1987). In 1983, with pressure IID.1Iltingfor nore places in Form ene, with a general election due the following year, am with sane significant persormel Changes in the Ministry of :&lucation, there ~s renewed emphasis on the expansion of seoordary education. '!his was to be achieve:l by partnership between government arrl the people. Ccmmuni.ties were enccurage:l to start new junior sec:x>rdary scln:>ls, camcils were requeste:l to make primary school classroans avai lable for secomary school use, am government agree:l to provide rore financial su};.'POrt, both for the capital costs of construction and for recurrent expenditure. Fifteen new Cc:mnl1nity Junior SecoOOary Schools opened in 1984, seven rore in 1985 and six rore in 1986, bringing the total of such sclxx:>ls to 45 - twice the number of. government and government-aided mission schools. In January 1986, nore Form 01e students were enrolled in carmunity secoMary schools than in the government and aided schools for the first time. Tshesebe village in North-East District now has a new secoooary school, 55 years after K.T. M:>t.setse established the Tati Training Institution there which survive:l for only six years as the first secomary sch:lol in the ca.mtry. In 1983, there were two significant conferences in Botswana. In May, there was an important seminar on ~r planning at I.D.M. and in August, the week-long Botswana Society symposhnn on education for developnent brcught together politicians, academics, teachers, Planners and students for a wide-ranging debate (Crow:ier, 1984). In 1984, the Special Etlucation Unit ~s established to cater for the special needs of the p,.ysically and JOOntally handicawed. It ~s also decided then that a Tirelo Setshaba Certificate was to be an addi tiona! requiremnt for entry to university and sane other courses. In 1985, Tlnln."".~ ~ 1..':1 . and ~l -""'"'~ , uu.J. t W1.th fums fran the Nx'ld Bank, . epolole College of B:lucatioo, built with funds fran the AfrIcan DeveJ.opnentBank , were Clpened. '!he USAID-furded Junior - 53 - Secorrlary Education Improvement Project \\as launched and a decision was made to standardize tuition fees for all secondary students at P170 per year, thus renoving the previous ananaly of higher fees for lONer quali ty provision in the cannunity schools. '!he IlOSt notable events of 1986 include the increase in the grant paid to cannunity sclvols fran P40 to P80 per student per year and the introduction of the new two year Junior Secondary CUrriculum, fOllONingon fran the newprimary curriculum (introduced a few years ago) to provide a continoous programme of nine-years basic education which \\as proposed by the National Canmission. ManpONer Projections and EDploymentOutcaDes As indicated earlier, the manpONer planning system \\as not very sophisticated initially. As a result, manIXME!r requirements were urrlerestimated. '!he mnnber of new jobs creatoo in the fast expanding economy was remarkable especially during the first half of the 1970I s. ~ever, the highest employment grarth has taken place in the Government sector including education itself. other fast developing sectors fran an employmentpoint of view have been Manufacturing, Cbnstruction and Trade (see Table 2) • An important factor to take into consideration when noting this positive developnent regarding job-creation is that there has been a simultaneous decline in fonnal E!lII'loymentOf!lOrtunities for Batswana in South Africa. An analysis of manpONerforecasts and actual employment for the fifth National Develq:ment Plan (1979-85) shaNs that actual employmentturned out to be several thousand below projections throughout the period. It can partly be explained by problems with the base figures, but also with actual slower grONth in certain sectors. It should be ooted throughout that manufacturing had a grONth rate of 14.2 percent as against the 7.7 percent projected. - 54 - Table 2: Fbrmal Sector Employment, 1968 - 1986 Year 1968 1973 1977 1981 1984 1986* l'lgricul ture (freehold) 4,150 4,625 4,250 4,800 5,600 6,302 Mining 825 3,525 5,500 7,300 7,100 7,103 Manufacturing 1,700 3,000 4,150 6,400 10,700 12,656 water & Electricity 325 975 1,600 2,000 2,407 Construction 1,575 7,225 6,950 15,200 11,500 13,340 Trade, lbtels 4,000 8,600 10,000 15,300 19,514 17,000 Transp.& Communications1,125 1,350 1,850 3,900 4,200 4,708 Banking,Insur .&Bus.Serv) (2,425) Scx:ial & Pers. Service 2,550 3,150 (2,100) 8,700 11,822 10,500 Gen. Gvt.& Education 8,825 15,175 24,175 34,200 49,873 43,200 * Fbrecast in NDPII. --- Source: CSOEmploymentSurveys 'ltle Role of &iucation in ElIploymentCreation At Independence, the role of education was seen in the context. of localization and filling the gaps in the civil service. Pbr certain areas where there is a pro£a.nn manpcwer sb:>rtage the role of education is still seen in that context. lbwever, the National O:mnission on Frlucation widened the perspective by arguing for the iDp::)rtance of an educated lX'PUlation in a general sense in order to achieve the camtry' s goal of sustained developnent. In contrast to this, Lipton s I Ellployment and I.abJur Use in Botswana (1978) as well as the later Report of '1be Presidential Canmission on Eoonanic - 55 - Of.'portunities (1982), advocated that general education sbJuld be JOOre closely related to vocational skills useful in self-employment. It is umerstandable that such views a.wear at a time, when it becanes obvious to manythat there will not be formal. employment ogx>rtuni ties for everyone in the labJur force for many years to cane. But it is a widespread fallacy that vocationalised education creates jobs. Unemployment is an econanic problem, not an educational problem and can not be solved by curriculum reform. Overall, educational developnent since Independence has had the following IX>si ti ve effects on employment creation: a decrease in skill smrtages which constituted bottlenecks/obstacles to new projects in both the plblic and private sectors. an increase in skill levels and possibly productivity, thereby opening up new options for investment and production. an increase in number of enployees in the education/training sector itself. the creation of an improved lalxx.1r/employnent market. where individuals find jobs and enployers find staff rore eaSIly. EHucation, Wages Policy and Incane Distriootion <:he of the government s I developnent planning objecti ves is "Social Justice" • Incaoes policy is a key variable in the discussion of J:l\allpa'lerdevelopnent and social justice. In his paper on labour and econanic developnent, Ghai (1972) identified a number of concerns specific to an incanes IX>licy for Botswana. '!he mst important concerns were: to minimize incane differentials between urban and rural areas. to minimize incane di fferentials between government and pri vate sector. I the dependency on incanes policies within the CUstan s Union. -56 the depen1encyon 'international' policies because of the need for expatriates. to minimize incane di fferentials between senior levels and e.g. industrial class staff. the question of a minimumwages policy .and o ts 1 ; mn::oct -r- on employmentcreation. '!hese concerns were taken into consideration in the White Paper No. 2 of 1972, National Policy on Incaoos, Employomt, Prices and Profits. '!he incanes policy as state:i in 1972 remains the same. Its main aims are: to maximisethe growth of new job OfpOrtunities to prevent a widening of the gap in living standards between tb:lse in formal sector jobs and tOOse dependent on traditional agriculture. to prevent Government's scarce financial resources fran being directly or indirectly pre-empte:i by the nodem sector. '!he policy as such a:wears fairly radical, and its iJl'plementation was fairly successful during its first years of existence. ~ver, since 1974 it ar:pears that successive salaries review canmissions have not manage:i to enforce the policy to any greater extent. Colclough and McCarthy sUlllllarizedthe situation in 1978 stating that at that time "the interests of the ltDre :pcMerfuland articulate groups within the civil service were beginning to win out. Earlier efforts, to reduce differentials were reverse:i, and the further reduction of inequality was J'X) longer the main criterion for Government in determining its own salary structure". (Colclough and M:::Carthy, 1978:187). Unfortunately, this statement is true even for 1986. In relation to education, the main equity considerations are equali ty of access to educational cpportuni ty and the in{lact of educational financing arrartgements on incane distribltion. There has been very little serious study of these issues in 8:>taoIana - which may itself reflect that equity is not a high - 57 priority. It is frequently argued or assumed that reducing school fees wi11 prQlOC)te equi ty by helping the pxlr. But thi s is only true where access is universal or near universal. 'Ibe reduction of primary school fees in 1973 and their abolition in 1980 were clearly egalitarian roves. But where education is selective and only a minority have Clccess, where the select few are drawn disproportionately from the relatively advantaged population (e.g. urban, rrodem sector families), and where educational provision is the key to subsequent gcxx'ljobs and high incomes, then public subsidy of education pranotes greater inequality in incame distribution. Recognising this, the National Camnission on Education recamnended muchhigher fees at secondary school (canbined with extra bursaries for those whoreally need them). Although this recamnendation was accepted, it has not been acted up:m and the real private costs of secondary schooling have fallen further. What this means is that the education of a privileged minority is being increasingly financed fram resources which could be used for the benefit of the nation as a whole, or to put it rore crudely, the poor are SUbsidizing the rich. 'Ibis is not what nost people mean by the phrase I social justice I • On the other hand, the government has been rore conscious of other equity aspects of education. Specific measures to pranote greater equality (of opportunity and/or incane) through Education have been the abolition of primary school fees (as notErl earlier), the standardization of secondary school fees, the nore extensive provision of bursaries, the redistribution of resources (e.g. qualified teachers) in favcur of previously disadvantagErl districts, the ending of p.1blic subsidies to English-Medium Primary schools and bursaries for Maru-a-Pula students, and the scheme which requires graduates to repay 5 percent of their salaries to governmentas a partial repayment of the cost of their Erlucation. '!he net effect of the various mechanisms for financing education on the distribution of incane in Ebtswana is largely unknaomand deserves much l\lJre - 58 - serious sttrly and debate than it has hitherto received. Chnclusion Alt:OOugh manpower needs have provided the official justification for educational expansion mst of the time since IndepeOOence, the actual determinants have rather been pcpulation grOolth, political pressure, availabili ty of qualified entrants at each level, and availability of furrls. 'lbere has been little serious attE!Slpt to integrate ~r planning and educational developnent. A machinery for the implementation and IIOnitoring of the lIIaI1pC:Mer plans is still inadequate. FurtherIlOre, there has been little effort and consequently little success in relating the educational system to the declared goals and developnent strategy of the government. '!hus, for example, little thought has been given to how education co..1ldor sho11d contribute to rural developnent and employment creation. Similarly, issues in the financing of education, such as the level of school fees are not resolved by reference to the goal of social justice. Primary education and ron-formal education, which would provide for nore equity, have, for mst of the time since Indepeooence, been given lOri priority. In general, OVer the past twenty years, there has been strong government canmitment to education in the form of much increased expemiture, quantitative expansion and IIOre systematic operation. But, inadequate attention to many lOt¥J-term policy issues e.g. curriculum and financing as well as IIla1'lpCwerneeds and developnent goals has meant that the educational systE!ll has not had such a beneficial impact on production, employment, rural developnent and social justice as envisaged in the plans. '!he OVerall situation twenty years after i~ .. 1S st1.l1 of shortage of skilled and professional IIIanpower and OVersUfplyof unskilled 1Ilanpower. - 59 - EDUCATIONAL EXPANSION, 1960-1986 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 PRIMARY Schools 235 240 241 247 251 Teachers 1305 1343 1364 1651 1673 Pupils 46536 55551 62839 66061 71546 SECONDARY Schools 6 8 8 9 9 Teachers 50 60 61 66 89 Students 764 976 1036 1307 1531 TEACHER TRAINING Colleges 1 2 2 2 2 Students 117 172 211 271 293 UNNERSlTY Students 6 19 45 48 44 66 RECURRENTEXPENDITURE Rand/Pula (millions) 0.69 0.92 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 PRIMARY Schools 257 280 282 286 311 308 252 Teachers 1791 2037 2275 2404 2467 2698 1713 Pupils 82214 83002 78442 81662 95511 71577 78963 SECONDARY 10 11 13 15 26 Schools 9 10 197 236 288 414 Teachers 111 131 157 3905 5040 5564 8763 Students 1854 2299 3048 TEACHER TRAINING 3 3 3 3 Colleges 2 2 2 283 293 302 345 Studen1s 310 322 303 UNNERSlTY 264 146 204 254 NlA Students 103 121 RECURRENT EXPENDITURE 4.15 6.27 2.47 2.92 3.56 RandlPula (millions) 2.2 - 60 - 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 PRIMARY Schools 316 323 335 349 376 394 415 Teachers 3047 3509 3921 4495 4641 4870 5316 Pupils 103711 116293 125588 137290 171914 145459 156664 SECONDARY Schools 29 29 38 32 32 35 36 Teachers 492 570 653 649 731 778 851 Students 10308 12098 13991 15325 16086 16716 18325 TEACHER TRAINING Colleges 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Students 409 489 562 646 669 696 844 UNIVERSITY Students 365 465 537 520 762 860 928 RE~EXPEI'I)rru:lE Rand/Pula (millions) 6.16 8.69 12.02 15.92 20.98 27.48 NlA 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 PRIMARY Schools 423 484 502 Teachers 512 528 537 Pupils 5625 5767 6360 6794 8980 8324 178107 188218 198328 209772 223608 235941 SECONDARY Schools Teachers 41 42 42 921 58 65 73 Students 984 1046 1216 20168 1368 1619 20963 22252 27364 TEAcHER TRAINING 32172 34000 Colleges Students 3 3 3 1020 3 4 4 984 948 999 UNIVERSITY 1188 1317 Students 1022 1095 1195 1349 1773 2062 ~EXPEN)1T1.R: RandlPula (millions) NlA 48.08 59.19 75.57 91.48 100 - 61 - Notes: Figures for teacher training include only full-time courses for primary teachers. (Secondary teacher training at Francistown TIC, the University, and Molepolole College of Education is not included.) Figures for University students include all Botswana citizen students regardless of their country of study but the figures are not strictly comparable between years. Education Statistics did not include private, community, and unaided secondary schools before 1973. (This table therefore understates the number of secondary schools, teachers and students for the years 1968-72.) Figures for recurrent expenditure are in current prices for each year - not adjusted for inflation. Sources: D. M. Lesetedi, A Summary of Education Statistics 1968-81 in M. Crowder (ad.), Education for Development in Botswana (Gaborone, Macmillan, 1984). Education Statistics (Gaborone, Central Statistics Office, various years). Report of the Education Department for the years 1965 and 1966 (Gaborone, Dec. 1966). U. Kann, The Second University of Botswana - an evaluation of third country training (Gaborone, SIDA, 1980). National Development Plan 1985-91. - 62 - Co1c100gh C. f (1973) MarlpcMer am Employment in Botswana: Ministry 0 Finance am Developnent Planning, Gaoorone. Co1cloogh C. am fok::Carthy S. (1980) '!he R:>litioal Ecax:my of Botswana; Oxford University Press, Oxford. Crcwder M. (ed) (1984) Education for Deve1QIXDent in Botswana (Proceedin:Js of a Symposium held by the Botswana Society): Macmillan Botswana. Ghai, D. (1972) Lal::n1r and Ecorx:mic Deve10pDent in Botswana: Institute of DevelopDent Stooies, Nairobi. Ministry of Etlucation (1984) Botswana Etlucation in Brief; Government Printer, Galx>rone. National Camnission on Etlucation (1977) Education for Kagisano; Government Printer, Galx>rone. Pickard O.G. (et all. (1969) Further Fducation in Botswana; Ministry of OI1erseas Developaent, I.orxial. &.artlam J .R. and Taylor D.C. (1987) "~ty financin:J of schools in Botswana _ historical trems and oontemporary issues'" in Bray M. (ed. ) (forthoaning) Camruni. ty Financil'19. of Fducation; Pergamn, Oxford. Van RensOOrg, P. (1974) ~ fran Swanena Hill: O:lg HanIlIarskjold ~tion. ~-.---' Van RensbJrg. P. (1984) ~i~ ~d fran Sera.re: Foondation for lICatlon Wlth Production r!~1-.": , ~one.