s .25 p a r t a n Want to see a pinhead cover 250 square miles? United States Steel owns one of the world's few ion- such ultramodern, space age equipment. But the.y emission microscopes, capable of magnifying two mil- soon come to realize that this is just the visible eVI. lion times. It was built by U. S. Steel's Fundamental dence of U. S. Steel's continuing program to develop Research Laboratory in line with established scientific new and better steels. That's what makes the work of principles-not to study pinheads, but to enable the U. S. Steel engineers so stimulating. scientists in Fundamental Research to study the atomic Be sure to register with your Placement Director. For structures and surfaces of metals. With this amazingly information about the many career opportunities at powerful instrument, they can actually see and identify individual atoms! United States Steel, including financial analysis or sales, write U. S. Steel Personnel Division, Room 23~1, Whatever their specialized training, those who work at 525 William Penn Place, Pittsburgh 30, Pennsylvania. U. S. Steel are likely to be surprised, at the start, by U. S. Steel is an equal opportunity employer. @ TUDE ......U United States Steel Your Future in Electronics at Hughes As the West's leader in advanced electronics, Hughes is engaged in some of the most dramatic and critical projects ever envisioned. Challenges for your imagination and development are to be found in such diversified programs as: Project Surveyor (soft lunar landing) Communications Satellites I ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS and PHYSICISTS 3-dimensional Radars Digital Computer Systems B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. Candidates Members of our staff will conduct Plasma Physics, Ion Propulsion Hydrospace Electronics Solid State Materials and Devices Infrared CAMPUS INTERVIEWS Theseare among the more than 500outstanding programs now in prog- February 14, 1962 ressat Hughes. These programs require the talents of EEs and Physi- Find out more about the wide range of cists who desire to work with professional scientists in research, de- activities. educational programs. reloca- tion allowances and progressive benelit velopment and manufacture. plans offered by Hughes. For interview appointment or informational literature In addition, Hughes sponsors advanced degree programs for aca. consult your College Placement Director. demic growth. These programs provide for advanced degree study Or write: COllege Placement Office. Hughes, Culver City, California. at many leading universities. An eQual opportunity employer. Creating a new world with Electronics ,--------------------, I I I I : HUGHES I : I I I L --HUGHES ----------------~ AIRCRAFT COMPANY January, 1962 wlh~lt CG@ITIfu@~ ~@rr LtIkl~ \j\f1kl@~TI? V@ IrCdl D11U@~[f @@fJ'Utltp)~UU5f~ @cclJ~@(IDif@@ ~~~ --, I I I I I I j Frankly, there is no practical substitute for the wheel today. But at Ford Motor Company, our scientists and engineers refuse to give "no" for an answer. They are tackling, among others, the problem of wheelless vehicles for tomorrow. Is "tomorrow" really far off? Not according to the men at Ford. Already they've devel- oped the Levacar as one possibility. It replaces the wheel with /evapads, per- forated discs which emit powerful air jets to support the vehicle. Air suspension-if you will-of an advanced degree. Imagine traveling swiftly, safely at up to 500 mph, riding on a tissue-thin film of air. Guided unerringly by a system of rails. Propelled by powerful turboprops. This is the Levacar. Meanwhile we've still got the wheel. And the job of building better cars for today. So we hope you won't mind riding on wheels just a little longer while we con- centrate on both tasks. MOTOR COM PANY The American Road. Dearborn. Michigan. PRODUCTS FOR THE AMERICAN ROAD. THE FARM. INDUSTRY. AND THE AGE OF SPACE 2 Spartan Enginee Materials for electronic "miniatures" fields ... like the fast-growing electronics industry. Monsanto ... a world leader in chemicals, plastics and petroleum p ro d'ucts ... IS now also a major ' producer That means growing room for you, .. ever-expanding of . opportunity as your professional interests broaden. ar se~lc<>.nd';1ctormaterials including silicon, gallium sen!, e, mdlUm arsenide and indium phosphide-vital See your Placement Director to arrange an interview :atenals used in the manufacture of electronic compo- when we visit your campus thents.Around the clock, Monsanto engineers produce soon. Or write for our new St,ese Chmater' ~ la Is. In ' a new custom - designed plant near brochure, "You, Your Career ades, Missouri. and Monsanto," to Profes- Why sional Employment Manager, Beca is thi,s new Monsanto activity, .. Important to YOIl? Department EM 3, Monsanto the yuse It suggests the kind of future Monsanto offers Chemical Company, St. Louis compoung engineer of exceptional promise. Here is a any ready and able to move vigorously into new 66, Missouri. ALL QUAL IFIED APPLICANTS WILL RECEIVE CONSIDERATION WITHOUT REGARD TO RACE, CREED, COLOR OR NATIONAL ORIGIN 3 January, 1962 Vitro Laboratories offers you an exceptional opportunity to build your professional career rapidly .•. solidly There are three basic reasons why you will find a career appointment at Vitro Laboratories particularly rewardwg: First, our vigorous long-range expansion prOf/ram means rapid promotions ... as rapid as your talents allow. Second, YOllwill associate with knowledgeable colleagues, many of them enjoying national recognition for their achievements. Third, you will work on important problems that demand fresh and novel solutions. Our activities encompass the following areas: missile system engineering Polaris. Typhon. Talos . Tartar' Terrier design & development Digital Rquipment. Simulators Torpedoes. Hxperimental Underwater Vehicles research & study IVeapons Systems Analysis. Feasibility Studies Basic and A pplied Research interviews on your campus A Y itro executive will visit your campus shortly to discuss career appointments with interested students. Check with YOllrPlacement Officerfor additional information and interview dates, or write to: Don A rmiger, College Relations Administrator -vifrD LABORATORIES A DIVISION or THE VITRO CORPORATION OF AMERICA AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY F.MPLOYER 4 Vitro Laboratories, 14000 Geor ia 4ven g. • S' . ue, llver Spnng, Maryland (a suburb of Washington, D.C.) • eer Spartan Engln - J,o-..- BENDIX IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING: ~arnessing. Nuclear Ramjet Power ..• at up to 1200° F. been demonstrated effective at operating temperatures of 1200° F. ucl.ear~amJet engines, with a potential of many, many times the Other important contributions of the system include specially ~peCI.flcImp.u!se of existing chemical propulsion systems, are treated ferro-magnetic materials and unique lubricants for rolling contact bearings. This results in bearing performance comparable c~~mng.exciting new. approaches to aero-space propulsion. But I trolling these engines presents almost insurmountable prob- to that obtained with standard bearings un'der normal environ- ems.Th~ control actuation system must be able to resist extremely mental conditions. If you're interested in engineering challenge, see your ~~~~~esl~ultaneous environmental conditions: gases heated to Placement Director and sign up for an interview with a Bendix F., Intense nuclear radiation, shock, and vibration. What's representative. Or, write Dr. A. M. Canfield, The Bendix Corpo- m~rfe,the system must operate with precision and efficiency- ration, Fisher Building, Detroit 2, Michigan. Career opportunities no or seconds, but for hours! in California, Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Michigan, To solve this high-temperature problem Bendix engineers have d . d ' Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. cont eVlse. an el~ctropneumatic system, based on gas as the Creative engineering in these fields: automotive, aviation, tow rOJ~edlum. ThiS system is considered a major contribution missiles and space, manufacturing, and systems development. ar t e development of powerful aero-space vehicles. It has An equal opportunity employer T~lIcf~ CORPORATION 5 January, 1962 Sporton Engineer VOLUME 15 NO. 2 JANUARY 1962 8 DEAN'S CORNER 10 CHROMATOGRAPHY 14 EINSTEIN'S REVOLUTION 16 TURBINE FLOWMETERS 18 SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 22 SMALL MISSILE AERODYNAMICS 26 THE DIGITAL COMPUTER 30 THERMOELECTRICITY 42 WHAT'S NEW 43 MISS ENGINEER editor ............................................. VIC HUMM business manager . JOHN THORNTON publicity ..... " . LOREN NELSON staff DIANNE CACCAMISE ROBERTA HUFFMASTER JOE STRBIK RAY TRENTHAM Member, Engineering College Mogazine Associated Chairman: Professor Charles E. Wales, Wayne Publisher's State Rep: .. University, Detroit, littell.Murray-Barnhill, Michigan Inc. 369 lexington Ave., New York 17, N. Y. advisors J. RYDER 737 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, III. T. FARRELL Published four times yearly by the students of the COllEGE, OF ]. STOKELEY ENGINEERING, MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, East Lansing, Mich,gan. The office is on the third floor of the Student Services Bldg., phone D. McGRADY 355.8298. Second class postoge paid in E. lansing, Michigan, under oct of March 3, 1879. W. McILRATH Subscription rote by moil $1.00 per year. Single copies 25 cents. 6 • eer Spartan Engln Raytheon offers Graduate study opportunities at Harvard and M.I.T. As the major horizons in electronics are explored and extended, Ray- theon offers an increasing number of challenging projects for scientists and engineers. In order to accom- modate this heavy investment in research and development, Ray- theon is committed as never before to comprehensive programs for developing its technical staff. The new Advanced Study Program is one of these. Raytheon offers This program is available to a selected group of outstanding scien- current openings in: tists and engineers. It enables pres- ent and prospective Raytheon staff members, who are accepted for RADAR graduate study at Harvard and M.LT., to pursue at Raytheon's INFRARED expense part-time study toward a MISSilE SYSTEMS master's and/or doctor's degree in COMMUNICATIONS & DATA PROCESSING electrical engineering, physics or applied mathematics. You too may MICROWAVE ElECTRONICS be able to qualify for the Advanced SOLID STATE Study Program. SONAR For detailed information, visit your ELECTRON TUBE TECHNOLOGY placement director, obtain the bro- chure, "Raytheon's Advanced Study Program," and arrange an on- campus interview. Or you may write directly to Mr. G. C. Clifford, Coordinator of College Relations, Raytheon Company, Gore Bldg., Watertown, Massachusetts. ~AYTHEO~ An Equal Opportunity Employu Dean's Letter / To stand still in today's education is to move backward; to move. forward. an objective is needed. It is appropriate here to state certain tenets of educational. phtl.os- ophy, suitable as objectives and appropriate to a profe~sional ~ollege of Engmee~l~g engaged in the broad education of engineers, and consistent with the general polICIes of Michigan State University. It is the further development of the field of graduate study and its supporting research, which we believe worthy of adoption as a major objective of this college. Enhancement of opportunities for study leading to the doctorate is the foremost nee? of engineering education, and a program so directed, encouraged, and supported IS well suited to our staff and facilities, and is fully consonant with the place of Michigan State University in the national and international scene. In furthering the development of this objective in this College of Engineering, it seems desirable to emphasize that our primary duty is always to our students, and to the parents who provide their support. We owe to them the best possible education, in both technical and human fields, and suited to the needs of a professional life in a civilization dependent on continued technological and scientific advance. Our program should prepare our students for a lifetime of useful, profitable, and enjoyable techno- logical leadership, and must also provide those qualities and viewpoints leading to a life as good citizens and recognized leaders of their communities. In view of the present trends in all higher education, and in the light of the enumerated self-studies of engineering education and of the state of the profession, it must be concluded that an undergraduate program supporting a school of graduate study in engineering must emphasize the science base, the mathematical language, and the analytic abilities necessary to the graduate student, the researcher, and the engineer- ing innovator of the future. In the carrying out of such an undergraduate program it will be necessary to emphasize and develop high scholarship, the willingness to learn, an innate curiosity toward things and people, the engineer's dissatisfaction with things as they are, and an appreciation of the responsibilities of an educated man. With such objectives, and with a teaching staff oriented in such a direction, we can look forwar~ to b.roadened program.s, increased student appeal, and justify acceler- ated su.pport ,":hlCh. Will allow us to gall1 and maintain our desired high place among the major engll1eenng schools of the United States. Adopted by the Faculty of the College of Engineering. January 4, 1962 8 Spartan Engineer EDUCATION AND INDUSTRV- working together for the future P~t an engineer in an environment compatible System Analogue and Network Computer. ~lt~ his scientific interests and he is quite likely There's very little precedent to draw on in the t~ 0 great things and be happy about doing area of 400 to 500 KV transmission voltage and Wh.:' T~~t's the way it is at Detroit Edison, much remains to ?e clari.fie? about syst~m ther It s on one of our long range develop- design and integratIon, radIO mterference, hne ment programs, our day-to-day studies for losses relays operation and performance, sYstem' , , gram.fo;mpr?ve~ents, or on our summer pro- If you want to find out more about career sho engIneermg professors and students as opportunities or our summer program, drop us Wnabove. a note and we will send you a copy of our ~ere Assis.tant Professor Aziz Fouad of Iowa booklet ~~ich will describe the c~allenges an.d ntate UnIversity's Electrical Engineering opportumtIes you can expect. WrIte to DetrOIt N~partment, University of Michigan student Edison Employment and Personnel Re~earch ElC~lasSpewock and Detroit Edison Senior Department, 2000 Second Ave." DetrOIt 26, nglUeerRay P'll t . bl f MI'chigan-or see our representatIve when he extra' I 0 e examme a pro em 0 , . hIgh voltage transmission, using the VISItSyour campus. T~E DETROIT EDISON COMPANY An Investor-Owned Electric Light and Power Company Chromatography (New technology from old art) by Martin Hawley a masters' candidate Chemical Engineering Chromatography is used primarily into the column followed by pure but as it passes through the column as an analytical tool because it is an water, the salt would take longer to this band spreads out. Therefore, in extremely expensive process to employ pass through the column. However, separating two components it is neces. for a large scale operation. However, the salt would take longer to pass sary to know both the average time the technique is occasionally used on through the column than the water when each band of salt will exit the large scale in the pharmaceutical in- because part of the time the salt is column, and the amount of spread or dustry when extremely difficult sepa- absorbed on the packing while the dispersion of each band. The disper. rations are encountered. water is not affected by the packing. sion is caused by the absorption and by mixing within the column. The Chromatography is a method of If two salts were injected into the separating components from a mixture column, these salts would leave the latter effect is referred to as axial dif. of chemical compounds by utilizing bottom of the column at different times fusion. The present work is an inves. the differences of the adherence of if one were held more tightly to the tigation of the degree of dispersion of these compounds to a solid surface. packing than the other. This type of a solute in a chromatographic column For example, if a solution of sodium separation is known as chromatogra- due to axial diffusion alone. Axial dif- chloride and water is passed through phy, and applied to both liquid and fusion is caused by channeling, molec. a column packed with diatomaceous gas mixtures. ular diffusion, eddy diffusion, stagnant z o t- e:{ a: TRACER INJEC TI ON, A T TIME (t) o t- z lLJ () Z o () DISTANCE FIG. I earth, part of the sodium chloride is Some of the technical problems in- pockets of solvent, and inter-particle removed from the water, and adheres volved in chromatography are evident diffusion. Channeling is characterized to the solid packing. This material by considering a concentration-time- by a path in a packed sectio~ of a can .be removed from the solid by distance plot for a pulse of sodium column which has a lower resistance passmg pure water through the col- chlori~e as it passes through a column to flow than the rest of the packed umn. If only a small amount of sodi- (see FI?ure I). At the injection point section by molecular action. As an um chloride solution were injected the sodIUm chloride is in a sharp bend, (Continued on Page 44) 10 Spartan Engineer Chemistry paints a bright future You will be intere.~tedin the op- The finish on new cars is as tough as it is beautiful. Chemicals portunitie.~ available with Union developedthrough research at Union Carbide have played an important part Carbide in carbon.~, chemicals, gases, metals, plastics, and nu- in achieving smooth, hard mirror-bright coatings that last for years. clear energy. Why not look over our literature in your placement Chemicals and plastics have also caused a revolution in other types office? For further information write for Booklet YY, Union of paints and finishes in recent years. The result? Water-base latex paints Carbide Corporation, 270 Park Avenue, New York 17, New that dry m , mmutes , have turned a time-consummg ' h' core . 1 JO mto a SImpe . b York, (Please mention your for any homeowner. Special solvents assure the uniform surface requrre . d' m career field.) the . fin' h' .. IS mg of fine furniture. And many new chemIcal materIa are gomgIs . Into coat'mgs to safeguard industrial equipment from mOIsture ' fumes ... an d to protect ships from the ravages of salt water. an d corrOSIve ' UNION CARBIDE This is an example of a vital industry that has forged ahead hecause 0f the kind of chemical research that goes on at U'mon Car b'd I e. Looking t 0 the future, the people of Union Carbide are contmumg ' . th'err ... ahand in things to come efforts t o b'rmg forth new and better materials for every d ay 1"Ivmg. Dr. Philip Hill, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, conducts a Hamilton Standard Management Development course in Fluid Mechanics. If you want to be a manager ••• Here at Hamilton Standard, we know that the Some very specific courses that are available to you. managerial skills demanded of you by today's Business Leadership, for example, is a general course complex business structure need development. They that will teach you many techniques essential to don't just happen. So-if you want your engineering running a business or one of its divisions. Customer career to lead into management, you'll find that Relations will show you how to work successfu\l: Hamilton Standard is eager to help you. with the most important individual in anyone s Your first assignment will be a working assign- business life: the customer. Technical courses, such as ment-one that will call on your best abilities and Technical Writing, Servo Mechanisms, and Turbo ask you to take on important responsibility; that's Machinery, are also available. These will keep you good training for management. Your technical train- abreast of the latest technology-an important part ing will be on-the-job training; this will provide you of your management- training .. with technical experience and problem-solving abil- If you want to be a manager, you'll like HamIl. ity you'll need to lead YOurOwn group later. You ton Standard, because the company and its people may be selected for a program of rotating assign- want to help you succeed. Wouldn't you like to ments to give you broad company experience in var- know more about this leader in the aerospace ious areas, such as design, analysis, and project work. industry? Talk with your Placement Officer,. or Our management development program includes write direct to Mr. Robert J. Harding, SuperVIsor of College Relations, at UNITED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION rnffi~ ~~TImQ]0TIffiQ]illillffiill ill ~W~0~@Q] Bradley Field Road, Windsor Locks, Connecticut An equal opparluni1y emplo)',r. 12 • er Spartan Engme The development of new products always leads to challenging new opportunities at Du Pont. Products like time-honored neoprene synthetic rubber, for ex- ample. Or more recently, "Delrin"* acetal resin for SOME IMPORTANT a wide range of plastic applications, and "Cronaflex"* engineering reproduction films. NEW JOBS Products like these have created thousands and thousands of jobs at Du Pont over the years. Good WERE CREATED jobs that not only contribute to the growth of the com- pany, but assure Du Pont's employees of steady em- BY DU PONT ployment and the chance to progress. To keep these jobs coming in the future, Du Pont's annual invest- ment in research exceeds $90 million. TODAY Right now, there are opportunities qualified engineers-chemical, at Du Pont for mechanical, electrical, metallurgical and industrial-chemists and physicists, sales and marketing men. If you expect to receive your bachelor's, master's, or Ph.D. degree this year, talk with your placement director about Du Pont. For more information about opportunities at Du Pont, clip and mail the coupon below. And be sure to tell us your major so we can send you the literature that's most appropriate. <[()POHl:> .'''.U.I.Pllot.Off. BETTER THINGS FOR BETTER LIVING ... THROUGH CHEMISTRY An equal-opportunity employer *DuPont's registeredtrademark r-----------------------------------------' : E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.) Nemours Building, Room 2419-1 Wilmington 98, Delaware booklet describing opportunities in my Please send me the major course of study indicated below. Name ------------- Class -.MajOr----Degree expected _ College __ --------------- Myaddress ------------- ___ ----.zone-state------- .J L City _ Einstein's A Philosophy as well as a Science by Roberta Huffmaster helped free man from the bonds of The special theory is stated in t\\O EINSTEIN'S THEORIES of Rela- the Middle Ages' intellectual slavery. parts: (1) If two systems move rela- tivity, when mentioned today, imme- The philosophers took up the idea tive to each other with constant speed, diately brings to mind a picture of of the universe being organized and t~le laws of mechanics (Newton's a white-haired man who changed our run like a machine and fashioned a Laws) that are valid in the one sys- concepts of the physical world. Yet, tem, are also valid for the second philosophy to include this machine. he did more than develop a new sys- system, (2) The speed of light is They expounded the idea that progress tem of the organization of natural constant. could be made to alleviate, or even phenomenon. eliminate the troubles of the world. From these seeming simple state- His theories had a social impact long Since the past and future of an event ments, Einstein was able to draw some before the physical-world effects were could be known or predicted accord- very important conclusions: the con- felt. ing to Newton, an argument for a nection between mass and energy; and destiny mapped out by an unseen probably one of the most fascinating Are the physicists also interested in power was raised. Einstein's theories?, asked the bishop. ideas in science; time, length, and mass Theologians also incorporated this are not absolute measurements. This today sounds like a foolish theme in their beliefs. question, but it meant much around The relativeness of these measure- 1910. Both the philosopher and the A jarring note was struck around ments have to follow, if the speed of theologian discussed the new concept. 1900, when it became clear that some light is accepted as being constant, processes in chemistry and physics did and at a maximum. In most systems For an understanding of why such not occur in a way that was valid for we normally come across, the familiar an impact was felt, the history of the the mechanical view of nature. \1{f!:en way of dealing with movements III interlocking of science and philoso- this happened, people felt a "bank- the system (a swimmer in a stream, phy should be considered. ruptcy" in the Newtonian science, or man walking on the deck of a along with the philosophies based on moving ship) is to use the theory of it. added velocities. A stream flows at DURING THE Middle Ages men a speed of 10 miles an hour, a boy This collapse of the mechanical pic- had an organismic view of their sur- ture was interpreted by some as a swims upstream at 2 mph. The spee~ roundings. That is, behavior depends failure of man's emancipation from of the water, relative to the boy IS on its nature. A rock fell to the ground the Middle Ages. And they according- 12 mph, but if he is swimming down- because it was right for the rock to ly argued for a return to the organ- stream at the same speed, the fl\'er remain on the earth, and not in the ismic idea of nature. seem~ to be moving at only 8 mph. air. Birds flew because they were sup- posed to. Einstein stepped into this confusion With Newton, order was introduced and offered a different solution to the chaos-his special theory of relativity, T HE QUESTION can then be ~~k- ed, why doesn't addition of veloCitieS into the study of natural phenomenon. and a few years later, his general The universe could be explained in theory of relativity. work for particles traveling at th.e terms of a mechanical analogy; using speed of light? The only answer IS In philosophy and religion, the rev- that as a system increases its speed, the word "mechanical" in an engi- olution of a disillusioned people was the devices for measuring this speed; neering sense. Nature obeyed certain given an impetus by Einstein's newly i.e., a rod and clock, change. The laws, and was not flighty. devel~ped ideas of time, space, and causatIOn. clock slows down and the rod shrinks. Through Newton's equations, the This shortening and slowing down past as well as the future of the uni- . To understand why such deep feel- have nothing to do with the construc- mgs were aroused over the theories tion of the devices themselves, and to verse could be determined. This idea one must have some knowledge of anyone in this same system, the origi- of the "knowability" of the world them. nal length of the rod and time of a 14 Spartan Engineer Revolution second seem to remain unchanged. A in empty space with no gravitational beam is aimed through the 011~ hole stationary observer, relative to the forces acting on them. and passes out the hole on the other moving system, would ~otice. these The scene shifts to empty space. The side of the elevator. changes with respect to his statIonary same elevator with the men still in it To an observer inside the elev;ltor, units of time and length. But for velo- suddenly is pulled up by a huge cable. the light beam proceeds in a straight cities less than 1/10 the speed of light, the men feel this constant motion line across to the opposite hole. these changes are too small to be upward of the elevator as a downward measured. To an observer outside the elev;ltor, force on them. A comb drops, but this According to Newton, it should take however, the car is not stationar}', but time it falls to the floor. If there are the same force to increase the speed moving downward with constallt ac- no windows or doors in the car, the of a mass already moving close to the celeration. He doesn't see the beam men will assume that they are in a speed of light as it would to increase move in a straight line, but b~'c;lusc gravitational field. There is no way of its speed when the mass is at rest. the car has moved downward III thc telling a gravitational force from a However, since the speed of light can time it takes the beam to move :ICross constantly accelerated ascent through not be exceeded, the only explanation the distance to the othcr hole, h~ sces empty space. of the impossibility of acceleration is the path of the beam curve do;vn- H the elevator is attached to the wards. He would say that the lIght that the mass increases with the speed, outside of a merry-go-round in outer beam is deflected by the gravit;ltionaI and becomes infinite as its speed ap- proaches that of light. space, a force is again felt by the men field he himself is in. inside the car. But the force they feel Einstein's general theory of rela- Since light is a form of energy. ;lnd due to centrifugal force is interpret~d tivity dealt with the nature and effects energy has mass according to the by them to be gravity. If noth'.ng 10 of gravity. Newton's second law stated equation E = mc2, :h~ energy will be the car indicates whICh plane IS the that the same force exerted on two deflected in a gravitatIOnal field ;IS a floor, the "floor" becomes what a~ masses of varying size will produce particle would be. outside observer calls a wall. And thiS two different accelerations. But when force is also called gravity by the men This theory was testcd by ~b.sc.rving these same two masses are dropped, inside. the position of stars in the V.ICll1ltyof their accelerations are the same. It the sun during a total eclipse,. ;lnd From these imaginary pictures, Ei~- would seem that Newton's law only comparing these to the stars' pOSitions stein drew the conclusion that the~e IS holds true for forces in a horizontal when the sun had moved farther away no way to distinguish the m?tlOns plane. He got around this problem by from them. The stars position (an be produced by acceleration, centrIfugal stating that a mysterious force called found by looking at the beam ~{ light force, etc. ; from the motion produced gravity exists and that its attractive it sends to the earth. If the sun s .&;ra~. by gravity. Absolute motion doe~ not itational field exerts a force 011 thIS force increases with an increase of . t both uniform and nonunIform mass, i.e., inertia. eXlS, d .h beam, the stars will appear to he 10 motion can only be judge Wit re- slightly different positions than \vhen Einstein didn't accept this. He cre- spect to a system of reference. the sun is far enough away to ~JCert ated a special imaginary situation to no force on them. The results were se: ~hat would happen if forces were conclusive. The stars did seem to be eliminated or applied. ANOTHER RESULT of the gen- I t heory was the prediction of the in different positions. . He pictured an immensely tall build- era I' h effect of gravitation on Ig t. This has been in no way eV~11a Ing with an elevator at the top with . conc I'USlOn, E'10 stein went semi-complete presentation of the \vork For thiS men in it. The elevator falls freely of Einstein and his effect on ~en ;lnd back to the picture of an elevatlo~ f~~- down the shaft with an acceleration ing freely from the top of a tal UI - science. Maybe this I~ght ~o~chl~g \1pon equal to that of gravity. A comb drops the revolution of ElOstelO s w!" ~erve from One man's hand and remains mg. as appetizer for a more detall~J ;lnd floating in mid-air. Th~ people inside There are two holes in the w~lls, rigorous account of these theOrIes. the elevator imagine themselves to be opposite one another. A flashlIght 15 January, 1962 TURBINE FLOWMETERS A Big Advance in the Petroleum Industry by Loren Nelsol/ Measuring fluid volumes accurately causes changes in both piston clear- of flow and with annular blade area has long been a problem in the petro- ance and frictional torque. (A) were put in a pipe with liquid leum industry. Originally volumes were In actual practice, the best rotary flowing in it. Assuming no friction, measured by tank gauging. But accu- piston meters (at flow rates between the fluid would strike the blades with rate determination of tank volumes a few gallons and 1000 gallons per velocity (V) and the rotor would be was difficult, due largely to tempera- minute) exhibit errors of only a frac- accelerated to a steady rim speed (u) ture variation and substantial loss from tion of one percent when measuring proportional to the axial velocity ( V) evaporation at the free surface. flows above 20 percent of capacity. of the fluid. The rim speed ( u ) could As extended pipeline systems came But even the best displacement meters then be recorded and converted to into wider use, it became inconvenient fail to measure accurately gritty fluids, flow rate. for both control and accounting pur- such as crude oil, without excessive (1) V = Q/A poses to discharge the liquid through- wear and calibration changes. Displace- (2) u = V tan 0 out whenever measurement was neces- ment metering becomes intolerably (3) Q = VA = uA/tan 0 sary. An additional disadvantage of bulky and expensive at present flow = wrA/tan 0 this practice was the loss of pressure rates in the order of tens of thousands Where: head driving the liquid. of gallons per minute. Q = flow rate Another drawback of tank gauging The disadvantages of displacement = radius of rotor was the difficulty of obtaining true meters led engineers at Rockwell Man- w = angular velocity of rotor average tank temperatures. In princi- ufacturing Company of Pittsburgh, However, in actual practice, both ple, accounting is by weight but in Pennsylvania to investigate turbine mechanical friction (bearing friction) reality, it is by equivalent product type meters. Turbine meters were al- and a fluid friction (drag) will oppose volume at some agreed upon base ~eady being used in less exacting serv- blade rotation, requiring "bending" of temperature (GOoF.). ICe. A study of these turbine meters axial flow. In other words the direction showed an unexpected calibration char- At present displacement type f1ow- of fluid flow will be changed slightly acteristic. All curves exhibited an un- meters arc used predominantly in due to friction in the system. This explained decrease of percentage of li~uid volume control and accounting. component of change in velocity (f::. V) error as lower flow rates were metered. Displacement f10wmeters are essential- divided by the velocity ( V) is equal This, of course, showed up before ly low head loss piston motors. In to the percentage of slip in the blades. performance became unacceptable at t~1es~ meters the number of separate very low flows. By careful design, mechanical fric- IIqllld volumes displaced is recorded The reason for this mysterious de- tion can be made negligible in the on a cumulative totalizing register. The crease in error at low flows-which operating range of 100 to 20 percent register is driven by a variable-ratio could not possibly have been due to of capacity but nothing can be done gear mechanism, automatically reduc- mechanical friction-has now been to reduce blade drag and the meter IS ing the rising count total to its numer- found. The problem was solved only still not accurate. Therefore, the analy- ical equivalent at the accounting base temperature. after several years of intensive analysis sis must be concentrated upon the design changes, and model testing. ' variation of blade drag with flow con- Most dis~lacement meters, except ditions. the smaller Sizes, are of the rotary pis- The ~esult was a complete theory1 ton type. For reasons of low head loss of turbIne ~eter principles, enabling In steady state rotation, the resultant and frictional wear, the pistons are not them to build metering turbines that tangential force is, by delinition, zero. packed but mOve with a line clearance ~urpass the best displacement meters Thus, Newton's Second Law, or the in the order of a few thousandths of In. a~curacy, repeatability, retention of general delinition of force as the time- an inch. o.ngInal cali?ration, and long service rate of change of momentum life under hIgh flows of gritty liquids (F = d [mV]/dt) Since laminar leakage varies with such as crude petroleum oils. b?th flow rate and liquid viscosity, lKarlby, Henning and Lee, W'.F.Z .. A .Suppose a theoretical turbine meter Study of the Viscosity Effect and Its Com' dlsplac.ement meters must frequently With annular blading set at an angle pensation on Turbine-Type Flow l>.feters. be caIJbrated because frictional wear (59-A-I05) Transactions ASl\fE. Senes D. (0) inclined away from the direction fOlll'l1a/ of Basic Engineering, Sept. 1960. 16 Spartan Engineer UPSTREAM DIFFUSER VISCOSITY MECHANICAL ROTOR MAGNETIC DOWNSTREAM SECTION COMPENSATOR COUPLING ELEMENT COUPLING DIFFUSER SECTION_ A CUT-AWAY - VIEW Of" A TURBINE METER gives the driving force as the mass is laminar. Therefore the boundary which for very large Reynolds numbers rate of flow layer must also have laminar charac- approaches a constant value. (dm/dt = rh = p VA) teristics. The drag coefficient (accord- To be of value as an accurate flow times the change of tangential velocity ing to Blasius) is a constant divided meter the turbine meter must have (6 V). This must equal the tangential by the square root of Reynolds number essentially constant slip. This means component of drag (D sin 0), where (CD = K/VR). that the drag coefficient (according to drag is conventionally (Cp) times the area exposed to drag. In this case of Unfortunately, this means that slip Blasius) is a constant divided by the blade motion nearly parallel to the (ll V/V = KCD) square root of Reynolds number flow(6 V IV small), the exposed area is 1I0t constant, and a turbine must be (CD = K/VR). ISthe blade surface area (A). useless as a flow meter in laminar Unfortunately, this means that slip Transposing the force equation re- flow. (ll VIV = KCD) vealsthat the slip (ll V IV) is directly Fortunately, the majority of indus- is 1I0t constant, and a turbine must be proportional to the drag coefficient is trial pipeline flows are turb~lent, or useless as a flow meter in laminar a function of the Reynolds number(R) flow. at least not fully laminar. ThiS mea~s of the blade passage alone (R = LV lv, that the boundary layer will remam where L is the blade chord and v is Fortunately, the majority of indus- kinematic viscosity). laminar near the leading edge of the trial pipeline flows arc turbulent, or blading, but break into turbulence at least not fully laminar. This means The work of Ludwig Prandtl et al further downstream at a distance (X) that the boundary layer will remain showed, in brief, that the drag of a which varies with blade Reynolds num- laminar near the leading edge of the flat.plate through a fluid can be treated ber (X = "R * IV). Thus, the blade blading, but break into turbulence ~ If the fluid were frictionless, except drag coefficient becomes the sum of a In a k' further downstream at a distance (X) s -In (or boundary) layer dragged laminar and a turbulent drag coeffi- which varies with blade Reynolds along by the plate due to viscosity. cient, each applied to it.s proper blade number ~~ low velocities and/or high vis- area. This is expressed m the Prandtl- (X = vR*jV). COSIties(at Reynolds numbers below Schlichting transition formula a '. (Continued on Page 42) cntlcal value, R*), the entire flow (CD = K - [K/R]) 17 January, 1962 SYSTEMS Under the support of the National Science Foundation a prototype Sys- tems Laboratory is under development in the Department of Electrical En- gineering, at M.S.U. This laboratory ENGINEERING is unique in that it represents a tr~ly interdisciplinary laboratory, plaCIng equal emphasis on the st~dy of elec- trical, mechanical, hydraulIc and pneu- matic components and systems made up of such components. With modern instrumentation, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, and mechanical .v~riables ~ISU piOllee.-Sill prototype are measured with equal faCIlity. Re- cording devices, such as X-Y plotters systems laboratory and time-base recorders are available as standard equipment for automatic by Himich R. Martens recording of all variables. a graduate student The new prototype systems labora- tory is designed around the systems . concepts developed over the past sev- chinery laboratory program was com- follows: (1) to develop skills and eral years in the E.E. department and which are now included as part of the bined with the servo-mechanisms la- techniques in the art and science of E.E. curriculum in the senior year. boratory to form an electro-mechanical instrumentation; (2) to develop tech- These engineering concepts apply with systems laboratory. The second phase niques and skills in establishing math- equal facility to the analysis of all of the development, which was initi- ematical models of physical compon- types of physical systems made up of ated in June 1961, is scheduled for ents and systems; (3) to develop the discrete patameter components. completion in June 1962, and is art of "making a system work," i.e. directed at extending the electro-me- establish proper operating points, pro' To fully implement the system con- chanical systems laboratory to include viding protecting devices and elim. cepts in the laboratory, facilities quite hydraulic components and systems such inating noise and; (4) to develop a different from the traditional electrical as servovalves, hydraulic motors, acti- "vocabulary" of typical system com- engineering laboratories are necessary. vators, etc. ponents and systems and their charac- The first phase of the laboratory The facilities that must be provided teristics. development program consistant with in the prototype systems laboratory the new systems concept was com- In keeping with the first objective are implemented by the educational pleted approximately two years ago as stated, the prototype laboratory m. objectives of the laboratory program. when the conventional electrical ma- cludes some of the most modern and These basic objectives can be stated as sophisticated instrumentation techni. ques known. Since all electronic recording devices respond only to electrical signals, trans' ducers are employed to conve~t the force, torque and displacement sIgnals to corresponding electrical signals .. A strain gage force transducer, for m. stance, designed and built at M:S.U., is employed in connection with a bridge circuit and amplifier to measu~e force. A slide wire potentiometer IS used to electrically measure displace- ment. Such transducers are used 10 conjunction with X- Y ultraviolet pho- tographic recorders and oscilloscopes to record automatically the force vs. displacement characteristics of m~chanf ical components. Periodic deflectIOn 0 such mechanical components as springs, dampers, etc. are genera~ed by means of a. hydraulic actuatIng system driven from a standard elec- ~-- Meyer and John Thornton measure the terminal charac- tronic function generator. One of the most difficult problemS D.C. machine. encountered in the developmen t pro-f gram, curiously enough, is that 0 18 • er Spartan Engme providing for the convenient and ac- curate recording of flow rate. To provide the information required to model the dynamic characteristics of hydraulic components, it is necessary to record instantanious flow rate, both positive and negative. The transducer presently offering the greatest possibil- ity is a pressure transducer placed across the terminals of a standard orifice, much the same way a volt- meter is connected across a standard resistor to record current. Through the use of pressure and flow rate trans- ducers, time varying hydraulic signals are measured with the same instru- mentation and with the same ease as electrical signals. To provide facilities for developing the concepts and techniques involved in establishing mathematical models of physical components, provision is made for conveniently setting up elec- trical, mechanical, hydraulic, electro- mechanical, hydromechanical, and hy- droelectrical test systems. The required mechanical flexibility is provided in the use of relatively small components, all electrical and hydraulic motors be- ing in the order of 1/16th horsepower. All components are mountable on alu- minum grids with a standard shaft heigh.!.Electrical, mechanical, and hy- draulIc ~onnections can be made, easily and qUICkly. All hydraulic hose con- ne~tors are self-sealing so that the Senior E.E.'s John Nelson, Barb Kroupa, and Greg Hudak demon- s~llI~ge of oil is almost completely strate how "to make a system." eliminated. of the laboratory are concerned, the cently developed for the digital com- .. In the interest of developing a student can take his choice. puter. vocabulary" of typical system com- ponents, "real life" components are Finally, to provide each student with Although the primary function of ~sed wherever possible, and provision opportunity for developing his sk,ilIs the new systems laboratory is to pro- ~s.made for recording the character- in the techniques of instrumentatIOn vide undergraduate instruction, the IStiCS of th ese components as they laboratory also serves as research facil. and the art of "making a system work," really . a re- l'Inear or nonlmear. . Any ities for graduate students and under- the systems laboratory as planned '\ViII lmearization s appear as approximatIOn .. include an identical set of facilities graduate students interested in special made in establishing a mathematical for each group of three students in problems. Future plans for develop- model of the COmponent. the laboratory at any given time. ments in the systems laboratory calI for the inclusion of inertial guidance . To provide for maximum flexibility An analytical study of physical sys- equipment, such as gyroscopes and In develo .. tems invariably involves the solution I pIng typICal electromechani- stable tables. Small size digital com- ca., hydromechanical and hydroelec- of one or more simultaneous linear or puters wiII eventualIy be incorporated tncal . syst ems, a 11'components are de- nonlinear algebraic and/or differential as a component in a typiql control s'g?ed to be computable to terminal equations. To provide the fa~ili~y the system to function as digital controlIer. rating and physical size. Consequently systems laboratory has, since ItS Incep- a great . ' tion included a desk size computer Such a facility provides a basis for in- st variety of systems may be con- ructed, and anyone 0 f many different . for ~ach group of students. The com- troducing digital to analog conversion systems can b puter can be used for p~oviding sys- techniques, adaptive systems and self- th e put together to realize e same OVera II d'eSlgn obJective. .. For tem simulation and solutIOns or as a optimizing systems. However, because example a .. transfer function generator (control- of the mathematical complexity in- b ' positiOn control system can e composed f .. ler) in feedback control s~stems. The volved in the analysis and design of ch . 0 pnmanly electrome- antcal com . solution to large-scale nonlInear system such systems, much of the latter study of' ponents, or, If one wishes pnmarily h d h' ' problems is provided .by the use of a nents . y romec anlCal compo- (Continued on Page 44) , and In as far as the objectives general purpose compiler program re- 19 January, 1962 An Invitation to Opportunity-Minded Graduates: MATCH YOUR INTERESTS AND TRAINING 1 TO EXPANDING CAREERS AT CELANESE Exceptional and continuing growth at Celanese you'll go as far as your ability will take you. opens up wide areas of opportunity for college Celanese plants, laboratories, and sales offices graduates. We want aggressive young people with are located throughout this country. Wherever science backgrounds to keep us ahead in our re- you work, you'll enjoy major medical benefits, search and development programs that bring company paid life insurance, generous vacations chemistry to the markets of the world. and, above all, opportunity. We also want people with backgrounds in adver- To find out more about a career at Celanese, tising, sales, business administration, accounting contact your college Placement Office for spe- -opportunity-minded graduates who will help us cific information, or write us directly, outlining to continue to grow and who will grow with us. your interests, academic background and - where Celanese has established its world-wide reputa- applicable-your experience. Please direct your tion by concentrating on the research, develop- inquiries to the attention of our Personnel ment and sales of chemicals, polymers, plastics Manager at the address nearest yOU: Celanese and synthetic fibers. We're particularly interested Corporation of America, 522 Fifth Avenue, in business-minded scientists and science-minded New York 36, N. Y.; P. O. Box 1414, Charlotte, businessmen. Your future is your own to make- North Carolina; P. O. Box 937, Pampa, Texas. Celaneae@ CELANESE-IN BRIEF Products - More than 30 groups of Laboratories -In New Jersey. basic chemical. polymer. plastic. and fiber products. North Carolina and Texas. Sales Offices-14 offices in 13 states Plants -19 plants coast.to.coast in this country. Employees - over 13.000 CORPORATION OF AMERICA Chemicals Polymers Plastics Fiber' An Equol Opportunity Employer Small Missile AerodynalDies A Simplified Approach to Model Rocket Design by J ohl1 Thornton, B.B. '62 When most people read about ama- During flight, the motion of a rocket of gravity, or the point at which the teur rocketry, they think of experiments can be divided into three periods con- missile body balances. \xrhenever a with various explosive fuels. Unfor- sisting of the period during launching, force acts on the rocket body, the body tunately, many amateurs seem to have the period of powered flight after the rotates around the center of gravity. this point of view also. But this is rocket has left the launcher, and the faulty thinking. By far, most of the The second point, the center of period of motion after the burning spectacular achievements of amateur pressure, is the point where all aero. has terminated. Although the second rocketry are due to the proper aero- dynamic forces act on the missile. This period is generally of interest to most dynamic design of the missile. point actually exists in theory as the amateurs, there is no distinct division point where the sum of all movements The actual applied theory of aero- between this second period and the due to these aerodynamic forces act dynamics of small fin-stabilized rockets third period of unpowered flight. to change the flight path. is much simpler than most amateurs As the burning period ends, a small realize. It is quite possible to increase When a missile is in flight, it as- amount of combustion products re- performance by at least 10% by using sumes several types of attitude changes main in the combustion chamber. In- a few basic rules of aerodynamics. with respect to the trajectory (Fig. 1).' stead of the forces immediately drop- . A great deal of the stabilty in flight These attitude changes are commonly ping to zero, they gradually diminish known as roll, pitch, and yaw. Rolling of an amateur rocket is due to its high, in magnitude. is a spinning action where the missile initial acceleration. But once the fuel is exhausted, the rocket's flight will In rocket design, there are two basic body rotates about its longitudinal be governed by the laws of free bodies points with which the amateur need axis. Roll is generally neglected in moving in a fluid. amateur rockets since the rate of roll be concerned. The first is the center is usually of small magnitude. How- ever, if a rocket is stabilized by spin- ning, the effect of roll must be taken into account. Rolling, because of its gyroscopic act ion, has a stabilizing effect which tends to reduce yaw. Yaw is the deviation of the longi- tudinal axis of the rocket from the vertical plane lying on the original line of motion. Pitch is a similar motion except that the rocket's longitudinal axis devia~es from the horizontal plane on the ong- inal line of motion. The effect of pitch and yaw is ~o turn the rocket nearly clockwise In flight. Because of this, air resistan~e increases and the flight becomes erratic. Before we see how these effects are compensated for in flight, let us eX- amine the various forces that act on a rocket during powered flight. As a rocket travels along its trajec- tory, the longitudinal axis of the rocket FIG 1 does not always coincide with .the direction of motion along the traJec' tory, but may form a slight angle of attack. 22 Spartan Engineer ANGLE OF , ATT,qCK J --- -- CENTER OF "GRAVITY ~9 CENfER OF PR.ESSURE FIG 2 While in flight, the rocket is acted effect is produced, which tends to de- moment depends on the point of ap- upon by several aerodynamic forces crease the rockets velocity. plication of the resultant of the two (F~g. 2). The total aerodynamic force components acting on the fins. The In addition to these forces, the force acting on the rocket is the resultant moment is referenced with respect to of gravity, Mg, produces a downward of these individual forces. the center of pressure. pull on the rocket. Basically, there is one main law The drag is a force whose direction All of the above forces act through that determines whether a missile is t~ngent to the trajectory or line of the center of gravity. These individual flight will be stable. For positive sta- motIOn of the center of gravity. This forces combine to produce the total bility, or stable flight, the center of f?rce always acts opposite to the direc- aerodynamic force and a moment M. pressure must always be located as far tIon of motion. While the rocket is in The magnitude of the moment depends behind the center of gravity as possi- flight, air molecules bunch up at the on the point of application of the total ble. If the rocket axis deviates from nose, causing the pressure to rise above aerodynamic force. the direction of flight, producing an ~tmospheric pressure. This pressure Another system of forces on the angle of attack with respect to the IOcr~~seis the cause of the drag, D. In rocket body exists due to the steering flight path, then the forces acting on addition, when the rocket pitches or effect of the fins (Fig. 2). These forces the fins create a restoring moment that yaws, the pressure acts against the act through the center of pressure. reduces the angle of attack. rocket body causing the drag to in- crease. There is a frontal drag on the lead- If the center of pressure is ahead ing edges of the fins which tends to of the center of gravity, then a condi- Another force, the lift force L, is slow the rocket down. This force, tion of negative stability exists. A caused by the slight angle of attack of commonly known as the fin drag, J?f, moment is created which tends to in- the rocket during flight. acts opposite to the direction of motIOn crease the angle of attack, resulting of the rocket axis. in an unstable flight. Besides the thrust T there is an add' . , Another force, 1£, acting perpen- During flight, external forces such ItIOnal force due to the action of th . dicular to the rocket axis, is a lifting as air pressure act against the fins and e Jet exhaust. As the rocket moves thfrough the atmosphere a vacuum is force. This force acts as a steering or body, causing the rocket to pitch or f et b h' e IOd the rocket. ' Although air control force. yaw. Aerodynamic forces acting tends to fill this vacuum it cannot do As with the aerodynamic forces, through the center of pressure cause so rapidl y enoug h to maintain ' .. atmos- these forces can be combined into a (COil/ill lied 011 Page 34) pheric pressure on the tail. A suction moment, Mf. The magnitude of the 23 January, 1962 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION .J"T ROCKET LIQUID HYDROGEN n ~ Iii';. THERE'S CHALLENGE TODAY FOR VIRTUALLY FUEL CELLS MACH 3 MAGNETO HYDRODYNAMICS SATURN NUCLEAR ,~EVERY TECHNICAL TALENT AT PRATT & WHITNEY AIRCRAFT Almost every scientifically trained man can find stimulating and rewarding career opportunities within the broad spectrum of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft activities. From the solid foundatio~ of 36 years as a world leader in flight propulsion systems, P&W A development activities and research investigations today are far ranging. In addition to continuing and concentrated development effort on air breathing and rocket engines, new and exciting avenues are being explored in every field of advanced aerospace, marine, and industrial power applications. The reach of the future ahead is indicated by current programs. Presently, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft is exploring the fringe areas of technical knowledge in magnetohydrodynamics ... thermionics and thermo-electric conversions ... hyper. sonic propulsion ... fuel cells and nuclear pOlVer. To help move tomorrow closer to today, we continually seek ambitious young engineers and scientists. Your degree? It can be in: MECHANICAL. AERO- NAUTICAL. ELECTRICAL. CHEMICAL and NUCLEAR ENGINEERING D PHYSICS. CHEMISTRY. METALLURGY. CERAMICS. MATHE. MATICS • ENGINEERING SCIENCE or APPLIED MECHANICS. The field still broadens. The challenge grows greater. And a future of recognition and advancement may be here for you. F?r further information regarding an engineering career at Pratt & W~itney Aircraft, consult your college placement officer or wnte to Mr. R. P. AZlnger, Engineering Department, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford 8, Conn. PRATT & WHITNEY AIRCRAFT Division of United Aircraft Corporation CONNECTICUT OPERATIONS East Hartford. Connecticut FLORIDA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER Palm Beach County. Florida All "" t "th ut regard to race. creed. color qualified applicants will receive consideration for employmen WI 0 or national origin. THE DIGITAL COMPUTER ITS APPLICATION TO SYSTEMS ANALYSIS by John L. Wirth a graduate student Although the abilities of the digital By and large, most of the program- The formulation procedure current- computer have been somewhat over- ming done to date has been restricted ly under development begins with two exaggerated by popular journalism, to applying computer methods of solu- essential pieces of information; (1) some of the results achieved through tion to the same mathematical models the interconnection pattern of the com- the use of the computer have been that one would use if he were doing ponents and (2) the measured char- nonetheless remarkable. For example, the problem by hand. Although sub- acteristics of each of the components. a noted manufacturer of steam turbines stantial progress has been, and still The first step in the formulation of has programmc.d a computer to calcu- can be made in this direction, major the system model is to reduce the in- late not only the shape of the turbine savings in both programming and formation contained in the intercon. blades to meet a given specification, computation time can be realized by but also to produce a punched paper nection pattern of the components to (1) using formulation methods which tape which directs automatic machin- two sets of relatively simple algebraic result in a mathematical model speci- ery to construct the blades. equations relating the component ter- fically suited to solution by computer minal variables. These equations are Another company has written a techniques, and (2) by expanding the referred to as the circuit and segre- computer program which, when given range of applicability of future com- puter programs. gate equations and, for example, are the topology of a lumped parameter a mathematical statement of the fact mechanical system, i.e., the arrange- In the interest of these two objec- that the sum of the displacements ment of s p r in g s, masses and dash tives, many of the engineering con- around a closed circuit is zero and the pots, etc., calculates the complete cepts and procedures required in the sum of the forces at a point is zero. transient or frequency response for the analysis and design of such systems It has been found that the two sets of system. as electrical networks, discrete me. equations apply in general to a.1 ap- Still another firm uses a general chanical and hydraulic systems, trusses, propriately developed "graph" of any purpose program to determine the airframes, etc., have been re-evaluated. physical system of discrete compon- stresses existing in the individual Among other things, this re-evaluation ents. members of a steel structure. The in- has shown that for analysis of physi- The second step in the process of put data for this program consists only cal systems can be roughly divided in- formulating a system model is to gen- of the geometry and interconnection to two parts; (1) formulating a math- erate a set of algebraic and! or differ. pattern of the beams, the type of steel ematical model of the system under ential equations, called terminal equa- being used, and the various loads on study and (2) obtaining a solution to tions, relating the terminal variables the structure. this mathematical model. of the component. This step in itself The computer programs cited here . Current .research is concerned spe- sometimes represents a significant re- are significant not because they repre- CIfically With developing procedures search effort when dealing with un- sent the solution of anyone particular for formulating mathematical models familiar components. However, for problem, but because they represent for systems of all types of discrete many of the components, such as t~e the solution to anyone of a gen- physical components. In order to take spring, vacuum tube or hydraulIC eral class of problems. It is in this full ad~anta?~. of modern computers valve, these equations are well kno~n capacity that the digital computer is and theIr abIlities to obtain numerical and can be considered as the startIl1g of great value. In other words, once solutions, the mathematical model of point in the analysis. the analysis of a general class of prob- the system must be of certain forms. lems is completely understood and Traditionally the Electrical Engi- Further, if the process of formulating programmed on the computer, this neer has effected a partial solution of the system model itself is to be ca;- class of problems can, in a manner the circuit, segregate and component r!ed out by the computer, the formula- of speaking, be forgotten. One need terminal equations in such a way as to tIOn procedure must also be extremely only provide the computer with a generate what are called the mesh or preCISe, well defined and very orderly relatively simple specification of the node equations. While the mesh and -the computer can only follow a node equations represent effective. and problem and the sol uti 0 n follows predefined set of rules, it cannot convenient models to use as a baSIS of automatically. "think." (Coll/iIlNed 011 Page 34) 26 Spartan Engineer How many of his dreams do you share.? This tam man get s paid .. for dreaming. He seeks out new questions to ask, new goals to aim ' at. HIs ... insights shape the course of arrow's technology. i Are you r ead y to put aside easy answers and help establish new parameters of knowledge? Then come to Northrop. Work t:~UCh uncluttered areas as space guidance and astro-inertial navigation systems, aerospace deceleration and landing sys. Wids, man-machine and life.support systems for space, laminar flow control techniques, automatic test equipment or world- y e communications systems. With more than 70 such advanced projects on the boards, you'll find all the creative challenge au could ask for Formores peci,~,. Calif IC Information, write to Northrop Corp., Box 1525, Beverly H'II I s, " and mention your field of special interest. You will receive a prompt reply. NORTHROP AN EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER ON TEST • ~arley A. Cloud (B.S.E.E., Penn State '58) is a group leader In the. development of simulation testing equipment for a new airborne computer which IBM is building for the Air Force. TRIPS THROUGH THE STRATOSPHERE WITHOUT LEAVING THE GROUND A computer will be the heart of the navigation and control systems for future aircraft designed to operate in the stratosphere. Such a computer is now being built by IBM for an advanced aircraft under development for the Air Force. Harley Cloud, an IBM engineer, is developing simulation equipment which will put the computer through its paces. His equipment will simulate the systems functions encountered by the 250-ton aircraft at Mach 3, fourteen miles up, with poten. tial adversaries in wait. Without the airplane leaving the ground, his testing equip. ment will simulate such inputs to the computer as accelera- tion in the inertial system, velocity in the doppler radar, and , air pressure in the air data subsystem. These simulation techniques will help protect lead time for the entire project. Responsibilities Are Large. As a group leader, he is direct. ing the design, laboratory breadboarding, electrical draft. ing, testing and evaluation of this ingenious equipment. It's a very responsible job for a man out of school less than four years. I But age is no barrier to advancement in IBM. In the fast. moving world of data systems, it is ideas and the ability to do the job that count. And fresh new ideas and abilities are always welcomed at IBM -whether in development, reo search, manufacturing, or programming. If you feel you might be interested in one of these fields associated with data systems at IBM, you might discuss it with the IBM representative. Your placement office can make an appointment. All qualified applicants will be con- sidered for employment without regard to race, creed, color IBM or national origin. Or you may write, outlining your back- ground and interests, to: Manager, Technical Employment IBM Corporation, Dept. 893 590 Madison Avenue New York 22. N. Y. @ You naturally have a better chance to grow with a growth company. Thermoelectricity Ever increasing demand for thermocouples by Joe Strbik Before 1970 you may be able to to crowd to the cool end, where they To provide the stated amount of heat your home in the winter, cool it build up as an electric charge. water, the system must operate 10 in the summer, and provide your own hours a day for only 250 days o.f the electricity. Millions of people in un- Joining together two materials which year. This leaves a safety margin .of derdeveloped areas of the world can differ in the magnitude of this effect, about one-third of the year to provide have new hope for an improved stand- and heating their junction, causes a for cloudy weather, when the solar- ard of living. continuous flow of electrons through thermoelectric g en era tor would not an electrical device connected to the This prospect flows from the now operate. cool end of the pair of materials. rapid advance of thermoelectricity; the The solar-thermoelectric system uses direct transformation of heat energy Westinghouse Electric Corporation an eight-foot saucershaped (parabolic) into electricity, and the reciprocal has taken these basic ideas and have mirror which gathers the sunl.ight and transformation of electrical energy into built a prototype of a self-contained heat and work. focuses it on the thermoelectnc gener. electric power plant and pumping unit. ator. The generator is a metal box Thermoelectricity is not new, in The power plant has a 50-watt output. It was developed in cooperation with about eight inches on a side a~d abo~t fact, it is just as old as the electromag- two inches thick. One face IS black, netic effects upon which electrical tech- the Solar Energy laboratory of the to more efficiently absorb the heat of nology is based. University of Wisconsin. The experi- mental unit taps the heat energy of the sunlight shining upon it. In the year 182t, Thomas Seebeck sunlight and converts it directly into Another experiment carried out by announced his observation that a mag- electricity by means of a thermoelectric Westinghouse is the development of netic needle held near a circuit made generator. The power generated drives a small electric (thermae Iect n'c) out. up of two different conductors, is an electric motor which in turn drives board motorboat motor. It uses bottled deflected when part of the circuit is a waterpump. The motor and water- heated . gas for a heat source, and a thermoi pump contain the only moving parts electric generator converts the heat. . . w hlch ° For a century the marvelous possi- in the whole irrigation system. the flame directly into electnClty, bilities of thermoelectricity remained in turn drives a standard trolling motor A larger solar-thermoelectric system, asleep. But, in 1926, a U. S. engineer that drives a twelve foot boat. scaled up from the 50-watt version, named Lars O. Grondahl showed that is now under development and has Not only could this thermocouple an oxidized copper plate conducts an been operated at part power. It will electric current easily in one direction, generator run the bo~t for th~ fi~h~~: pump enough water from a depth of man, but it could provide electric hg but offers a very high resistance in 20 feet to irrigate approximately four ing for his remote campsight. the other direction. It was next found acres of land at the rate of 24 inches that if such a plate is heated, a CUrrent As can be seen the solar-thermo' is produced. of water a year. This is about the average annual amount of precipita- e Iectnc.. generator IS' a sImp, . Ie reliable, . Essentially a thermoelectric conduc- tion in Minneapolis, Minn., or Hono- maintenance free, static system, requIr- tor is an electron pump which uses ing little technical skill to install or lulu, Hawaii. The unit can supply the heat energy as its driving force. Heat- keep running. In the years to corne, personal needs of 1200 people on the '" . to become ing one end of a thermoelectric ma- t h ermoe IectnClty IS gomg basis of five gallons of water per person . our terial causes the electrons within it more and more important In per day. society. 30 Spartan Engm • eer THE BELL TELEPHONE COMPANIES SALUTE: BILL PIGOTT Six years ago Bill Pigott graduated from college with an Bill Pigott of Pacific Northwest Bell Telephone Company, engineering degree. Today he is responsible for the and the other young engineers like him in Bell Telephone performance of 12 microwave relay stations, numerous Companies throughout the country, help bring the finest communications cables, and other equipment. He also communications service in the world to the homes and supervisesthe work of some sixty transmission specialists. businesses of a growing America. @ BELL TELEPHONE COMPANIES "I've been an engineer with Texaco for Over three years now. Hard work? You betl But it's a challenge-and interesting work, too. As a member of a team assigned to a special project, I'm learning every day, and feel that I'm really contributing. I've found Texaco a good company to be with-a leader in the industry." Build a rewarding career for yourself with Texaco. There are excellent opportunities for young men with any of a wide variety of engineering or science d~eg:ees. Contact YOur placement office or write Mr. J. C. Kiersted, Texaco Inc., 135 East 42nd it Street, New York 17, N. Y. Your inquiry will receive prompt and careful consideration ••.. Qualified applicants will receive Consideration for employment without regard to race, creed, color or national onglO • 32 Spartan Eng•lOeer PUT THE ATOM TO WORK the power and propulsion systems of the next • This is just the kind of challenge Allison scientists and engineers like to "get their generation. To this end, our atomic scientists and teeth into." engineers draw upon such extensive, modem With major research and engineering ef- facilities as physical chemistry, solid-state fort focused on the field of nuclear energy physics, radio-isotope, infra-red, fluid dy- conversion, Allison has several nuclear pro- namics, rocket propulsion and metallurgical jects currently in progress, including; laboratories; a vacuum chamber which simu- An exceptionally mobile, lightweight, com- lates pressures at altitudes in excess of 200 pact reactor which can produce from 2,000 miles; a liquid metal loop; analog and digital computers, and numerous other research to 3,000 kilowatts ... tools. These effortS and facilities are further A nuclear rocket engine to laun"ch large backed-up by every resource General Motors payloads into earth orbit, propulsion for possesses. manned space vehicles ... As nuclear technology advances, Allison A nuclear powered thermally Regenerative will continue proping new forms of energy Fuel Cell to light small cities, power mag- conversion in the search for improved forms netohydrodynamic devices, submarines and of propulsion and power. In short, we take all energy sources to be space platforms ... our starting point, as reflected in our guiding We expect these programs now in the re- theme: search phase to have broad applications in ~. ~~ ALLISON Energy Conversion is Our Business DIVISION GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION DIGITAL COMPUTER not only take a day or more to solve across the ground until the motor by hand, but e\'en when cobmp.leted, burned out. (Conlin lied frol/1 Page 26) the answer would probably e. 111 er- This is a fairly extreme example, analytical studies based on the Laplace ror either because of an error In for- But a small amount of pitch or yaw transform, they are not generally ac- mulation or solution or both. Thus, can soak up a large percentage of ceptable for computer solution. To ob- through the use of the comput~r one energy, consequently reducing the tain a solution of the system model has essentially acquired a new k1l1~ of rockets altitude and range. by computer methods, it is expedient, ability-one which has a very dlr:ct if not necessary, that the system equa- and real bearing on the type of actIv- There are several ways in which a tions be in what is call normal form, ity an engineer of today and tomor- positive stability ~onditi~n can be ob. i.e., of the form row is inYolved in. tained. The first IS to bnng the center With this new kind of ability not of gravity forward by adding to or dx' _I dy = fi (x"x", ... , xn' y) only can the traditional engineering redistributing the weight of the nose problems be solved automatically but cone. But this is difficult to do without for i = I, 2, '" n their same general methods of so.lu- adding a lot of weight, since the fuel tends to force the center of gravity tion can be applied to problems which This is of particular importance to the rear of the rocket body. are of several orders of magnitude when the system equations are non- more complex. Of equal or perha~s Another way is to bring the center linear. more importance is the fact that thiS of pressure as far back as p.ossibleby Methods for formulating the system new ability enables us to use many of increasing the fin area. ThIS method model in normal form are now known the techniques of analysis and solu- is effective up to a point. Beyond thiS for all types of linear systems and tion developed in mathematics which point, additional fin area does ?ot add certain classes of nonlinear systems. have not been used heretofore in en- to the stability, but actually mer,ease One phase of current research is di- gineering analysis because of the ex- the drag forces. A good approxlma. rected at extending the range of ap- treme amounts of numerical calcula- tion of the minimum fin area reqUired plication of these methods to include tion they require. Thus, by using the can be found from the following for. the more general nonlinear cases. computer, the general class of solv- mula, originally published in the book able problems can also be significantly Rockel Afallllal fo/' Al/1alwrs by Cap. To the extent that they are known, expanded. the formulation procedures are also tain B. Brinley of the U. S. Army. currently being programmed for the The formula is digital computer. However, more than A = (d + 0.5) X L a year will be required to complete SMALL MISSILE 6 this phase of the project. In the mean- where: A is the individual fin area, time, certain phases of the program (Coll/illlled frol/1 Page 23) d is the outside diameter of are complete and are currently in use the rocket. the rocket to rotate on its center of as an analysis tool. This tool exists in L is the length of the rocket gravity, thereby reducing the pitching the form of a compiler type program including the instrument and yawing motion of the rocket. which enables the user to obtain a section. solution to a set of simultaneous or- As the rocket body again assumes dinary differential equations in normal a zero angle of attack, the steering The width of each fin should be form without becoming involved in forces also approach zero. But due to greater than 1.25 times . the diameter extensive programming time and a small amount of angular velocity, of the rocket body. Actually the a. labor. the rocket body swings across the mount of fin area reqUIre . d for stable flight path, producing an angle of flight is not very great. Upon completion of the project, the attack in the opposite direction. Steer- program will both formulate and solve In most amateur rockets, a comb ina- ing forces are created in order to bring the system model. That is, given a tion of these pnnlClp ... 1es are used to the angle of attack to zero and stabilize simple statement of the interconnec- obtain positive stability. the flight. This produces an oscillatory tion pattern of the components and thei r characteristics, the solution will motion as the rocket travels along the Another common way use d to in. h flight path. The oscillatory motion crease stabl '1'Ity IS . t h e Spl'nning of t . e be furnished automatically by the computer. gradually decays due to dampening rocket around its longitudinal ~~~ forces. One disadvantage exists in rega~ There is considerably more at stake .. 1I1strumentatlon. Most e I e ctronlC be or As a good illustration of what a here than just being able to solve au- photographic equipment cann~hen negative stability condition can do, the tomatically the same problems that used for external measurements following example of an experiment can be solved by hand. Although a high rate of spin is used. theoretically nothing can be solved on by the author is pointed out. A small missile was fired from a launching A more mathematlCa . I d'tSCU ssion ofI a computer that cannot be solved by rack in a near vertical position. This the above principles IS ... gl\'en In severa hand, this is not born out by practice. For example, the problem of formu- particular model was weighted so that of the books listed below. lating and solving twenty simultane- the center of pressure was Y2 inch --- B In!ro- ous algebraic equations can be carried forward of the center of gravity. When Feodosiev. V. I. and Siniarev, t,nd~'n. A,a- duction to Rocket Technology, out by a modern computer in one sec- launched, the rocket immediately be- demic Press. 1959. Amateurs. ond or less. This same problem would gan to describe a series of spirals about Brinley, B. R.. Rocket Mankal ~orc 1960. New York. Ballentine Boo s, .n " London. 50 feet in diameter. Finally, it skidded BurKess. Eric. Rocket PropulSIOn, 34 Chapman & Hall, Ltd .. 1952. . eer Spartan Engln Hydrofoil ships ...another engineering challengel sea Such a. r evo Iu t'lOnary concept in lifted aloft by a set of underwater the load of the ship. another -gOIngma' design or hrepresents II still wings. An engineering career, such as day's . J c a enge for to- Through the intensive research metallurgy, is full of challenges. carefulengllleers and '. Th roug h th. elr. of the metallurgical engineer will Exciting new designs - gas-tur- this hydrofoil cr~a tI ~e planlll ng, come a metal for these hydrofoils, bined cars, nuclear-powered ships, the dr' ShIP WIll move from stronlT and touO'h enough to stand monorail transit systems-all will such aWmg board to reality. One up to difficult uOnderwater service. be in your range of exploration, ment v:ssel, now under develop- A metal which will resist corro- affording you a great opportunity miles' IS planned to travel 100 sive attack by the coursing brine, for advancement in a profession the t an hour. It will skim over cavitation from the seething tur- that promotes progress and ops of waves like a flying fish, bulence, stresses and strains from economic growth. Th,r ~ INTERNATIONAL NICKEL _prOdn;::;~~ional Ni~kel Company, Inc., is the U.S. affiliate of The International Nickel ~ompany of .Canada, Limited (I~co-Canada) Inco NIckel, Copper, Cobalt, Iron Ore, Tellerium, Selenium, Sulfur and Platinum, PalladIUm and Other PrecIous Metals. January, 1962 35 Engineers who qualify to fill these chairs ... are on the road to filling responsible ;Ob5 with a growing company in a growing industry • American Air Filter Company is one of the world's FORMAL THREE-MONTH TRAINING COURSE pionccrs in the field of "better air." Starting in 1929 as a manufacturer of air filtration equipment only, it has, through Your first job at AAF will be to complete a fuII three-month a planned program of product development, attained the Course in its technical training school. This is a compI~t,e unique position of being the one company in its industry and carefully planned course covering every phase of t IS that can take the complete over-all approach to the customer's business of better air and is under the direction of Mr. Jame~ air problems. In brief, this means supplying and coordinating W. May, a recognized authority on air handling problem~~~ all the proper products to filter, cool, heat, clean (control presently a member of the board of directors of ASH . process dust), move, exhaust, humidify and dehumidify air. Classes, held in special, air conditioned quarters, are sup- "Beller Air", while a big business today, is still in its plemented by field trips to visit AAF plants and observe infancy. Name any industry, any building type, and you have on-the-job applications of equipment. a present or potential user of AAF equipment. Other well- known trade names in the AAF family are Herman Nelson, YOUR FUTURE IS ALL-IMPORTANT TO AAF Kennard and Illinois Engineering. At present, AAF operates AAF prides itself on attempting to match the man to thte nine plants in Louisville, Moline, 111.,Morrison, III., Rock Island, 111.,St. Louis, and Montreal, Canada. job. During your training period you will have contae s with key ~ompan~ personn~1. Your personal, desir~s as to ~Pi~ THIS kIND OF ••• QUALIFIES YOU FOR and locatIon of Job are given every conSideratIon. AAh ENGINEERING DEGREE••• THIS kiND OF JOB big enough to provide opportunities galore-small e~oug , to 't 't never lose sight of the pers