Educational Management by Objectives for Botswana Focus on Teacher Education By Martha Tyler John INTRODUCTION Management by Objectives (MBO) is a management technique that ha~ been used for several years. It is based on the premise that organisations function efficiently when objectives have been well defined and progress is measured in terms of accomplishing those objectives. Albrecht (1978), calls it a philosophy. Drucker says, "Management by objectives and self-control may properly be called a philosophy of manage- ment". (Drucker, Peter F., 1973, p. 442). MBO is a manage- ment philosophy wherein objectives are spelled out with care. The idea of stating objectives is not new. In education some twenty years ago, an emphasis was placed on behavioral objectives - that is, spelling out in behavioral terms what the learner was expected to do. This is, at one level, managing by objectives, but the notion of managing an educa- tional system by objectives, and interrelating what business has learned with the needs of the educatio~al system has not really been fully explored. In Botswana, where rapid growth in the educational system is occurring, educational management by objectives can be profitably used. Here there is a need to maximize long-term returns based on the wise allocation of resources and this is the central theme of the MBO philosophy. So the idea of examining educational goals and setting up a management system that deals with the several facets of education is a valid one. Many books have been written about the MEO system. Paradigms, schemes and charts have been produced in sufficient number to confuse even the most energetic reader. To provide an aid to interested readers and show how MEO can be applied to education this paper gives a brief summary of MEO ideas. A general transfer to education will then be examined, and, finally a specific examrle of one fact of the educational system will be expanded and developed in detail. 7 ONE MBO SEQUENCE There are alternative steps and sub-steps suggested by business, but most agree that first it is necessary to assess the environment. Any business operates in an identifiable location and is operated by a specified popula- tion. These variables must be carefully considered before any decisions can be made. The second step in MBO involves determining and clarifyin~ goals or broad objectives. Realistic, workable goals are difficult to set. If they are to be reasonable goals, it will be necessary to consider a manageable time frame for meeting these goals. Short term goals may not present sufficient challenge; while long term ones may seem too hard to achieve for the immediacy oriented person. Some balance must be achieved if the total system is to be workable. Some "give" must also be built into the action oriented objectives. Since goals are futuristic and the future contains inevitable uncertainty, it requires careful thouqht to set meaningful goals for both the short and long term"goals. The third variable in the MBO system is the development of priorities. "It is important to recognize within a I:usiness that there is a hierarchy of objectives" (Humble, John W., 1968, p. 33). The system of priorities that is worked out must be based on the objectives and the participants in the business as well as the manager's choice. Fourth it is necessary to develop a strategic plan for im- proving performance. This will involve a consideration of alternative solutions to the prioritized list of objectives. Resources, materials and personnel are all part of this decision making phase. To arrive at the best possible solution, it is necessary to take into account all reasonable alternatives. This involves weighing the pros and cons of e~ch alternative before deciding on what appears to be the r~ght solution in the given circumstances" (Conventry, W.F., 1977, p. 148). It means perhaps making concessions and compromises to come up with a workable solution. A tactical plan must be worked out as a fifth step. Now that the priorities have been agreed upon, and the best alternative f~r dealing with the hierarchy has been chosen, the opera- t~onal plan must be developed. Who shall be responsible for what jobs? What system for allocating reSOurces can be used? A tactical plan is designed to carry out the strategic 8 objectives and plans must deal with both the long range situation and the immediate future. Sixth a unit plan must be designed in which departments develop functional objectives and plan specific human resource allocation. The unit plan will also take into consideration the motivational strategies to be used and some measurement of progress toward the specific objectives. Lastly a careful system of evaluation of personnel performance and of product must be described, and a system of rewards needs to be planned. This should consider honest promotion and equal opportunity for training and a free communication of the skills needed for each task. "Skills and competencies we must have, and continually develop in abundance" (Christopher, William F., 1980, p. 289). These skills should be communicated clearly, and the opportunity to train for advancement should be available to all. Such a policy will keep morale and production at a high level. EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT The MBO approach is worth examining, but we are concerned with education, particularly with education in Botswana. So an adaptation from business to education is required. The following scheme shows a brief example of the transfer steps, and the remainder of the paper elaborates on particulars in the Educational Management By Objectives plan. The final portion of the paper will develop detai~about the Operational Cycle. STEP BY STEP TRANSFER The MBO sequence will now be transferred to educational management for Botswana and a step-by-step application described. I. Assessing the Environment - Assessment of the educa- tional environment in Africa is a difficult task. There are some general environmental conditions that apply to a number of countries on the African Continent. Then there are some conditions that are unique to Botswana. In the general category, one author says, "And Africa as it is now, the Africa we have to live in, includes the home and the school, the hoe and the tractor, the 9 ASSESS DETERMINE DEVEIDP DEVEIDP NATICNAL EDUCATICNAL STRATEGIC T1\CTICAL ENVIRrnMENI' OBJECTIVES & PLAN PIAN PRIORITIES National Examine Identify Identify Objectives & Present Long Term Soort Term Priorities Systan Goals Goals National Assess Determine Identify Resources Expectations Time Frame Resources for Acti vi ty trained sonnel land Set Specify ines Evaluation facilities Criteria & Procedures Specify finances Responsibility r-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ...- - - - - - - - - I , I DEVELOP I L •• UNIT PLAN Specify Individual Objectives Set Performance Criteria Develop Learning E Cycle D EDUCATICNAL MANAGEMENr BY CBJECl'IVES 10 medical doctor and the witch doctor, science and magic, African clothes and European clothes, donkeys and motor cars, men who carry spears and men who carry ball point pens, women who till the soil and women who teach in school or work in shops and offices, strong tribal loyalties and weakened tribal influence" (Castle, E.B.m 1965, p. 14). That Africa is a changing continent seems clear. New Africa reaches for the future; old Africa possesses and cherishes the past. New and old meet in the present and hold the key to the betterment of life for the people of Africa. Surely, respect for both old and new is needed if this is accomplished. The educational system in Botswana is faced with the task of reconcil- ing old and new values in a changing society. In speaking of the problems some businesses have en- countered in dealing with the changing African en- vironment, Onyemelukwe says, "Any management system which seeks •.. to isolate and individualize or on the other hand refuses to allow into the work place the traditional feelings of people is bound to have a disintegrating and destructive effect" (Onyemelukwe, 1973, p. 123). He is saying that business ventures must concern themselves with an assessment of the human environment, and surely education must, as well. He says that a new concept is required, and it is the community concept. "The community concept of business sees the business organization as a community to which the individual belongs, not just as one with a fixed legal contract, but as a member by choice. This community is built on close interpersonal relation- ships and groups interractions welded by a feeling of security and harmony on the part of all members" (Onyemelukwe, 1973, p. 123). This concept of community endeavors to acknowledge individual worth in the social setting. The same concept applied to the school might bring about changes. The student here would be viewed as a valued part of the learning community. Each student would be needed for his contributions to group learning, and each student would feel secure in his participatory role in the learning environment. If the traditional feelings of people are not allowed in the learning community, will scholarship and learning be viewed as having a "disintegrating and destructive effect?" Unique environmental conditions for Botswana are addressed in Education for Kagisano (1977). In this II report we find evidence that the population is widely scattered, that the Botswana educational system cannot support specialized courses in branches where only a few specialists are needed, that population growth has been rapid and that family mobility is increasing. All these factors dealing with the human environment are of importance in educational planning and management. Then, too, certain spatial factors may have a direct bearing upon education. For example, ..... Botswana depends to a great extent upon expatriate teachers from neighboring countries, and major changes in the political climate could affect the flow of teachers" (Report of the National Commission on Education, 1977, p. 18). Several problems that are not directly educa- tional, but could have an influence on the quality of education provided in Botswana are also mentioned. Several needs are stressed. 1. Adequately trained teachers are needed. 2. Relevance in curricular materials is necessary. 3. Use of sound logical thought processes stressed in materials (e.g. from known to unknown). 4. Need for basic skills training. 5. Adequate buildings and furnishings are needed. 6. Central curriculum development unit in an ex- panded Ministry of Education is needed. 7. Equal education for all students both urban and rural is needed. 8. On-site training needs to be further developed. This is a brief summary of the assessment done by the commission. It should lead directly to a development of goals and objectives statements. II. Determinin Goals or Broad Ob"ectives - In order for an educationa management y 0 Jectives to flourish, there must be some agreed upon state- ment of goals from which specific objectives can later be derived. In Education for Kagisano, (1977), " chapter 2 deals with just such a statement of maJor goals for Botswana, and states that, "The principal aim of education is individual development" (Report 12 of the National Commission on Education, 1977, p. 23). For the benefit of the individual, and the country of Botswana as well, the threads of democracy, develop- ment, self-reliance and unity are interwoven to produce the fabric of Kagisano. Botswana is fortunate to have major goals clearly described. This is the first step in building an effective management system. However, a most important step remains. Koontz says " .•• that only in recent years have more alert managers come to realize that if objectives are to be actionable, they must be clear and verifiable to those who pursue them" (KOontz, 1979, p. 125). He says that, "Patient and thorough explanation of the entire programme, what it is, how it works, why it is being done, and how everyone can benefit from it must be available to every person involved" (KOontz, 1976, p. 128). So a workable set of goals and objectives must be understood by all participants. In fact, the workers should help develop the objectives that apply to their specific level. Wide-spread participation, explanations of objectives and training in how to begin to work toward their achievement is the needed step that follows the clear statement of goals and objectives. There are several standard questions that can be asked about goals and broad objectives. The ansvers to these questions will help to determine the adequacy of the goals. 1. How well are these educational goals understood throughout the educational system? 2. How directly can the goals be related to the work of individuals, groups, departments? 3. To what extent do the goals recognize the present situation and move forward from this realistic starting point? 4. TO what extent do the goals fit the environment and the opportunities available in that environ- ment? 5. Are the goals actionable? 6. Are the goals consistent? 7. Are the goals achievable either in the near or semi-distant future? 8. Can progress toward the stated goals be measured? 13 III. Development of Priorities When one decides on priorities, he is separating the really important issues and problems from the un- important or less important issues. He knows how to focus on "what really counts" and tends to it first. In deciding on priorities two options for organising the list are available. One option is that the first priority is the one that is most important - of greatest significance in the overall scheme of things. Such a list will go from most significant to least significant objective. An alternative to this is a priority list in which the first item is the one that must be done before considering others, even though some objective farther down the list may be the most important one. Priorities for reaching the national goals for Botswana are suggested in the Report of the Commission (1977) referred to earlier. The most important priority according to the Commission is the improvement of primary education. A number of recommendations are made by the commission regarding age of pupil entry, location of schools, priorities in capital spending and curricular relevance or practicality. Of course, in order to deal with the most important objectives, the improvement of primary education, the improvement of instruction must be considered. This takes us to the first numerical priority - the improvement of primary teacher education, since it follows logically that teachers who are well prepared in turn given good instruction and finally improve primary education. The secondary educationaL program is also considered in detail, and special content areas, examinations and school sizes all come under the careful scrutiny of the Commission. The Commission suggest: that at this level of education, as well as at the primary level, the im- provement of the system depends heavily upon improved instruction which is, of course, largely the res- ponsibility of the teacher. IV Develop A Strategic Plan In developing a strategic plan, alternative methods of fulfilling objectives are considered. One possibility or alternative for improving education in Botswana would be the production of excellent teachers. If quality teachers are required, how might they be obtained? Can they be imported? Many expatriates 14 now serve in such roles. Should this practice be continued as a long term policy? Probably not. Then can really good teachers be trained here in Botswana? Many are being trained at the Teacher Training Colleges and a number at the University. Will this training produce quality teachers, and the quantity needed? Some measure of quality are available, and the Cbmmi- ssion does, in fact, consider this topic and the problem of quantity in detail in chapter 6, "Teachers and Their Training" (Report of the National Commission on Education, 1977). Materials production that are relevant to the culture would be another alternative to improving primary education. This is expensive, and then most printed materials must be fed through the teacher. Once again we are dealing with quality teaching. There are programs using high media input and step-by-step in- struction that could possibly be adapted for use in Botswana. Frequently these are almost completely in- dividualized and require little teacher intervention. Media is expensive, however, and needs careful storage and maintenance. Such an alternative does not seem very realistic for any primary schooL The development of quality teachers in sufficient quantity to staff the primary schools would seem to be the logical first step in improving education in Botswana. The development and assessment of the quality teacher will be the focus of the final portion of this paper. V. Tactical Plan The tactical plan deals with the apportioning of re- sponsibility to meet the objectives on the prioritized list. It also deals with the allocation of resources. "The Ministry of Local Government and Lands has responsibility for overseeing the operation of the autonomous local councils, which provide the buildings, furniture and supplies for primary schools. The Ministry of Education is responsibile for professional education matters and for the operation of the Unified Teaching Service". (Report of the National Commission on Education, 1977, p. 190). Of course, both ministries must work closely with the Ministry of Finance. One of the prime responsibilities of these Ministries must be the preparation of teachers. The provision of materials and resources that enables such 15 FIGURE 2 DEPAIm4ENTAL PERSONNEL FUNCrIONAL OBJECTIVES CJBJEcrIVES 1. Be Specific 1. Set Key Tasks 2. Avoid 2. Have Standards of Excessive Perfonnance Detail 1. Rerrove Obstacles M:ltivate 2. Revise Plans Get Wide Participa- 3. Review Overall Results tion National and Regional Levels Re-evaluate All Plans OPERATIONAL CYCLE 16 preparation, must be considered and assigned simulta- neously. The actual planning for the preparation of quality teachers is placed, in part, on the University where secondary school teachers are educated and on the Teacher Training Colleges where prirnary teachers are instructed. An in-service education program also operates to up-grade and provide teachers with refresher experiences. VI. Unit Plan It is at the unit level where specific tasks can be assigned and assessed. The institutions responsible for teacher education have been noted. These insti- tutions then assume the responsibility of defining objectives and priorities and evaluation systems within the unit. OPERATIONAL CYCLE The management by objectives system as it has been adapted to education has been shown in Figure 1. The operational cycle is shown there in abbreviated form and is expanded here to provide details on each cell in the cycle. The paper will now elaborate on each cell at length to explain the working ideas involved in using an ~ System. A. Departmental and Functional Objectives Let us now consider step-by-step the Qperational Cycle in producing "gooO" or quality teachers. At the first level, objectives for the respective teacher training insti- tutions should be developed by the persons who will be directly involved in carrying out the objectives. In developing the objectives for the college or university, it is well to keep in mind three questions as the objectives are being written: 1. What do we do now? 2. What do we intend to become? 3. How are we going to get there? 17 Once the goals or objectives have been delineated, a more definitive statement of objectives should be developed for each course or module of instruction. These should be given in action terms. For example, in a class or module dealing with learning theory, some of the objectives could be stated as follows: Given information about several learning theorists, the studert will select one individual or one theory and write a paper (4-5 pages) about this person or theory and their contribution to educational practice. Given background information and five learning centers dealing with learning style, the student w~ll participate in an exercise to determine his own best learning style. All the courses, modules, or workshops that are pro- vided for students who are teacher trainees should be given with an eye to producing quality teachers. B. Personnel Objectives During the second phase of the Operational Cycle it is necessary to specify, as carefully as possible, the tasks to be performed by the personnel involved in the program and also to state the standards of perfor- mance. The tasks and related standards of per- formance will be chosen so the teachers will achieve desired levels of competence and become "good" teachers. Criteria for determining good, or quality, teachers have been established in many ways. For example, guidelines for the "good" teacher have been set forth in Education for Kagisano (1977). However, general guidelines will not suffice; a care- ful analysis of tasks is needed. A discussion of some of the tasks a "good" teacher performs is given later in this section. 18 After tasks have been specified, standards of performance should be developed and shared with the participants. Examples of performance criteria and methods of measuring performance are given in Section 0, Provide for Control. Certain tasks must be performed in teaching, and, "So we should, first of all, ask ourselves what areas of performance we must consider in thinking about certain goals" (Christopher, William F., 1980, p. 61). What areas of performance must be considered in pro- ducing a quality teacher? Perhaps we might borrow some answers from business once again. The reader can substitute the phrase "outstanding teacher" for successful business man" in the following quotation. "The successful business man (outstanding teacher) is a problems solver. He has empirical knowledge of each problem area. He knows his organization. He has the authority to act. He is positive and confident in manner. He likes to solve problems. He has solved lots of them. He's good at it. He acts. How well his actions resolve all problems depends on his com- petence ...... " (Christopher, William F., 1980, p. 99). The outstanding teacher is a problem solver who thoroughly enjoys encountering problems in the learning environment. Castle (1965) says that the good teacher should have a good character, remain a life long student, know his world, have special interests, know his pupils, know his subject and be adaptable and courageous. Hamachek (1969) says a good teacher must be, " •..... a good person. Simple and true. A good teacher rather likes life, is reasonably at peace with himself, has a sense of humor, and enjoys other people" (Hamachek, D.E., 1969, p. 341). He also says that the single word used most often to describe good teachers is the word "flexible". In any country where the educational system is expanding rapidly the teacher will need to be adaptable. She may be faced with seemingly impossible conditions - a poor building that is blistering hot in summer and too cold in winter - not enough light, no storage cupboards, books eaten by bugs or spoiled by mildew or perhaps few books at all. Such conditions may prevail anywhere and the teacher must fight back rather than run away. She will need to be adaptable and positive. Surely in Botswana flexibi- lity and adaptability are essential traits. 19 All of the ideas of the "good teacher" are useful, but more is needed. What will this teacher do? What behaviors are needed to promote the best learning con- ditions? In short what competencies must the good teacher have? Further, how might these competencies be developed in an instructional system? No one would argue that all teacher trainees will need subject or content expertise (i.e. they know geography, history, science, etc.). There are, however, SOme skills or competencies that all teachers have in common. These can be described and serve as a base for an educational program. It seems clear that the competencies needed cannot reasonably be expected to appear following one brief introduction, and should, then be introduced, systematically developed, and finally reinforced. Con- cepts that are to result in competencies for teaching can be provided in courses or modular units in such a pattern. The student is expected to demonstrate competency in each of the following general areas of knowledge. The competencies will be introduced, systematically taught and reinforced through courses in which the student will participate. Nine general areas of knowledge are listed - not as separate subject variables, but as modules of instruction from which the student would develop the competencies specified. CHART OF EDUCATIONAL COMPETENCIES I. General Area of Knowledge: EDUCATION AS A PROFESSION Competency: The student will demonstrate knowledge of the history of education, and of philosophical and cultural in- fluences. He will examine the particular educational goals of Botswana, and the relationship of the school and the teacher to these goals. He will be able to give examples of other professions and compare the e~'Acational profession to at least two other profe- ssions. Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Education and Society Curriculum Studies to Education National Development II. General Area of Knowledge: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Competency: The student will demonstrate knowledge of physical, cognitive social and emotional growth in human beings. Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Human Development Psychology of Learn- to Psychology ing CurricUlum Studies. Theory and Practice (Practical Teaching Methods) • III. General Area of Knowledge: PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION Competency: The student will demonstrate knowledge of theories and write lesson plans, sample unit plans, contracts, learning pockets and write specific, behavioral ob- jectives, the learning experiences that follow and the evaluation strategy that will assess the objective attainment. 21 Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Theory and Practice Curriculum Studies to Education (PrCicticCil-::'eCiching Methods) . IV. General Area of Knowledge: CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Competency: The student will demonstrate adaptability by suggesting specific improvements (e.g. deprived learning environ- ments and affluent learning environments). He will show concern for individual students &nd provide goal oriented materials for the students. He will serve as a model by demonstrating that he himself is a con- tinuing learner. Introc.uction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Theory and Practice Psychology of to Education (Practical Teaching Learning Methods) Introduction Curriculum Studies Research Methodology to Psychology V. General Area of Knowledge: PROVIDING FOR DIFFERENT LEARNING MODES Competency: The student will demonstrate the use of an overhead projector, copier machines, a 16 mm film projector and other visual aids equipment. He will show how book and non-book materials can be used to enhance a learning experience, and will organize a real display and plan a picture collection for a specific content area. 22 Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Theory and Practice Educational Resources Curriculum Studies (Practical Teaching and Communication Psychology of Learning Methods) . Teaching Practice VI. General Area of Knowledge METHODOLOGY AND STYLE Competency: The student will demonstrate the ability to develop motivators, assess continuous progress and provide final year end assessment, design and redesign ob- jectives and provide learning stimulation for all students in the class with adaptations for exceptional students. He will demonstrate the ability to use good question sequences in class discussion and will show precision in articulating ideas. Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Theory and Practice Teaching Practice to Education (Practical Teaching ~lethods). Curriculum Studies VII. General Area of Knowledge: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL Competency: The student will explore the areas of motivation and behavior management and the relationship between these concepts. Reinforcement techniques and a variety of grouping strategies for maximizing learning will be 23 examined. The student will demonstrate the ability to identify problem behavior and some possible causes of it. He will rOle-play parent teacher conferences. Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Classroom Management Curriculum Studies to Education Introduction Psychology of to Pscychology Learning Theory and Practice (Practical Teaching Methods) VIII. General Area of Knowledge: SOCIAL SKILLS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Competency: The student will show warmth as a person, enthusiasm and sincerity of purpose. He will demonstrate a knowledge of social problems and will show how to use simulation techniques to discuss the issues. He will work with different sizes of groups and will demonstrate respect for traditions and local culture. He will involve him- self in some facet of community life. Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Education and Theory and Practice Curriculum Studies SOciety (Practical Teaching National Development Methods) • 24 IX. General Area of Knowledge: ANALYTICAL SKILLS Competency: The student will demonstrate the ability to make tests and to critically analyze existing (manufactured) examinations. He will develop sufficient statistical knowledge to determine individual student and class placement on standardized measures. He will develop a research design in which variables are controlled, and will propose a means of studying this particular interest of his when he is a professional teacher. Introduction Systematic Teaching Reinforcement Introduction Tests & Measurement Curriculum Studies to Education Research Methodology Hu~an Development A sequence of courses that provide training in the desired competencies is shown in the following flow chart, Figure 3. The courses that are suggested are not necessarily taught at present in Botswana, nor do the titles that are used need to be considered the only possibilities. They simply indicate general courses that might be used for developing the com- petencies l~sted. The sequence described will not remain static. As plans progress, as objectives are achieved, as the situation changes and as new problems and opportunities are confronted, the personnel objectives section may undergo changes also. For teachers who already serve, and are in need of additional training, an individual study of needs would be required and could be made by a committee consisting of a head-teacher or principal, the teacher himself, and perhaps an objective third party who could check competencies and suggest reasonable remedial assistance. 8 >< HZ :r:t:! oqo -x:"-1 uO Z:>: ~H ~ OD.< -x:Q0 -x: HO "-1O "-1 8H Ul "-1:r: >< -x:"-1 Z> ~8 "-1 "-1 Q :>: t:!"-1 ~ ZU "-1 HH :>: :r:8 :>: UU ~ -x:-x: "-10:; Ul 8D.< "-1 U Z "-1 ~ 0 "-1 en "-1 Ul M ~ ~ "-1 0 ~ U ~ H Z 0 8 t:! -x:Ul H :>: Z H :>:8 QZ >< 0 ~ OZ Z"-1 8 ~Ul Z"-1 t:! t:! OU -x: H"-1 -x::>: 0 Z H 0"-1 8 ~:>: H~QU ~H "-1 H H Ul"-1 8~ZH UQ Ul~ O~Z -x: Ult:! -X:O-x:Z H::J 8::l :r:C~ U -x:-x: UUl ~ ~8 UlUl U -x: ::l Q HZ ~"-1 :>: g;Ul "-1-x: >< "-1 u-x: Q~ :>: 8"-1 Ul H "-1 :a. "-1 0 U ;;;; D.< ~ U "-1 :r: U -x: "-1 8 Q ~ 8 >< Cl Z N Z8 Z"-1 "-1 0"-1 -x:U ;;;; ~ HH H Z -x: D.< -x: 8U ><8 ;;;; 0 "-1 >< -x:0 UUl ~U 0<1; ~ H ~ :r: "-1 "-1~ > Cl :r:D.< "-1 "-1 8 Cl Z o H >< t:! 8 0 U H ~OO Cl8:r: o U ~ >< 8 U) Z D.< H C. Launch the Plan At this point in the Opera- tional Cycle the faculty and students alike need to be involved in initiat- int the plan and in build- ing enthusiasm for it. To provide motivation for faculty several points should be stressed. 1. Keep the job challenging. 2. Promotion should be based on experience and training. 3. The administration be approachable. 4. A free flow of information should be maitained. 5. Recognition for achievement (meeting the goals and objectives of the group) should be given sincerely by immediate supervisors. These points do not differ greatly for students in- volved in a definitive training program, but the terms do vary slightly. For example, 1. Keep the classwork challenging. 2. Grades should be fairly and objectively assigned. 3. Faculty should be approachable. 4. Care should be taken to make the objectives and general procedures in the training program clear to all. 5. Provide recognition for achievement, and prompt feedback. 27 The idea is that the teacher trainees need to be in- volved in the excitement of becoming a quality teacher. "Motivation is not administered externally; it is the result of needs within us that cause us to act as we do" (Christopher, William F., 1980, p. 11). While it may be true that needs within us cause us to behave in certain ways, there are some general motivational principles that are externally controlled. People in general are motivated to perform well if they have some range of choice in the work assignQent. People generally need some understanding of advance- ment policies, salary structure, and competencies needed for the range of positions available in their profession. Briefing sessions and work/study sessions for clarifying these areas that affect motivation are beneficial. D. Provide for Control The four essential steps needed to provide for control are: 1. Assess progress. 2. Build-in the idea of "self- control" and "self-evalua- tion". 3. Measure performance on specified tasks. 4. Search for creative new skills and improvement ideas. The central theme is assessing pro- gress, and when working with adults the idea of self-assessment is an important one. To do this adequately it is necessary to measure performance D on specific tasks or competencies. An example of one strategy for doing this is presented on the fOllowing pages. It is assumed that the teacher trainee has received instruction in the specified area (~ocial Skills and SOcial Responsibility). He is then glven the Evaluation System hand-out (shown on the next page) and is asked to select three items under Knowledge and three under Performance on which he wishes to be judged. He can select more than three, but a minimum of three is needed for competency. 28 NO letter grades (A, B, C, etc.) or numerical grades are used in assessing competency. If the student demonstrates to the satisfaction of the trainers that he has achieved the required number of competencies, he is certified as a teacher. Similar measurements would need to be developed for each competency at various teacher training levels in Botswana. Evaluation System Module VIII Social Skills and Social Responsibility COMPETENCY: A. Definition The student has demonstrated that he/she can define social problems and that he/she can involve students in problem definition KNOWLEDGE: (a minimum of 3 needed for competency). can identify three social problem areas (e.g. problems involving prejudice, cultural differences, moral and/or legal issues). can define the problem in a particular story or situation. can suggest resources that develop social problems that can be used with students. can identify three experts who provide simulation techniques for dealing with social problems with students. PERFORMANCE: (a minimum of 3 needed for competency). has developed a lesson plan for presenting a social problem situation to students using one simulation method referred to above. has required problem review related to story used (e.g. "What has been happening here?"). has required extension of problem and beginning involvement (e.g. "What will happen now?"). has provided for students to explore the indivi- dual characters in the social problem situation (e.g. "What is Masego doing? What is he like?"). 30 has required each student to develop and define one character in futuristic terms (e.g. "Masego will probably .......•• "). Social Skills and Social Responsibilities B. Involvement (Expressional of Feelings) It is possible to represent one's feelings in different ways. Some people express themselves in music and some in poetry or story telling. Still others produce items like paintings, carvings, weaving, basketry which allow them to express themselves creatively in a medium that has meaning to them. COMPETENCY: The student has demonstrated that he/she can express her/his own feelings and that he/she can elicit an expression of feelings from the students in the classroom using a variety of methods KNOWLEDGE: (a minimum of 3 needed for competency). can identify and describe three situations in which he had three distinct feelings (e.g. anger, hate, love, sympathy). can identify four media for expression of feelings (see above paragraph description for example). can cite specific examples of cerative products. can discuss the medium he plans to use to express his feelings creatively. can explain three strategies to which he can ex- pose the students and defend his selection of these processes for exploring social problems and feelings. PERFORMANCE: (a minimum of 3 needed for competency). has explored a "feelings" vocabulary with students. has produced an original product that expresses his feelings about a topic. 31 has developed three models that will elicit the expression of feelings from the students (e.g. poem examples, drawings, working models, thought questions or craft production instructions). has conducted one class in which a model of the teacher's creative involvement was presented to the students. has collected a sample of students creative efforts that deal with feelings. Social Skills and Social Responsibility c. Community Involve- ment The school and the community are closely related. Each is part of the other. The traditions and environment in which the school exists are important sources of experience for the students whO attend the school. COMPETENCY: The student has demonstrated that he/she can work with diffe- rent groups in the classroom. The student will take part in some COII~unity Activity that is important to the people there. KNOWLEDGE: (a minimum of 3 needed for competency) • can identify three classroom situations where group work could be used effectively. can identify four sources of information about community activities. can specify two local cultural events that are of importance to the people in the community. can design a group activity for a specific lesson. can give hypothetical schedule plans for parti- cipation in community or school activities (extra curricular). 32 PERFORMANCE: (a minimum of 3 needed for competency). has worked with 2 different sizes of groups in 2 different class situations. has contacted one community agency for class con- tribution. has taken part in one community event (or some event in a community related institution - e.g. church, scouts, local theatre, sports event). had developed and carried out three lessons in which community concerns and/or influence can be specifically shown. has collected a sample of community advertising that describes possible activities in the local or national area. 33 E. Have Action Review An assessment of the success of the teacher training project is made during this phase of the Operational Cycle. To study both short and long term benefits of the project it would be desirable to collect E information from graduates at intervals of one, two, five, and ten years after graduation. Part of the fOllow-up survey can be sent to the graduate him- self. This would inquire about the adequacy of the training program in meeting the practical, day-to-day teaching needs of the teacher. It might also examine the amount of advanced training that had been D sought. Another portion of the follow-up might go to head-teachers, inspectors, and administrators to determine the effect- iveness of teachers who had participated in the com- petency based program. By using several kinds of feed- back the jOb of revising the program could be under- taken. Improvements would be based on needs as stressed by teachers and supervisors. After changes are made in the program, the whole process begins again. This continuous process of development, evaluation, and improvement is needed to keep teaching vibrant and well in Botswana. 34 SUMMARY Management by objectives in education as well as in business surely has much to recommend it. In either situation it requires much personnel involvement in designing and carrying out the agreed upon objectives. But teaching has ever required much involverrentif it is created a challenging learning environment. This statement by Rabindranath Tagore is in- scribed on a plaque hung in the hall-way of the Central Institute for Teacher Training in New Delhi, India, sums up the real goal of teaching and the need for on-going learning, as well. The sign reads: A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame. The teacher who has come to the end of his subject, who has no living traffic with his knowledge, but merely repeats his lessons to his students, can only is, but must inspire. If inspiration dies out, and the in- formation only accumulates, then truth loses its infinity. The greater part of our learning in the schools has been waste, because for most of Our teachers their subjects are like dead specimens of once living things, with which they have a learned acquaintance, but no communication of life and love. Surely educators in Botswana sincerely desire to help the children and youth of this country to learn and continue to learn. That is the hope of the future for Botswana. 35 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Albrecht, Karl, Successful Management by Objectives. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978. 2. Castle, E.B., Principles of Education for Teacher in Africa. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1965. 3. Christopher, William F., Management for the 1980's. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1980. 4. Coventry, W.F. and Burstiner, Irving, Management: A Basic Handbook. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977. 5. Drucker, Peter F., Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practice. New York: Harper and Row, 1973. 6. Hamachek, D.E., "Characteristics of Good Teachers and Implications for Teacher Education". Phi Delta Kappan. 50,1969, pp. 341-344. 7. Humble, John W., Improving Business Results. London: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 1968 (the definitive work on management by objectives) . 8. Humble, John W., Management By Objectives in Action. London: McGraw-Hill, 1970. 9. KIa smeier, Herbert J., Learning and Human Abilities: Educational Psychology, Fourth edition. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1975. 10. Koontz, Harold and O'Donnell, Cyril, Management: A Book of Readings. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976. 11. Onyemelukwe, C.C., Men and Management in Contemporary Africa. London: Longman Group Limited, 1973. 12. Report of National Commission on Education, Education for Kagasano. Gaborone, Botswana: Government Printing Office, 1977. 36