NO. JANUARY, 1954 Only STEEL can do so many jobs so well World's Largest Double Swing-Span Bridge. The George I'. Coleman Memorial Bridge spans the deep swift York River between historic York- town and Gloucester Point, Va. Two 500-foot •wing spans, each weighing 1,300 tons, pivot hori- zontnlly on piers 44 feet in diameter, swinging open simultaneously to provide a 450-foot free- way that can accommodate the passage of even the largest vessel. This 3,750-foot-long bridge was fabricated and erected by U. S. Steel. OPPORTUNITIES WITH U. S. STEEL If you're thinking about what you're going to do after graduation . . . . if you're interested in a challenging, rewarding position with a progres- sive company . . then it will pay you to look into the opportunities with United States Steel. Your placement director can give you more details, or we'll be glad to send you the in- formative booklet, "Paths of Oppor- tunity." United States Steel Corpo- ration, 525 William Penn Place, Pittsburgh 30, Pa. Landing at Sea. When a fighter pilot lands his plane on a flattop, one of his biggest prob- Ready tO ROII. Trains move faster to- lems is stopping the plane. To help him, a hook day, they carry heavier loads, they cover attached near the plane's tail engages one of longer distances. This puts a premium the galvanized wire cables, mounted on spring on durability and safety in the wheels brackets, that stretch across the deck. The re- they roll on. U. S. Steel has been mak- siliency of the cable, plus the bracket action, ing wrought steel wheels for 47 years, helps the plane to stop promptly and safely. has helped to bring the art of wheel- making to its present high level. UNITED For further information on STAT I EEL This trade-mark is your guide to quality steel S AMERICAN BRIDGE • AMERICAN STEEL 8 WIRE and CYCLONE FENCE • COLUMBIA r F u p T , " " ^ """^ " " e " S"el 525 W"Uam Penn Place- P ^ b u r « h 30- ^ OIL WELL SUPPLY • TENNESSEE COAL 8 IRON • UNITED STATES STEEL P R O D U C T S , , ^ ^ ' C ° N S ° L I D A T E I ) " ™ ™ STEEL • GERRARD STEEL STRAPPING • NATIONAL UNITED STATES STEEL HOMES, INC. • UNION SUPPLY COMPANY • MN'ITF ^ ^ " ^ ^ ' ^ ' DMt"">> ° ' UNITED STATES STEEL CORPORAl UNITED STATES STEEL EXPORT COMPANY • UNIVERSAL ATLAS CEMENT COMPANY NEW DOW Technical Library • ENABLES EMPLOYEES TO FURTHER STUDIES These modern facilities provide an extremely wide range of scientific material including current information on all fields of research The desire to provide complete technical knowledge for In addition to published material, the library also furnishes Dow personnel, together with intelligent planning, has an index of all research work conducted by all divisions produced at Midland, Michigan, one of the most compre- of The Dow Chemical Company. hensive of all industrial libraries. This modern, air-con- This new library is but one example of Dow's efforts to ditioned structure contains over 35,000 books and over offer the finest facilities for work and recreation to its 600 magazines. New books are added regularly, and both employees, THE DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY, Midland, Michigan. wreign and domestic abstracts are made available. Most of the material is highly technical. The most extensive Dole's Booklet "Opportunities With The Dow Chemical coverage is given to material in the fields of chemistry, Company", especially written for those about to enter the chemical profession, is available free, upon request. electrochemistry, biochemistry, agricultural chemistry, Write to The Dow Chemical Company, Technical chemical engineering, physics and nuclear physics. Employment, Midland, Michigan. YOU can depend on DOW CHEMICALS January 1954 Richard J. Conway, Lehigh '51, selects Manufacturing Engineering at Worthington RICHARD CONWAY checks lulling tool with machinist before milling a pump casing. After completing his general training which brought him in chinists and many others throughout the company. contact with all departments, Richard J. Conway decided that "I have contributed to the solution of many problems han- manufacturing engineering was his field. He says, "I chose the dled by this department including metal spraying, machining Manufacturing Engineering Department after completing my procedures, purchasing new equipment and designating proper general training at Worthington because as a graduate in In- dimensions to obtain desired fits between mating parts. dustrial Engineering I can learn the practical aspects of my "I enjoy my work because I'm doing the work I want and field while applying theory I learned in college. my formal education is being supplemented with practical "The personnel of this department work together as a team knowledge gained from the tremendous wealth of knowledge toward the solution of the numerous problems which arise available to me at Worthington. I know from personal contact daily. We have the cooperation of all other departments in the with many other departments in the Corporation that Wor- corporation in getting the necessary facts pertinent to the solu- thington can and will find their young engineers a spot which tion of these problems. In the course of our day it may be will give them the same opportunities as have been afforded me." necessary for us to meet the Plant Manager, Chief Engineer, Comptroller, several department heads, clerks, foremen, ma- When you're thinking of a good job, think high—think Worthington. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION, see your College Placement Bureau or write to the Personnel and Training WORTHINGTON Department, Worthington Corporation, Harrison, N. J. The S i g n of Value Around the World Spartan Engineer A MESSAGE TO COLLEGE ENGINEERING STUDENTS from R. S. Kersh, Vice-President, Northeastern Region, Westinghouse Electric Corporation To the young engineer eager for a sales career Show me an engineer with a friendly attitude, and an departments of our customers. He is a highly important eagerness to help people solve their problems and I'll and valued professional man. show you a good sales engineer. What are the opportunities at Westinghouse for a young There's nothing mysterious about this job of being a man eager for a career in sales? They are just about what sales engineer. To apply the products of his company you want to make them! This company's 30 divisions to his customers' needs, he must be a good engineer. make over 3,000 products, totaling over %V/2 billion in sales annually. Westinghouse is looking to the future To gain the confidence of his customers he must be a with a vast expansion program. We are a fast-growing good salesman. This means simply that he should have company in the dynamic field of electrical energy. an inquisitive nature, the desire to help others, and the If your sights are set on a sales career, I am sure you quality of enthusiasm. will find the training and opportunity you seek with The Westinghouse sales engineer works with our . G-10272 des ign engineers, production engineers and engineering Westinghouse. For information on career opportunities with Westinghouse, consult Placement Officer of your University, or send for YOU CAN BE S U R E . . . I F IT'S our 34-page book, Finding Tour Place in Industry. Write: Mr. R. A. Warren, Regional \\festin0house Educational Co-ordinator, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, 306 Fourth Ave., Pittsburgh 30, Pennsylvania. Jonuary 1954 A D E S I G NI N 8 logical way — to a promising future I A RECENT SURVEY shows that many of today's Jtx. leading engineers and industrial executives walked through this door to start their careers. In fact, the majority of all leading positions in auto- mobile engineering are held by men whose basic training was in designing—one of the best paths for the young man who wants an engineering career. And if you want to be an automotive engineer you can't find a better place to start than with Pontiac. Experienced engineers stand ready and anxious to help young men with fresh ideas tackle problems that when solved will mean still finer and more dependable cars. Here's a company you can grow with, a company that offers a future limited only by your own ability. It's a very logical way to a career based on oppor- tunity and advancement and liberal compensation plus General Motors employment benefits. Pontiac's huge new engineering building is one of the industry's most modern—with every conceivable facility for designing better and better Pontiacs. PONTIAC MOTOR DIVISION . PONTIAC, MICHIGAN G E N E R A L M O T O R S C O H , O B AT I O N Spartan Engineer EDITOR PHIL SANFORD BUSINESS MANAGER LEE MAH ASSOCIATE EDITOR ARTICLES TOM CLARK 11 Introducing: Dr. Potter ASSISTANT EDITOR ALICE JACOBSON 12 A Challenge to Leaders PHOTOGRAPHER AND PHOTO EDITOR 13 Creep in Metals RAY STEINBACH 75 Years of Electric Railroading NEWS EDITOR HARLOW NELSON 18 An Interview: Dr. R. A. Smith FEATURE EDITOR 20 High Voltage Electric Power Transmsision BRUCE HARDING 24 Special Instruments Measure WASHO Road ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER Test Data JOHN ROOD 26 Electricity for Better Living ADVERTISING MANAGER BILL BARTLEY 28 The Therouxs PROMOTION MANAGER JOE MEYERS FEATURES CIRCULATION MANAGER 29 New Developments DOUG COULTER STAFF 34 Clubs and Societies ROBERT G. KITCHEN 40 The Engineering Exposition JAMES A. GUSACK AL SUMMERS 47 Author's Page » JIM JOHNSTON 55 Index to Advertisers EUGENE SPELLER EMORY GEISZ 55 Feature Page TOM AYRES 56 Sidetracked MADELYN FERGUSON ZIGURDS J. LEVENSTEINS I hv the students of the SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING, DICK TOMPKINS U sVATT SCOLLtbt COLLGE y Eas STATE tast ans'ng y, Michigan. The office is on the third |on 2 5 , E n t e r e d a s xcond doss RALPH POWELL t the Post Of in Lon , n ^ Michigan, under the act of March 3, 1879. at t ^ ™ f £ p 0 . Box 468, East Loosing, M.ch.gan ADVISORS Publishers representative Littell-Murray-Barnhill, Inc. D. D. McGRADY 101 Park Avenue, New York 605 W Michigan Avenue, Chicago PAUL G. GRAY Subscription rate by mail $100 per year. Single copies 25 cents W. E. LIBBY January 1954 • Wallace L. Carr was graduated from the Uni- In jet cells, it is necessary to simulate all en- versity of Illinois with a B.S. degree in Electrical gine controls that appear in a jet plane, pi"8 Engineering in 1951. After a short time with a other controls which are necessary to check and large electric utility—where he was Junior En- evaluate engine performance ... operating tem- gineer in substation design—he came to Allison perature . . . acceleration . . . speed . . . f"e' where he is presently Electrical Engineer in the consumption . . . oil flow, etc. plant engineering department, Aircraft Engine Operations. Electronic control of important functions of jet engine operation has made the electrical Wally's job in this department varies from portion of test cell operation a complex and designing plant, lighting, and power layouts, fascinating problem for the Electrical Engineer- and machinery electrical diagrams to electrical Allison, a leader in the field of turbine en- and instrumentation layouts of turbo-jet and prop-jet test cells. With a multimeter, he is gines, offers unlimited opportunities to young shown above checking the thermocouple cir- graduates with degrees in Mechanical Engineer- cuits on the control panel in one of the Allison ing, Electrical Engineering, Aeronautical En- test cells. gineering and Industrial Engineering. Why not plan early for your engineering career at Allison- Y campus. Or wri e now T engnieernig career - * — • - * y~piacement Native the next time he visits your ^ e r i n a CCeae Contact, N - DIVISION GENERAL MOTORS RS CORPORATE . .ndianapo.L, •-* Design, development Design, development and and Drodurti Drodurti nn nn L- U L- U heavy heavy duty duty TRANSMISSIONS TRANSMISSIONS fforfor O inii-- Orrddn " S TC o"m T U R B I N E ENGINES for modern aircraft . - •• PARTS PARTS . . . PRECISION BEARINct PRECISION B E A R I t « ""^ '"ercial vehicles . . . DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE BEARINGS for a.rcraft, Diesel locomotives and special application- Spartan Engines Cross section of an electric drill showing Needle Bearings used on the intermediate shafts and on the spindle. Note tha t two of these bearings are the closed-end type which act as efficient and economical seals on shaft ends. TORRINGTON NEEDLE BEARINGS help make products more compact These days, design engineers have savings it affords. Its unique de- Bearings are press-mounted in to consider sales charts as well as sign—a thin hardened outer shell plain round housing bores—with- blueprints and specifications. retaining a full complement of out retaining rings or shoulders— Two portable electric drills, small diameter rollers—gives it housings can be made smaller and for example, may have the same maximum capacity in minimum lighter. The fact that Needle capacity, the same speed, the space. In fact, for its size and Bearings require no inner race same chucks and the same price, weight, the Needle Bearing can when running on hardened shafts yet one may outsell the other. carry higher radial loads than any results in further savings, without Factors like overall appearance, other type of anti-friction bearing. sacrificing capacity or durability. compactness, and light weight Needle Bearings are in use on Permits Reduction many other products where com- often contribute to product pactness and light weight are im- success. in Size and Weight portant design factors. Aircraft, Unique Design of Related Parts small gasoline engines, hydraulic Promotes In the electric drill shown here pumps and materials handling equipment are just a few of the Compact Designs the small size of the Needle Bear- products that utilize the Needle The Torrington Needle Bearing ing permits close shaft center Bearing's high capacity and small has been used in many products distances to make for overall size to good advantage. because of the weight and space compactness. And, since Needle THE TORRINGTON COMPANY Torrington, Conn. • Sooth Bend 21, Ind. District Offices and Distributors in Principal Cities of United States and Canada rCYLINDRICAL v i l N D R I C A l ROLL* ROLLER • BALL • NEEDLE ROLLERS NEEDLE . SPHERICAL ROLLER • TAPERED ROLLER January 1954 Editorially Speaking If you are a graduating senior engineer, your fifth step is going to be in one of two directions! Let's suppose you are just an average senior, maybe not much different from the fellow that sits next to you in most of your classes. If you are, then this is what your fifth step will be: Being just an ordinary guy, your first worry after gradua- tion is going to be: When is Uncle Sam going to call me into the service? Your second and last worry is landing an engineering job. That's about the way YOUR fifth step will stack up. Sure, you're an engineer; you don't have to worry about a job, too much. If you are not a veteran and are physically fit, you already have a job in the service for a few years. Now, on the other hand, didn't Jim come to class this morning with a suit on because he said that he was taking an interview for a job after graduation? Jim is just an ordinary senior like yourself, but why is he wasting his time taking interviews? Jim is just taking his fifth step in the other direction. Jim's first worry is getting that engineering job; his second concern is Uncle Sam. This is the way Jim puts it: "After I am discharged from the service, it isn't going to be easy to get a job without the help of the placement bureau. By taking my interviews and getting that job now, I will be getting some seniority and I'll have a job guaranteed for me with the company of my choice when I am discharged." Maybe Jim's got something there. How ARE you going to go about getting a job after you are discharged? If you didn't take any interviews at all while you were in college, you probably won't have any professional contacts or references. It may also be difficult to get a job a few years from now, when an increased number of engineering graduates will be competing for jobs. How about it now? In which direction are you going to take your fifth step? Are you going to wait until you're discharged from the service to try to get a job? Or are you going to take your interviews and get that job now, so that you won't have to worry about it later? Spartan Engine*' Engineering Planning, Design and Construction The development and economic utilization of progressive engineering methods to make possible the continued expansion of industry and modern electrical living. 5 paths • Power System Engineering The application of proved engineering principles to the problems of operating the equipment used in the production, to your transmission and distribution of electric power. success at • Sales and Customers Service The promotion of increased sales by help- ing the consumer make the best use of the energy he buys, and by showing him how to let electricity do more of his jobs. DETROIT Research EDISON The investigation of problems which daily face any part of the production, distri- bution or sale of electricity, and making recommendations for their solution. • Business Management The coordination of problems related to Company finance, materials, property and personnel for the efficient operation of the electric business. Se a r e t n e five Danv It is foresighted, too. For example, Detroit Edison ffr,j Principal channels through which eneineers are working with Dow Chemical Company as graduates may advance at The Detroit Edison Company. se b r o a d one of the nation's industrial atomic research teams nnJv OnS a11 w o r k headings are hundreds of different mi=!r! ~ ing together for the best interests of investigating the use of nuclear heat in thermal electric customer, employe, and investor. generating plants, to produce electric power even more efficiently. When a graduate joins The Detroit Edison Company, There's a future for graduates at The Detroit Edison e is assured every opportunity to fit into the job he likes Company-a career opportunity best described by the aHvV" ' o n c e t h e r e > h e knows he will be encouraged to fact that many of the executives in the organization at this time began their climb to success in positions similar uvance as rapidly as his ability and energy will carry him. to those offered graduates today. etroit Edison is a fast-growing electric utility com- The DETROIT EDISON Company 2000 SECOND AVENUE DETROIT 26, MICHIGAN January 1954 THE H Y D R O S T A T I C TEST N o b o d y can buy a length of cast iron pipe cast iron pipe installed today will live up to or exceed unless it has passed the Hydrostatic Test at the foundry. service records such as that of the 130-year-old pipe Every full length of cast iron pipe is subjected to this shown. test under water pressures considerably higher than rated working pressures. It must pass the test or go Cast iron pipe is the standard material for water to the scrap pile. and gas mains and is widely used in sewage works construction. Send for booklet, "Facts About Cast The Hydrostatic Test is the final one of a series of Iron Pipe." Address Dept. C , Cast Iron Pipe Research routine tests made by pipe manufacturers to assure Association, T. F. Wolfe, Engineer, 122 So. Michigan that the quality of the pipe meets or exceeds the re- Ave., Chicago 3, Illinois. quirements of standard specifications for cast iron pressure pipe. Few engineers realize the extent of the inspections, analyses and tests involved in the quality-control of cast iron pipe. Production controls start almost liter- ally from the ground up with the inspection, analysis and checking of raw materials—continue with con- stant control of cupola operation and analysis of the melt—and end with inspections and a series of accept- ance and routine tests of the finished product. Members of the Cast Iron Pipe Research Associa- tion have established and attained scientific standards resulting in a superior product. These standards, as well as the physical and metallurgical controls by which they are maintained, provide assurance that Section of 130-year-old east iron water main still in service in Philadelphia, Pa. CAST IRON WPI 7 4 SERVES FOR CENTURIES 10 Spartan Engines INTRODUCING Dr. Andrey A. Potter Warmth, sincerity, friendship . . . and much more . . . There are people who radiate a kind of glow when you meet them. What constitutes that glow—warmth, sincerity, friendship—whatever it is, no one can say for certain. But we at Michigan State College can say that among us we have at least one such person. That person is Dr. Andrey A. Potter. Dr. Potter, technically, is consultant to college president John A. Hannah in charge of the school of engineering. But as he himself says, his job more specifically is to select a successor to Lorin G. Miller, who retired as dean of engineering here last July, and to "give the engineering staff and administration the benefit of his experience in the field of engi- neering." Included in the experience Dr. Potter has had are three years spent working with the General Electric Company, 15 years at Kansas State College, and until his retirement last July, over 30 years as dean of the school of engineering at Purdue University. Also for the last thirty years, Dr. Potter has served as a con- sulting power engineer, and as he says, being a "sup- posed expert" on that subject, has written several books and over 300 articles and papers on power engineering, thermodynamics, and farm motors. Dr. Potter was born in Europe on August 5, 1882, arid came to the United States when he was 15. He entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and several instances in which some of his most outstand- was graduated from there in 1903 with a Bachelor ing students turned up in later years doing some- or Science degree. Since then, he has received honor- thing entirely unrelated to engineering. He particu- ary doctoral degrees from six universities and techni- cal institutions. larly delighted in recalling two cases in which engi- neering students became ministers, and one where Besides his work as an educator, Dr. Potter has the engineer became a priest. served the United States government almost continu- ously since 1936. He is a member and past officer About the college of engineering here at Michigan 0 several organizations devoted to engineering and State, Dr. Potter felt it to be a very good and improv- engineering education, and has twice been honored ing department. He especially lauded the faculty for or his outstanding service in these two fields. its excellence, and said he thought that the teaching Even with this long list of achievements to his staff here is among the finest in the country-. credit, however, Dr. Potter's main interest seems to Part of that excellence, we believe, has been due 3e in the young engineers trained by the institutions e to Dr. Potter's presence here at Michigan State has served. In talking about an engineering educa- n tor t o d College. Throughout his stay in East Lansing, he a° ay, Dr. Potter indicated his preference of ft86"!!™1 p r o g r a m o v e r a m o r e specialized one. Al- has met several times with the engineering faculty Ugh h e and staff, and has talked to a few of the student ne° disagrees with the idea that today's engi- en g art ? education might become tomorrow's liberal organizations. All concerned, we also feel certain, s > he does believe that the great demand for engi- have been left with the same feeling: that however ers re the . P valent in industry today is partially due to lcng Dr. Potter remains here, it will be a short-lived stud ^ t r a i n i n 8 program given to engineering aer >ts. To emphasize his point, Dr. Potter cited visit. January 1954 II II A challenge to leaders by: John Rood, E. E. '55 The Ida Beta Pi hall Initiation Prize Winning Essay A growing and expanding body of professional men PROFESSIONAL: requires great leadership and foresight. Engineering Pertaining to a calling or occupation requir- is B rapidly growing and expanding profession. Much ing a superior education. line leadership has been, and is now promoting and It seems to me that a superior education should not developing tibe interests of professional engineers. stop with the attainment of technical excellence. Some In the Future, this growing field will need new lead- basic principles of human interaction need to be ers, have new goals, and maintain still higher stand- understood in order that professional leaders will ards ol achievement. Today's engineering students have a common knowledge of human relationships, bave .i responsibility to their chosen profession. Their just as engineers have a common knowledge of basic responsibility lies in developing their own skills and engineering practices. attitudes along lines which will strengthen and pro- Men who have a common ground of understand- mole their prolessinn. ing can communicate ideas and developments which I think it is appropriate to ask, what are the features stem from this common understanding. Thus the dl preparation which are most important in molding exchange of successful techniques will tend to improve an engineer who will make a significant contribution the quality of the leadership which these men can to the engineering profession? In other words, what impart to their profession. An understanding of man is the best wa\ to prepare engineering students for and his relationship to his social and physical en- responsible positions ot leadership in their profession? vironment is essential to a leader of any profession. The following quotation from the Michigan State Probably the first aspect of engineering training is College catalogue describes a line of study which the technical skill and knowledge which must be I think might provide some of this fundamental mastered by the student engineer. Great strides have knowledge of man. been made toward developing, not only highly tech- The sources for this study of man are drawn nical specialists, but men who also possess a general primarily from the fields of history, philosophy, understanding of basic engineering problems and prac- religion, literature, and the arts. . . . the course endeavors to enlarge and to tices in all branches of the profession. For instance, enrich the student's comprehension of his histori- knowledge of thi' principles of statics, dynamics, cal heritage, to deepen the degree of his intellec- Strength ol materials, surveying, chemistry, electric tual maturity, to enhance his sensitivity to humane values in all fields of man's thought and endeavor, Circuits and machinery, thermodynamics, machine to elevate his ethical outlook, and to make him shop and factory operation and drafting is an essen- intelligently aware of his own worth and dignity, tial part in the training of any engineer. These sub- nis obligations and responsibilities as an indi- vidual human being, jects, representing the major branches of engineering, also are a common denominator to engineers and are An effort is made to bring to the student more equally as important as the specialization which is ?k Vi * r t neSS of his role in social change in order promoted by individual departments. The need for tnat he may participate more effectively. specialized men who have an understanding of funda- The engineering profession needs leaders who are mental engineering practices has been foreseen and well equipped with the tools of human interaction; has received much attention in the engineering men who hold in common a knowledge of human rela- colleges. In addition to technical preparation for the tionships. These are the men who can give stable, engineering profession, I feel that there is another sagacious leadership to a profession which is steadily important aspect of preparation for leadership in the growing in importance to our present day culture. engineering profession which should receive atten- Men who can understand and enjoy the beauty of tion in engineering colleges. Perhaps a definition human relationships as well as the beauty of physical would be an appropriate way to introduce the line of achievement, will be the leaders of tomorrow's great thought which I wish to develop. body of professional engineers. This is the challenge to engineering students and thir educators. 12 Spartan Engines Creep in metals by: Zigurds J. Levenslcius. M. E. '54 Creep is a continuous, time dependent deformation of a material subjected to stress. Although the phe- nomenon of creep was known already by the ancients in observing the stretch of the unsupported lead pipes. it was not until the beginning of the Twentieth Cen- tury that creep attracted scientific investigation. The early workers in this field were Phillips who made observations with rubber, glass, and metal wires, and Andrade who studied the stretch of metal wires made of different pure metals. At that time it was thought that creep occurs only in soft metals, the hard ones, mainly steel, being free from it. For this reason it was neglected by engi- neers. However, the results published in 1922 from This also very well brings out the great dependence investigations by Dickenson showed that steel when the creep deformation has on stress and temperature. subjected to stress for a long period of time, espe- At low stresses and low temperatures secondary creep cially at elevated temperatures, fails by rupture at a much lower stress value than in a short-time tensile test at the same temperature. The increasing amount of applications of materials at high operating temperatures, for instance the de- velopment of the gas turbine, has made the creep phenomena extremely important to the design engi- neer. Therefore, much effort has been made in the last twenty-five years to study the properties of differ- ent alloys with respect to their creep resistance. The best proof of success in this work is the jet engine, T7MIC which would not be possible without good creep AT resistant materials. The largest part of the work of investigation has been in the practical field-develop- ment of new creep resistant alloys and determination of their properties, while the purely theoretical in- vestigation in the mechanism by which this type of plastic deformation occurs has been lagging. Characteristic Creep Curves The great number of creep tests conducted has established the fact that the creep deformation is a 'unction of time, stress, temperature, and material under test. If tests are conducted at constant load and constant temperature on various simple alloys, T/MS nen the data when graphed will give curves that all have certain features in common. An idealized curve is shown in Figure 1. Such a curve can be divided in four parts: an plays the most important part, while at high stresses lal ^tension, a decelerating creep rate stage, and high temperatures the creep curve practically generally called primary creep, an approximately consists only of the primary and the tertiary stages. nstant a° creep rate stage called secondary creep and Already the early investigators of creep at the be- stage with accelerating creep rate, leading to frac- ginning of this century observed that the creep defor- tur e called tertiary creep. mation consists of an initial extension followed by a continuous stretch of decreasing rate. The first syste- as , c ' u r a t i o n o r each stage is varied considerably matic and thorough investigation of creep of different Tn- e r * e stress or the temperature is changed, metals and alloys over a range of stresses and temper- p. l s is well illustrated in the graphs shown in atures was made by Andrade. The results were pub- J< 13 "nuary 1954 lished in 1910 and 1914. Andrade worked with creep is quasi viscous creep, which is now generally various pun- metals of different atomic space lattice used. types. From the t^r«-at number of creep curves of Figure 4 shows that the two creep components pure metals lie (bund that irrespective of their crystal add up to the usual creep curve. structure the relationship of the variables within the Investigated range could be expressed in a formula: lo, B and k are constants, lo being the length of the specimen immediately after loading, t is duration o! stress. \iiiliade also showed that this empirical relation- ship is due to two different types of flows occurring simultaneously in the material undergoing creep. One type is connected with the constant B. Considering the case when k o, the equation becomes: From Figure 3 it can be seen that the flow associated with the constant B or transient creep is more impor- tant at low stresses than at high. On the other hand, I he rate of creep is: at high stresses the quasi viscous flow becomes the dominant one. Andrade has shown that the same is true for temperatures; transient creep is more impor- tant at low temperatures, quasi viscous creep at high temperatures. This equation shows that as the time t becomes large, the creep rate decreases and eventually van- Other investigations made by Dushman, Dunbar ishes. This type of creep is called the transient creep. and Huthsteiner in the 1940's have shown that the relation between the creep rate u applied stress o and The other type of creep is connected with the absolute temperature T is following: constant k. [f B = o then: a and b are constants and y is a function of temper- The creep rate is: ature, but not of stress. At constant temperature the oil equation becomes: 7-cr The length 1 can be considered approximately C is a constant, and y is also a constant since the constant, since the extension is very small relative temperature is constant. to the length of the specimen. Therefore, the creep This relationship is quite similar to that developed rate can also he considered approximate]} constant. by Andrade some thirty years earlier. It indicates Andrade calls this type of flow viscous creep. How- that Andrade's early findings and conclusions were ever, the term is misleading since the viscous creep true. does not conform with the Newtonian viscosity that the flow is proportional to the stress. Andrade's results At constant temperature, therefore, the logarithm shown in Figure 3 prove this. of the creep rate is proportional to the stress, if the creep rate is measured in the quasi viscous stage of creep. This relationship is commonly used in inter- c ooo* : . 4 . . . / preting the creep test data. a 0GO2 Characteristics of Creep Deformation Much work has been done in recent years by creep o investigators in trying to establish the mechanism by which the creep deformation comes about. A great CO* ^—— deal of knowledge and understanding has been gained QO2. M in the transient creep phenomena, less is known about the quasi viscous stage and very little about the accel- erating tertiary creep. . a STRESS TO fi V/H/OOO 71.4 Dislocation Theory ' Of GOMSTAAITS i f AAfOB If the metal crystals had perfect atomic space WITH APPLJED J UEAO lattice, the metals would be 1000 to 10,000 times AT mov \ ^ig. 3 stronger than they actually are. The great theoretical For this reason the more proper term for vi strength is due to the fact that slip can only occur viscous " t h e for ces of all the atoms in the slip plane are 14 Spartan Engineer overcome at once. The theory of dislocation, which with such a frequency as to produce slip in the ci\stal, at present time is well accepted, suggests that only It has been proven that dislocation can move a few atomic forces are overcome at a time due to through the crystal lattice with a velocity that Is lattice imperfections. A dislocation is a defect in approximately the velocity of sound in the crystal. the periodicty of the atomic lattice. For instance, Also that the dislocations can be reflected at obstruc- if there are n atoms in one plane, there are n plus 1 tions. Thus the same dislocation can traverse the atoms in the adjacent plane. Such a dislocation is crystal many times, each time producing a slip of called an edge dislocation and it can move by a one atomic distance. process with only one atomic movement at a time. The dislocation theory has been applied quite suc- The net result of such movement in a crystal up to cessfully to explanation of creep phenomena. its boundary will be a shear of one atomic distance. The most important property of a dislocation is that Dislocation Theory Applied to it can be moved by a stress that is much lower than Transient Creep that required to move an atomic plane one atomic For the transient stage of creep several investigators distance as a whole. by making reasonable assumptions have worked out The existence of dislocations in a metal is inevit- equations that take into account the stress and temper- able, since all metals are weaker than the theoretical ature dependence of creep and agree well with the strength. The dislocations originate around crystal empirical relations that Andrade arrived at in his boundaries or at points in the crystal where the atomic earlier considerations taken from experimental data. orientation is slightly different. Other places where In transient creep the dislocations that were in the dislocations could be produced are foreign inclusions metal before loading move under the applied stress. and particles of precipitate. Gradual exhaustion of the available dislocations accounts for the decelerating rate of deformation in Figure 5 shows a simple representation of edge dis- the transient stage. locations. The atomic planes are running perpendicu- lar to the paper. (a) is thought of as a positive dislo- Dislocation Theory Applied to cation, the compressed region with one more atomic Quasi Viscous Creep plane being above the expanded region with one less, The theoretical treatment of the quasi viscous or (b) is the inverse of (a) and is called a negative constant rate creep stage is not nearly as well estab- dislocation. It is thought that positive and negative lished as that of the transient stage. It was thought dislocations are produced in approximately equal that the amorphous grain boundary is responsible for numbers. Each dislocation is surrounded by a region the quasi viscous stage of creep. Experiments and of localized strain and atoms in this region are subject theoretical considerations show that the grain boun- to internal stresses. The stressed regions exert force daries exhibit true viscous flow, but it was proven on each other, the force being attractive in case of that the deformation possible by such flow is very dissimilar dislocations and repulsive in case of similar. small before interlocking of grains would occur which Thus, the dislocations are kept in equilibrium by their would prevent any further deformation. mutual forces of attraction and repulsion. At present time the quasi viscous creep is also ex- plained by the dislocation theory. During this stage new dislocations are generated and the process is - thought of as a rate process. It is explained as an equilibrium condition where the rate of generation of dislocations is equal to the rate of exhaustion. Thus the deformation is not governed by the rate of move- ment, but by rate of formation of dislocations. However, there are still many phenomena in the I— . .,u—i constant rate stage that are observed experimentally, but have not been accounted for theoretically. For instance, why at high temperatures much localized — Z832&3S deformation occurs in the grain boundaries while at A dislocation would move upon reception of suffi- low temperatures the deformation is primarily within aent activation energy that would enable it to sur- the crystal. mount the adjacent potential energy barrier. There Tertiary Creep 1S a I w a ys a finite probability that a dislocation may Little is known about the last stage of creep defor- eceive sufficient energy from thermal Huctuations. It mation. Some workers have expressed the thought as been shown that the probability varies with the that the accelerating stage is not a true creep phenome- solute temperature T and the activation energy non at all but is simply a result of stress intensifica- tion due to reduction of cross sectional area. In cases <£ As <2 where fracture is preceded by necking of the speci- J \ men this may seem so. Also in cases where there is th(? B o l t z m a n n c o n s t a n t . Thus the prob- ty is no apparent necking, the microphotographs taken increases exponentially with temperature, from specimens in this stage show that there are a k PpHed stress in effect reduces the potential many intergranular voids in the metal that would ar "er and if sufficiently, increases the probability Continued on page 52 activating a dislocation to a point where it occurs IS January 1954 II 75 Years of electric railroad in' Although transportation people tend to think of more Tunnel of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. the electrical way as being the modern way, it Their application marked the beginning of heavy rail- actually data back three-quarters of a century. road electrification in the United States. The C;-!•'. heritage in land transportation, however, Several decades after the building of the first elec- datei back to 1880. In that year, Thomas Edison, tric locomotives, electricity joined hands with the aided by many of the same people who helped him diesel engine. The first practical diesel-electric loco- bring light to darkened homes and cities, built and motive was placed in service December 17, 1924 by operated hii Brit experimental electric locomotive. the Central Railroad of New Jersey at Bronx Ter- Two years later, his second electric locomotive sped minal. down Menlo Park's tracks at the amazing "speed" "I forty miles an hour. Today, straight-electric locomotives operate over electrified systems totaling 2600 route-miles on 17 Class I railroads in the United States. Diesel-electric Early History locomotives have become so popular during the past From this early beginning the use of electricity to decade that they are making the steam locomotive help solve- America's transportation problems spread virtually extinct. During the 12 months ending Novem- rapidly. By 1S87, F. J. Sprague was operating his ber 1, 1952, the American railroads removed 5,742 Famous street-car line in Richmond, Virginia . . . the steam locomotives from their inventory and replaced first commercially .successful application in the United them with 2,425 diesel electrics. In 1952, diesel elec- States. The outstanding contributions of inventor trics also outranked steam by performing two-thirds < liarles J. Van Depoele also spurred development of of the gross-ton miles . . . over 70 percent of passen- these early electric transit vehicles. ger car-miles . . . over 75 percent of switching loco- PICTURES COURTESY OF GENERAL ELECTRIC motive-hours. The Electric Way Invades Industry It was only natural that electricity should find its way into the transportation equipment of other indus- tries. In 1887 the Lykens Valley Colliery of the Pennsylvania Railroad produced the first mine loco- motive. An Edison 40-horsepower, body-mounted motor was connected to the drive wheels by chain and sprocket drive. The frame was of heavy wooden timbers, and a metal brush bearing on the rail com- pleted the circuit from the trolley wire through the motor to the grounded rail return. The third mine locomotive, which was built in One of the first overhead trolley cars in the 1891 and called "Terrapin Back," was constructed United States, which began operation at Rich- with cast-iron side and end frames and was driven mond, Virginia, in 1887. by a bi-polar motor with side rod connections. In By 1900 a great network of city and interurban 1892 the General Electric Company announced its electric transit systems blanketed the country. For factory line ranging in sizes from 1% tons to 11 tons, the next 30 years electrically-driven vehicles were equipped with motor capacities ranging from 15 the primary method of moving people on city street- horsepower to 150 horsepower, and speeds ranging car lines and in subways. Even today, with the millions from 6 to 10 miles per hour. of privately-owned motor vehicles on city streets and Modern mine locomotives vary in size from 4 to highways, public transit still provides convenient, 40 tons, with speeds ranging from 6 to 35 mph. They time-saving transportation at low cost. have played an important part in lightening the miners' burden and in replacing mules in the mine- Electric Railroadin' They have helped get out coal and other mineral deposits with greater speed, economy and safety, and Electricity also went to work on the railroads. In have been instrumental in the mining industry's suc- August, 1895, three 96-ton, 360-horsepower, straight- cess in keeping pace with the great American indus- electric locomotives began hauling trains in the Balti- trial expansion of the past half century. 16 Spartan Engine* A Modern Industrial Revolution the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. While electricity was successfully put to work This will be the largest application of rectifier loco- underground in the mine, it also worked above ground motives in this country. The electric equipment on in locomotives for industry. At the same time that this locomotive converts alternating curreni From the mine locomotives began to appear, factory locomo- overhead wire into direct current for driving the tives (as they were then called) were being built. traction motors on the locomotive's axles. Rectifier They were plain electrics, but destiny had them slated tubes are the heart of this conversion system, as fore-runners of a great revolution in American industry. Built to do a railroad's toughest jobs, this present- day 500-ton, 11,000-voIt electric locomotive was constructed for heavy mountain freight haulage. A modern high-speed, 30-ton mine locomotive hauls loaded coal cars from gathering tracks to The past 75 years have seen electricity applied to coal tipple economically, quickly, and with a high most types of motive power and numerous other degree of safety. equipments for land transportation. Modern locomo- In the 1920's, successful switching locomotives were tives . . . whether they be diesel-electric, straight- built primarily for railroad work. They used diesel electric, or gas-turbine electric . . . differ principally engines of the high continuous duty type operating in the manner by which electric power is furnished to in the 500 to 1000-rpm speed range. Such locomotives the driving motors. The final drive is electric, thus were heavy and expensive, and could only be econom- all might be considered electric locomotives. Experts ically justified in service where the load factor was believe that even the application of atomic power to high. Industrial switching, with its usual low load railroading will resolve itself into converting that factor and often low utilization, was no place for power into electricity which can then be used to them. drive the locomotive. In the latter half of the 1930's engine builders achieved quantity production of low-cost, high-speed automotive diesels. These quickly proved successful in the automotive field. Simultaneously, low-cost, high-speed electric drives were developed for the larger sizes of these new engines. Here were the two components long awaited by locomotive designers. When the two were combined an d applied to an industrial switching locomotive, the revolution began. More than 2000 G-E industrial diesel-electric switchers have been placed in service since 1937 and have enabled industrial plants to do a better switching job at less cost. The Years Ahead 1948, electricity was again harnessed to a new Providing fast, low-cost switching, this 80-ton, 550-hp, two-engine diesel-electric industrial loco- e mover . . . the gas turbine. Result was the motive is but one of seven standard sizes ranging "•st gas turbine electric locomotive in America. Al- from 25 tons to 95 tons. though this type is still considered to be in the devel- opmental stage, orders have been placed for 25 loco- Electricity has done the transportation job cheaper motives. Six are now in operation on the Union and better, and oftentimes handled jobs which could Pacific Railroad. not be performed in any other way. It has been the yardstick for capacity, efficiency and economy in the After more than half a century, the electric loco- past, and will probably continue to be vital factor m °tive is still prominent in modern railroading. Ten in land transportation in the long-range future. re ctiher-type locomotives were ordered in 1952 by January 1954 17 AN INT I S V I t W \\ Dr. R. A. Smith by: Albert Sommers, Geology '54 In .„, in|,m,w will. Dr. H. A. Smith, the former him if he had written the letter. The reply was this, State G«ok>gto a n d Chiel <>l th«- Geological Survey "No, Smitty, couldn't do it, wanted you myself." s, i\n e In- w.is asked time questions: Thus R. A. Smith became the Assistant State Geolo- I Ho" ilid >»u happen t<» choose gtoi»gj U your gist in 1911. Allen's main interest was in iron and « :i rn-r ? copper, and it fell to R. A. Smith's lot to take care | \Mi;it ni'rr H M nl your more interesting e x - of the other thirty-five minerals of the State of Michi- IHTi.iK.s ;is ;\ Keoldtfist? ( D r . Smith confined liis i v p c r i c i K i ^ to the oil phase of ( M i o n a s gan. In his own words, Dr. Smith said, "I didn't know tin- outstanding npcrlcneM oi his nearly forty enough about them to write a fly leaf for an almanac." ftmn as i |—togtrt. Mis txpcrieaeM would fill a This started some more intensive study. \ nlonte.) .1. Whut nchiri- Mould >cm (,'i\e I younK person? Allen's opinion was that the Service was a public l)i Smith started oul to be an accountant (that service. Much of this was caused by the fact that was the vogue ol thai time) and graduated from many of the geologic reports were written up in such Lansing Business University In IS!):?. But those were technical form that only professors could understand bard times and the depression of "98 was in lull swing. it. Allen wanted the professors to do the research and \iii r graduation he almost took a fob as a boofckeep- then have the Geological Survey Service write up the i il eiidit dollars a week. report so that Johnny Q. Public would be able to comprehend it. Instead, he obtained a third grade teachers certifi- cate and taught school for lour years near Lansing. The State Tax Commission, about this time was \i the end oi these lour years, Dr. Smith went to attempting to appraise the mines. Although the State Normal College t" study more for a higher appraisers were learned and skilled geologists, they position iii the school system. Among the courses weren't able to place a value upon the mines, accord- there thai he took were physiography and meteor- ing to Michigan Law. R. C. Allen was asked how These two interested him very much. much he thought it would cost to have the Geological Survey appraise the mines. Allen guessed about ten \l the end ol liis st;iv at State Normal, he obtained thousand dollars per year. The Tax Commission W8J the fob as School Superintendent at Palmer in the 1 stunned. It had cost them forty thousand and thirty P \l Palmer, he was in mining country and there In- started to collect rocks and minerals. Two years thousand in the two previous years. later, he weal to the town of Quinisic A short time The Service had a lot of trouble with real estate iiici his arrival .it Quinisic, the town burned down agencies selling land to shop men for chicken farms. .mil Dr. Smith decided to go down to the University The soil was only sand, and the public was being ol Michigan and do some more studying. gypped. It was said of the land that one couldn't Then' he took up physiography and became inter- raise a tail feather on it. There was much good land ested in geology, I later he decided to become a geolo- that these ten could have had for just a little more. gy professor. A bill was put through to organize a Soil and At this time. R. C. Allen was one of his professors. Economic Survey to make an inventory of all the When Smith was in his senior year, R. C. Allen be- natural resources, especially to soils and their uses. came the State Geologist and gave many lectures to The governor failed to validate the appropriation- the students upon geology. However, in about 1920, the Land Economic Survey was organized for the analysis of the soil and mineral Mler graduation, Dr. Smith (then Mr. Smith) wealth. This was a cooperative effort between M.S.U obtained a position at Pennsylvania State College but U. of M., Department of Agriculture and the State was forced to resign because of lack of knowledge Geological Survey. It was a job well done by all on certain phases of mineralogy. He enrolled in the parties concerned. University of Michigan for advanced studies. After Mm,, advanced work, Dr. Smith decided to go to Dr. Smith's first job was to go over to Port Huron Wisconsin as a geologist. Knowing that R. G Allen m 1911 and inspect some oil wells. There he found was from Wisconsin, Dr. Smith asked R. C. Allen to twenty-one wells on some twenty acres. These were write up to Wisconsin and use his influence for the the first wells he had ever seen and were owned b) obtaining of a job. Allen agreed. After several weeks a grease making firm. The wells were small producers, of no reply, Dr. Smith cornered R. C. Allen and asked and Dr. Smith was of the opinion that Michigan should have some big oil fields such as Canada across 18 Spartan Engineer the river and Ohio across the line. After all, rivers small of land tracts. and political boundaries don't stop a geologic struc- The ne\t oil poo] was the Muskegon Beld \ taiku ture. by name ..| st.mi, \ Danilofl became Interested in In 1912, he started a report, it was the first little oil. W e l l logs oi man) wells d u l l e d foi oil gas and monograph of the oil possibilities of Michigan. brine were checked, and the region around Mnske Five wealthy men came down from Saginaw. Tlic\ gon w a s shown to | . r i . n o i . i U e toi oil and gas produc knew that the timber and milling industries were lion. Stanley went oil to Illinois to gel s o m e mone) exhausted around the Saginaw valley and something oil his Friends. Dr, Smith advised Stanle) Danilofl else bad to be found or Saginaw would become t<> d u l l ninth ol tin- n \ e i lint i h e Oil loe.itoi ol decadent. They had heard that Saginaw had favor- Saginaw l a m e told Mr. D.1111I0II lo .hill s o n l h ol lh, able conditions for gas and oil. Dr. Smith confirmed river. T h e well south ol t h e n \ e i WU dfj I h e next what they had heard and showed them a good spot well w a s drilled to t h e n o r t h ol t h e I I M I AI\I\ a well In drill. They wanted two wells into a "salt sand" ol 320 barrels n a t u r a l w a s IMOIII'JII m T h i s t i n n e d and another just as deep as they could drill. o u t to b e WOne t h a n S a g i n a w . Lots sold lor lip to In the Spring of 1913, Dr. Smith went to the Upper $25(H) apiece. Lot drilling w a s practiced a n d t h e Peninsula to check on some high grade limestone field w a s b u t c h e r e d . There w a s lots ol ggj ,nnl it that wasn't supposed to be there but was. On the w a s t h o u g h that t h e uas h a d to b e b l o w n oil lo get way back, he stopped in Saginaw to see about the t h e oil. It is a k n o w n laet that t h e gM must b e util well. He was told the well was dry. One can further i / e d to b r i n g lip t h e oil a n d that it c a n a n d is u s e d understand his surprise when he was told that they many times over. would drill the next well at the place he had indicated. "There was so much gas in the air that I complained It turned out that the well had been sunk seven miles to Governor Green," said Dr. Smith. "He said to down the river from his indicated spot because one go up these and scare them." Dr. Smith tried but of the backers wouldn't invest any money unless the they had an injunction put up against the State. U. A. well was drilled on his land. Smith didn't dare go near Miiskegon lor a while. A well was sunk at Dr. Smith's location and gas They only replied by turning on the gas to wide open was struck in the Berea formation. Some gas and and within forty-eight hours they were pumping oil was obtained and farther down in the Traverse water. Needless to say, the\ went running to Dr. and oil under high gas pressure was struck farther Smith. below. The well started out with two flows totaling about 85 barrels. With a pump it went down to about One gas well ran a test of 21,000,000 cubic feel ol five barrels a day. The pay formation was only one gas a day on a small acreage. foot thick and R. A. Smith thought the well as an One day the Studebaker plant called up the office "edge well." That is, a well near the edge of the and wanted to know il a gas line could be laid easil) formation. to Muskegon. Dr. Smith replied yet and asked why. Studebaker replied that one producer had guaian The Saginaw men decided they would triangulate. teed them 5,(KK),(KM) cul.ie Icel a (la\. I )i Smith asked Another well was drilled nine miles to the northwest the name of the producer. He was told ami replied of town. This was about as foolish as drilling a well that the well would probably last for two or three seven miles too far to the south. The well was dry. weeks. No pipe line was laid. Another well was to the northeast of Saginaw. Gas and traces of oil were found. They also tried another The house committee then had passed a bill so well to the north of Saginaw. They were only two that they couldn't waste SO inch gas. They COuldn'l blocks off the formation. Another well was drilled drill within 2(K) Icel ol a propert) line except when- to the south of town. It also was dry and the would- flu lot would permit. Said Dr. Smith, T h e Muskegon be oil tycoons gave up after drilling 12 wells. was certainly a field that was badly messed up. One of the "tooleys" on the Saginaw venture went "About this time the geologists of Pure Oil Companv out west and became an oil promoter. He made a came to me. They were only interested in oil reserves lot of money and stopped after his first million was and I gave them the potential spots. I told them the made. Later in Florida, this promoter met some of Dow Ghemical salt well logs would furnish much this Saginaw group. They wanted him to come back if one could see them. Sometime later, a young geolo- and reopen the Saginaw project. He refused but said gist came in with the logs and the engineers maps." he would put up as much money as any other one This amazed Dr. Smith because he was not allowed °f the men. to utilize them. The young geologist had gotten them They located the well by an oil locater. This oil through the influence of his superiors. locating m a n had discovered that the eminations from "He was excited because he realized he In.I hand * e oil affected him. He brought in a twenty-five ed to him some oil structures," said R. A. Smith with barrel well. This brought in the whole field, which his eyes beaming happily. went far into downtown Saginaw. Many bought up The structures were drawn up from the Dow Maps c 'ty lots and started "lot drilling." The only thing and the first well was put down by Pure Oil. It was wrong w a s t h a t " [ o t drilling" isn't even good over a sixty-five barreler. This was to become the Mt. a Pleasant field. Pure Oil were good operators, one good oil pool. The pay sand here was thin, tight well to every ten acres. This caused the others to p d "broken" and in almost all the cases didn't pay follow suit. The Mt. Pleasant field has produced « was reported that only one man made any money On Continued on page 54 this field. Many lost because of overdrilling on too 19 January 1954 High Voltage electric | Power Transmission by: Philip Sporn and A. C. Monteith Reprinted from AIEE BULLETIN, Tidd 500 Kv Test Project Much interest is being shown in the high-voltage taken place, and, if present predictions materialize, investigation project now being carried out on the this expansion will continue for some time. This, of American Gas and Electric Company system near the necessity, involves expansion of transmission facilities. Tidd station of The Ohio Power Company at Brilliant, The justification for transmission and the distances Ohio. This symposium has been arranged to present involved vary in different sections of the United States the thinking that led to it and the program itself, so and in the different countries. It is, however, quite that as the results of the investigation become avail- apparent that in some localities, where fuel is scarce able they can be interpreted intelligently by all those and remote undeveloped hydro energy plentiful, long- interested, and also the extent of completion of origi- distance transmission will be used. Also, it is quite nal objectives determined. apparent that there are systems in the United States The first logical question is: Why any tests? Other where transfer of much larger blocks of power than questions are: What tests are contemplated, and how any heretofore involved will be required, both for are they to be conducted? What are the design char- base load and for co-ordination of large integrated acteristics of the equipment to be tested and of the systems and for interchange between them and con- equipment used for carrying out the testing program? tiguous systems. This paper will attempt to answer the first ques- tion; the others will be discussed in companion papers. In the United States a transmission system of 287 kv rated, 302 kv maximum, is in use and there has been some discussion of the use of a transmission voltage Reason for Investigation of approximately 345 kv rated, 362 kv maximum. On Past experience in the development of power sys- the American Gas and Electric Central System, the tems and their concomitant transmission lines and need for higher voltage transmission facilities than analytical examination of the economic considera- the existing 132-kv backbone transmission has been tions of the transmission of increasingly larger blocks accelerated by the unprecedented war and postwar of power indicate the desirability in some cases of growth in load. The French have built some double- going to higher voltages than have been used hereto- circuit 220-kv lines, which may be converted later fore. However, the cost of building a transmission to a single circuit with bundle conductor to operate system—line and its related terminal equipment—in- at approximately 385 kv. China has discussed the creases rapidly with increasing voltage. The use of use of 345-kv transmission and Sweden now is con- increased voltages requires effectively larger conduc- sidering a nominal 350-kv, maximum continuous oper- tors, larger towers, higher insulation levels, and more ating voltage 380-kv development to transmit power expensive terminal equipment. With these costs from their abundant water supply to their industrial increasing very rapidly with higher voltage, it becomes center some 600 miles away. With this pressing inter- increasingly important to design the system so that est in high-voltage transmission, it is logical to review the maximum use is made of the capabilities of the equipment. This is another way of saying that as its status and see what factors need further study voltage increases it becomes more than ever necessary to secure the most economical line design in the ugh to design for the very minimum proper margins of of present-day knowledge and practice. All this has safety. But before this can be done for extra high prompted a close study of this field, and this nas voltages-before systems can be designed with close resulted in the investigation program being carne margins, yet without sacrificing the requirements of out at the Tidd station of the American Gas ana reliability-engineers need more information than is Electric Company. now available. Numerous factors have to be evaluated before reac ^ The projection of higher voltage transmission is ing a decision to use a particular high voltage an not only beginning to be a pressing problem in plan- before the details of the design that will be used a ning of electric power systems, but the problem is be fixed. The selection usually involves a study anticipated loading conditions for the degree ot^re beginning to assume more or less universal propor- ability necessary for the project. From a consi tions. The United States, and as a matter of fact all tion of load, distance, reliability desired, and the countries of the world possessing or aiming to influencing factors, the voltage level, number of develop industrial potential, is witnessing the great- cuits, and circuit arrangement can be determin^ est expansion in the use of electricity that ever has AH of these will affect the economics of the pr°F 20 Spartan Engineer but the one single factor that perhaps will affect the To make some specific comparisons for extra high economics to the greatest degree is the insulation level voltages, three voltage levels are used, namely, '345, adopted for terminal equipment and the insulation 402, and 460 kv. Table I gives typical insulation char- level and spacing for the line. These levels naturally acteristics of higher voltage steel tower lines used in will be influenced by the type of grounding adopted the United States. Table II gives comparative insula- for the system. It has been the practice in some cases tor characteristics for various lines over the range of on lower voltage systems to operate lines with ground extra high voltage transmission. fault neutralizes. It is the opinion of the authors, however, that in the case of extra high voltage trans- mission, above 230 kv, the lines ought to be grounded Lightning Performance permanently and solidly at all transformation points, For the voltage classes so far used in the United which will permit the use of reduced-voltage arresters. States, lightning protection has been the primary Coupled with the use of interrupting devices, which consideration in the choice of transmission line insula- will open the circut with not more than a single re- tion levels. However, sufficient knowledge and ex- strike, this solid grounding of the system will limit perience with lightning and lightning protection now the magnitude of voltage in switching transients to has been gained to show that there is a definite upper which line and equipment will be subjected, and will limit of insulation required for lightning protection, permit the use of insulation of a lower level than that which already has been exceeded by numerous higher thought possible in any previous consideration of the voltage lines in use today. Normal steel construction problem. with spans of the order of 1,000 feet or less and effec- Minimum Impulse 60-Cycle Dry Times Normal Kv Number of Level, Kv, Flashover. Line-to-Ground TABLE I. Class Insulators* iy.x40 Wave* Kv RMS* Operating Voltage* 69.. ..(4-8) 5 . ...(475-780) 550 ..(280-500) 320 .. . .(7-12.5) 8 Comparative Insulation Characteris- 138.. ..(8-12) 10 ....(780-1100) 940 . ...(500-710) 600 ... .(G.3-8.9) 7.5 lics of Steel Tower Transmission Lines: 230.. ..(14-20) 16. ...(1270-1770) 1450. ...(810-1140) 910. . . .(6.1-8.3) 6.8 in the United States. 287.. . . 2 4 2110 1350 8.1 *Range of values is in parentheses. Most common construction is figure following parentheses. 60-Cycle Dry Flashuver in Kv RMS'* Times Normal Line-to-Ground TABLE II. Operating Voltage, No. of Minimum Standard Impulse Insulators Actual Equivalent Level, Kv Actual 345 Kv 400 Kv 400 Kv Comparative Insulation Characteris- 20 27* 34 1,770 1,140 5.7 4.9 4.3 ties of Various Transmission Line % • • . • • • 3 3 * •• ...41.6... . . . .2,100 1,350 6.8 5.8 5.1 Construction Considered in This Paper 30!'.'..'.'. A3 ..... .54 2,600 1,700 8.5 7.3 6.4 3 5 5 1 for Transmission a t Extra High "5 6 5 3>10 ° Voltages. All single-circuit flat steel constructions with 1,000 foot spans. *For certain tower construction and types of conductor, thene spacing mitfht be HH hinh as 33 and 37 feet, respectively. **Wet values will be approximately 70 per cent of these ratios. Of the many factors influencing the design of a tive tower-footing resistances of 20 ohms or less should high-voltage line some are well understood and others experience substantially no nashovers from direct require more investigation. Reliable information is strokes when the phase wires are shielded by over- available on lightning surges, switching surges, and head ground wires and the equivalent of 16 or more line reactance and capacitance, but insulation levels, standard suspension insulators are used. as pointed out before need to be considered thor- However, the principal source for the higher surge oughly. Much information is needed on corona and voltages that can appear at the terminals of a highly radio influence and how they are affected by size insulated line is thought to be strokes that actually and type of conductor, spacing and height of ground contact the phase wires through lack of complete wire, and atmospheric conditions. It seems appropri- shielding. Both theoretical considerations and model ate, in this introductory paper to this symposium, to studies show that, although the frequency of direct review briefly the known factors in line design and strokes to phase conductors can be made quite small by the process of elimination develop in a little greater at shielding angles of 25 to 30 degrees, it cannot be detail the significance of the elaborate set of tests eliminated entirely with only one or two overhead now in progress. The following is, therefore, a dis- ground wires. The model studies indicate that with cussion of the significant factors, their economic a shielding angle of 25 degrees on a conventional S e a n c e , and I summary of where additional #^J^&*jEZ£*rZ information is remiired for use in future designs ot b)UU stroKes uugin i « " " u i -tra high v o i t a ^ ^ s T l ^ S to secure a well rate of decrease w*h decreasing shielding angle below dO S ^ F S V ^ S the foregoing viewpoint is January 1954 provided by actual experience on several of the higher cent shilding in this zone. The basic impulse levels are Operating Voltage, Kv Basic Impulse Level, Kv voltage lines. Excellent data of this type are provided 230 950 by the detailed studies of the Pennsylvania Water and 287 1,050 Power Company in which records of all strokes to 345 1,200 402 1,400 their lines are, being obtained with magnetic surge 460 1,550 crest ammeter links correlated with a careful inspec- The authors merely are using these for discussion tion program. On the 220-kv lines three flashovers purposes but they believe that the basic impulse level have occurred, two from lack of shielding and one at values ultimately selected can be of this order. The a lower having a tower-footing resistance of about final selection of values, including the selection of 60 ohms. The data on the 230-kv lines show that even the proper steps (involving possibly the elimination with two overhead ground wires providing a shielding of some of the present steps and the addition of angle of 20 to 25 degrees, about one stroke in 700 other steps), after thorough discussion of all the mile-years of operation may be expected to contact a facts available and the phenomena involved, undoubt- phase wire directly. The average stroke density of edly can be handled best by committees representa- these lines which lies in isokeraunic levels ranging tive of the electrical industry. Such committees are from 25 to 40 storm days per year, has been found now in existence. to be about 100 strokes per 100 miles per year. This indicates that about one out of every 700 direct strokes Switching Surges will contact a phase conductor which agrees quite It is of interest to consider the insulation necessary well with the model tests. from a switching surge point of view. Modern high Calculations have been made of the probability voltage breakers are designed to have not more than ill a given crest surge voltage appearing at a substa- one restrike. For this switching operation, the maxi- tion connected to well-constructed high-voltage lines mum line-to-ground switching surge voltage that with various amounts of line insulation. These are should appear at the substation is of the order of 3.0 based upon our present knowledge of the magnitude times normal line-to-ground operating voltage on a and wave shape of lightning stroke current and the solidly grounded system. Only the condition of solid assumption of 100 strokes per 100 miles of line per grounding is considered, since it is believed that such year. They take into account voltages that might be high-voltage systems normally will be grounded. Table induced by indirect strokes, by strokes contacting the II shows that 24 insulators for operating voltages up ground wire, and by strokes that contact a phase con- to 460 kv provide a minimum 60-cycle dry flashover ductor. ratio of 5.1 or a wet flashover ratio of 3.6, which is Insulation Co-ordination considered adequate for these switching conditions. It is of interest to consider the probability of ex- periencing a surge in the station in excess of the Effect of Line Construction on strength of the apparatus. Values derived from Transmission Line Impedance present standards, are Shorter insulation strings make possible smaller Operating Voltaire. Kv Basic Impulse Level, Kv line spacing, the spacings have, in turn, the beneficial 230 1,050 287 1,300 effect of reducing line capacitive and inductive re- 345 1,550 actance. The present standard basic impulse levels are based Calculations have been made of the relative amounts on system operation with a fully rated lightning arrest- of power that could be transmitted over a 200-mile er. A large number of high-voltage solidly grounded line making the arbitrary assumption that stability systems are in successful operation with equipment considerations limit the line reactance angle to 30 insulation levels one step below standard values. If degrees. The results of these calculations are present- the extra-high-voltage range is approached on the ed in Table III. A rather arbitrary conductor size basis of soliding grounding and the practice of using was chosen with two levels of insulation. This table a reduced voltage rating lightning arrester is followed, shows that the increased power limit and charging then, considering the higher impulse value of equip- kilo-volt-amperes obtained with the smaller spacing ment dealt with, the successful practice of one lower is appreciable. Bundle conductors may offer even class insulation is not only sound practice but may greater savings as a result of decrease in line be improved upon by further lowering of insulation. capacitive and inductive reactances. This seems entirely practicable for several reasons. By reliance on the solid grounding of the system's Corona transformation point and controlling the voltage it The disruptive corona voltage and the corona power is believed practicable to use a lightning arrester loss are very much affected by size of conductor and having a rating of about 75 per cent of normal voltage spacing. The greater the insulation level of the line rating. Also, there do not appear to be any diffi- and the larger the spacing between conductors, the culties from an economic standpoint to shield ade- higher will be the disruptive corona voltage and the quately the line immediately adjacent to the sub- lower the corona power loss. As far as lightning and station so that there is practically no probability of switching surges are concerned, 16 insulators with ever getting in excess of 5,000 amperes through the normal spacing for 345 kv would appear adequate. lightning arrester. Again, it appears that it will be However, an abnormal conductor size might have possible, without appreciably affecting the over-all to be used or else the corona loss would be too high- economics, to resort to the use of diverter wires for This may be the factor that would set the lower limit a short distance from the terminals to give 100 per on the dimensions of an extra-high-voltage transmis- 22 Sportan Engineer sion line. Since this factor has considerable effect on Effect of Line Insulation and the cost of building a line, it deserves critical study. A review of some of the published information indi- Spacing on Corona Loss cates good data on corona losses at the higher corona To obtain a basis for discussing the corona loss per- levels for fair-weather conditions and for the effect formance of the various line constructions being con- of surface conditions, but does not include the effect sidered here, (air-weathered corona loss calculations of ground wires, insulator losses, and tower effects. have been made using Peterson's lormula. These arc The practical problem, therefore, is to design the line based upon the assumption ot a smooth conductor, so that it will work on the flat part of the loss curve an altitude of 1,000 feet, a temperature of 25 degrees for much of the operating time. In the past, it has centigrade, and a surface factor of 0.9, which factor been the practice to design for a fair-weather corona was found by Peterson to be applicable to genera] loss of from one-half to one kilowatt per mile. This operating conditions for type //// cable at 220 to 287 may be satisfactory for low-voltage lines, but it would kv. appear economical to allow higher loss on the higher For example, an operating voltage of 345 kv, limiting voltage lines if the increased corona did not produce the corona loss to 0.65 kilowatt per mile, would require excessive radio influence. about a 1.75-inch diameter conductor for a line with TABLE III. Economic Benefits of Lower Line Insulation on Reducing Line Reactance and Increasing Line Capacitance on a 200-Mile Circuit Reactive Per Cent L 'i* Power Power x> Ecc inomie Hem .•fits Ohms x i x1? Delivered, Delivered, Reduc- Operating II lsulator Spacing. Per Mi, Ohms Megohms Mega- Megavoit- Reduced I rn-i eased Reduced Voltages, Kv Units Ft. Per Mi watts tion 25 C Per Mi amperes L'd Base Reactance)? ReactiveJ Lino Cost 345 Kv (1.61-in. con- 20. . ..33 .. . .0.0887. ...0.789 . . . .0.1908. . . . 3 9 6 . . . .48.5 \ . . . . 0 . 8 0 . . . .$ 48,000... $10,000.. .$480,000 24. . . .37 . . . 0.0887 . . .0.801 . 0 1940 390 .47.2 f 400 (2.035-in. con- 20. . ..33 . . . .0.0577. ...0.758 . .. .0.1838. . . . 5 6 1 . . . .49.2 \ . . . . 1 . 5 4 . . . .$130,000... $21,000. . .$880,000 ductor) . . . . . . 2 7 . . . .39.5. . ..0.0577. ...0.780 . . ..0.1891. . . . 5 4 5 . . . .46.6 J 460 (2.5-in. con- 24.. ..37 .. ..0.047*. . . .0.750*. . ..0.181*. . . . 7 5 2 . . . .55.2 1 . .. .1.14. .. .$129,000... $18,000.. . $940,000 ductor) . . . . . . 3 0 . . ..42 .. ..0.047*. ...0.766*. ...0.184*. . . . 7 3 7 . . . .52.9 J •Estimated value, tliased on 30-degree angle with Es = 1.05 Er. fSaving on terminal equipment due to reduced reactance?. JBased on $8.00 per kilo- volt-ampere of increased reactive kilovolt-amperes available at receiving end. Before designing for higher fair-weather corona 20 insulators, a 1.6-inch diameter conductor for a loss, it appears desirable to secure better data on line with 24 insulators, and only a 1.45-inch diameter corona losses under actual line conditions and for conductor for a line with 30 insulators. If, however, changing weather conditions. A few tests show that a 1.5-inch diameter conductor were used for all three corona losses may increase under rain conditions to line designs, the range of power loss would be 0.6 to many times the fair-weather losses. Also, the effect 0.9 kilowatt per mile. of fog, humidity, and many other influencing condi- Briefly summarized, these indicate that with present tions may effect the allowable corona loss materially. knowledge, satisfactory operation should be obtained With better data available on these conditions, there with operating voltages up to 4(K) kv with transmis- will exist more scientific criteria for the design of a sion line insulation corresponding to 20 insulators. line than the fair-weather corona loss now used. At 460 kv, the minimum number of insulators probably The bundle conductor presents advantages, as far would be 24. A more accurate determination of the as inductive and capacitive reactance and corona loss best combination of line construction and conductor are concerned, but it not only presents new mechanical diameter requires an economic study of the cost of problems but economic questions also. It seems desir- the various combinations, taking into account loss able, therefore, to secure more data on this type of evaluation, but no final conclusions can be drawn conductor to see if it will contribute to a more until more is known about corona and radio influence. economical high-voltage system. The decision on this point alone might affect the Radio influence needs further study. Experience cost of extra-high-voltage transmission very appreci- with some high-voltage lines has disclosed some objec- ably and justifies more tests to give the line designers tionable interference, although these lines were de- better data. signed to operate at relatively low corona loss level. Before adopting the practice of decreasing conduc- Economic Comparison of Line Construction tor size to allow higher corona losses, it seems desir- For an Operating Voltage of 345 Kv able to secure better data on several conductor sizes A simple economic review has been made to co- and spacings under actual service conditions, particu- ordinate the foregoing discussions taking into account larly under seasonal weather variations. It was be- the effect of insulation levels on operating perform- jieved, therefore, that tests should be made employ- ance. The cost of a line varies so with local conditions ing integrating instruments giving high-speed continu- that it is hard to generalize, but for this purpose ous recordings of these data under all weather con- $45,000 per mile was used as the cost of a 345-kv line ditions and involving all of the factors with a care- employing 20 insulator units and a 1.75-inch conduc- fully co-ordinated study of the radio influence problem. (Conlinued on page 48) 23 January 1954 II Special instruments measure washo roadtest data by W. N. CAREY, JR., A.M. ASCE Project Engineer, Highway Research Board National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Reprinted from, "THE CIVIL ENGINEERING MAGAZINE," October 1953 Trucks running day after day on the WASHO road Throughout all phases of the construction, from test, near Malad, Idaho, are developing information clearing operations to final pavement finishing, the of great economic value to the nation. It is informa- engineers directed their efforts toward securing uni- tion which may go far in helping to resolve the basic formity of the components. Normal construction prac- question in U.S. highway construction—What are the tices were simulated instead of attempting to obtain maximum loads on which it is economically feasible extra-high densities or superconstruction of any type. to base the design and construction of our roads? Construction of the test project was completed Sep- General acceptance of the conclusions which will tember 30, 1952. follow completion of the test is likely to be propor- tionate to the quality of the test records obtained. Pavement Thickness Varied Measured facts are strong arguments. This brief The pavement in the tangents of the test loops description is therefore presented to set forth the was varied in thickness as shown in Fig. 1. On one WASIIO test layout and some details of the instru- tangent in each loop the top 6 in. is made up of 2 in. mentation provided to measure and record the facts of asphaltic concrete over 4 in. of %-in. granular as developed. Some of the instruments used to mea- base material. In the other tangent of each test loop, sure primary variables are described; many others are the top 6 in. consists of 4 in. of asphaltic concrete over used to measure special phenomena from time to time. 2 in. of granular base material. Thus, all four tangents The WASIIO test is sponsored by the Western have a 6-in. thickness of combined asphaltic concrete Association of State Highway Officials (WASHO). and base. Each of the four 1,900-ft. tangents is divid- The Highway Research Board was selected to super- ed into five 300-ft. test sections with 100-ft. transitions vise the construction of the test road and the test between them. The only difference between these itself. The project is designed to answer some of sections is in the thickness of the subbase, which con- the problems facing highway administrators and the sists of pit-run granular material ranging in size from transportation industry. By pooling their support 2 in. downward. One section in each tangent has under the direction of this independent institution, 16 in. of granular subbase material, the next 12 in., wheh has no interest in the matter other than the the next 8 in., the next 4 in., and the last zero (that development of facts and the acquisition of new is, it is laid directly on the subgrade soil). Thus the knowledge, the state highway departments, U.S. total thickness of pavement over the subgrade soil Bureau of Public Roads, truck and trailer manufac- varies from 6 to 22 in. on each of the four test tangents. turers and operators, petroleum industry and others, To reduce delays caused by pavement maintenance, have demonstrated a sincere desire to acquire un- the turnarounds are all 22 in. thick. Three special test biased information on a problem of great mutual sections, each 200 ft. long, have been provided to importance. study the behavior under heavy traffic of surface treatment, and of two thicknesses of road-mix bitum- The Immediate Objective inous surfacing. The immediate objective of the test is to develop information concerning the relative effectiveness of For the purpose of the test, the 24-ft. width of the several designs of flexible pavement varying in over- tangents is considered as two separate 12-ft. lanes. all thickness from 6 to 22 in., under repeated applica- The outside lane is being tested under the heavier tions of 18,000 and 22,400-lb. single-axle loads and vehicles and the inside lane under the lighter vehicles. 32,000 and 40,000-lb tandem-axle loads. Since the two lanes were constructed at the same time, on identical soils and under identical conditions, it The test layout consists of two separate paved loops will be possible to compare directly the behavior of with tangents 1,900 ft. long and 24 ft. wide. The tangents in each loop are connected by superelevated the outside lane with that of the inside lane. Differ- turnarounds designed to permit the test trucks to ences in the behavior of one lane as compared with operate at a constant speed in the neighborhood of the adjacent lane can be attributed directly to differ- 30 mph. The two loops are separated by a service area ences in axle loads. approximately 600 ft. long in which are located such facilities as the field office, truck maintenance facili- Test Vehicles and Loads ties, instrument storage, weighing equipment, and The test vehicles are tractor-semi-trailers. On the road maintenance stockpiles. north loop, single-axle combinations are used, with 18,000-lb. axle loads running on the inside lane and 24 Spartan Engineer 22,400-lb single loads running on the outside lane. simple to use. The calibration process is extremely On the south loop, tandem combinations are used, important and rather complicated. It is also tedious, with 32,000-lb. tandem-axle lads on the inside lane and requiring about a month for each soil, but reliable 40,000-lb. tandem-axle loads on the outside lane. results cannot be expected by any other means ad- Two vehicles operate in each lane; thus the test vanced to date. requires eight tractor-trailer combinations. The method of installing the cell in the soil is also Traffic operation is scheduled on the basis of two important if reliable results arc desired in a reason- 9-hour 10-min. shifts per day, six days a week. Each ably short time. The moisture cells used on the shift consists of nine 50-min. driving periods, seven WASHO test came to equilibrium within about two 10-min. rest periods, and one 30-min. meal period. months. Given proper calibration and installation, Thus, barring truck breakdowns, the test vehicles it is only necessary to read the resistance, make a cor- operate 15 hours per day. rection for temperature (taken at a nearby thermister), The drivers are able to maintain an average speed and read the moisture content from the calibration around the entire loop of slightly less than 30 mph, curve corresponding to the density of the soil in place. and since this distance is 6,600 ft. (1 Vt mile), a round In addition to the routine checks of moisture con- trip takes about 2.75 min. Since there are two com- tent taken by means of the moisture cells, detailed bination vehicles in each lane, the pavement is sub- studies of moisture content in the base and subgrades jected to two heavy-truck loads every 2.75 min. At are made whenever any part of the pavement surface this rate each section undergoes about 650 truck-trailer is opened for any reason, and of course wherever applications per day, or 17,000 per month. Although pavement failurs occur. it is planned to keep all trucks in the best possible One of the first indications of structural distress condition, it is not likely that this theoretical rate of in a flexible pavement is the appearance of longi- application can be maintained during the entire test tudinal rutting in the wheel tracks. This is often of period. small magnitude and hardly noticeable to the naked Accurate Instrumentation Provided eye, yet for it to occur, something in the pavement The construction and the trucks provide test sec- structure has to give, and if the rutting progresses, tions with built-in variables known in advance, and serious damake will eventually develop. Furthermore, with control over the size, frequency of application, longitudinal rutting may be due to shifting or con- and transverse position of the test loads. All that re- solidation of the subgrade, subbase or base, or to mains is to evaluate the relative effects of the various shoving or compression of the wearing surface. Recog- test loads on the different pavement sections. Because nizing this, means were sought to detect such defor- of th extreme susceptibility of the paving materials, mations early and to relate them to a definite part and particularly of the subgrade soils, to variations of the pavement structure. in moisture content and temperature, a good deal of It soon became apparent that, as a first step, in- attention was given to measuring these phenomena. numerable transverse surface profiles had to be taken. Complete routine weather records are kept at the This was accomplished by a special profilometer, de- site. signed and built by the engineers and mechanics of Of far greater importance than these routine records the Bureau of Public Roads. This profilometer is a are the temperature and the moisture content of the double truss which spans the entire pavement. It pavement components as influenced by the weather. is supported at the ends by pins driven 7 ft. into the To simplify the problem of obtaining information of shoulder, and steadied at the center by an adjustable this type, thermisters and moisture cells were placed third leg which rests on the pavement. Its bottom during construction in certain test sections at various chords follow the pavement crown about a foot above depths down to 72 in. The thermisters consist of the surface. simple metallic oxide disks, the electrical resistance A motor-driven carriage hangs by three wheels from of which varies markedly as their temperature changes. the truss chords and, in operation, moves across the The temperature of the thermister, and thus of the pavement in about 30 sec. Suspended from the car- material surrounding it, can be obtained at any time riage by a pantograph linkage is a small steel wheel by reading its resistance as measured with a simple which rides on the pavement surface and, as the a -c ohmeter across the leads at a terminal board carriage moves along the truss, follows the transverse located at the side of the road. The portable ohmeter profile of the pavement surface. The vertical move- rests conveniently on top of the terminal board, and ment of the wheel is measured and recorded elctron- its leads are clipped to the leads of the thermister ically by mans of a linear variable-differential trans- bei ng read. Two men with an automobile can read former (LVDT) and an oscillograph. Since the pro- all thermisters and moisture cells in the project in filometer support pins do not change elevation, the na lf an hour. truss acts as a reference plane throughout the test, Buried beside the thermisters throughout the project and any difference between the oscillograph trace are moisture cells. These are also of the electrical taken before the test and that taken during or after distance type, consisting of a sandwich of two elec- traffic operations, represents a change in the surface trodes separated by fiberglas (or nylon). The resist- profile. ance between the electrodes changes as the moisture Profiles can be taken wherever support pins are contnt of the filler changes. The moisture cells are provided. For the WASHO test, five sets per 300-ft. read i n t h e s a m e manner as the thermisters, using th (Continued on page 48) e a-c ohmeter. However, they are not as direct or 25 January 1954 Electricity for better living The Litest .mil perhaps most exciting chapter in power for the pumping operation. the wonderful story of "Electricity for Better Living" The unit brings much nearer to realization the long- has to do with mans denial struggle against the dreamed of truly all-electric home. There can be no tyranny <>l the weather in his own home. It concerns question that it is currently the most exciting advance tiir development of an amazing all-electric machine toward fuller enjoyment of the great potentialities called a heal pump that hums no fuel, uses no water, of electrical living. Unlike high temperature resist- wf automatically heatl and cools your home to the ance type heating and the newer low temperature desired temperature. radiant panel electric heating which contribute noth- The machine requires no attention. Once the ing to comfort when cooling is required, the Weather- thermostat i1- Wi to the desired temperature, your tron inherently provides for summer cooling as well home is completely air conditioned throughout the as heating and operates at an efficiency—three times year at the temperature you want. You just set it as great as resistance heating—which promises to bring and forget it Switchover from cooling to heating electric space heating within the means of literally is i pletel) automatic From season to season, with- millions of people. in the same day. and even hourly if the need arises. The Weathertron provides "push-button weather" for I.IMKM UMIV.HBM i * lilt \B.,«MIHI " «' the Inline without even pushing a button! Surprisingly, the broad outline for this new chapter m "Electricitj for Better Living" was written one hundred and one years ago by the famous English physicist lord Kelvin when he presented his theory on the heating and cooling of buildings with currents of air to the Glasgow Philosophical Society in Scot- land. Lord Kelvin's theory suggested the possibility of heating homes with refrigeration systems, and also 'lulling them In reversing the system's cycle of oper- ation. Interest in the idea remained very low until 21 years ago when advances in refrigerants and refrig- eration indicated its practicality and work was under- taken by several companies to fill in the details of lord Celvin'l outline with a practical machine. Hut the chapter was not written quickly, There was much to be done in the way of development and One of the reasons for the seemingly slow develop- field testing oi equipment and ideas. ment of the heat-pump since 1932 is that it had to In 1932 the first practical installation of a Heat wait for the development of residential air condition- Pump in this country was made in an office in Salem, ing. The Weathertron is not, in general, a direct N.J. Since that time, hundreds of heat-pumps have competitor to conventional automatic heating. Except been placed in homes in widely scattered parts of for conditions such as extremely mild climate, or high the United States. Performance under many kinds fuel cost as compared to electric power, there is little and climates ami conditions have been studied, and if any economic advantage to a Weathertron for heat: in November. 1951, after 20 years of engineering ing alone. However, when the Weathertron is not development and field testing, marketing the first considered as a heating machine but as a machine for packaged air-to-air Heat Pump was begun. providing year-round air conditioning, that is, both The Weatherton, trade name of the heat pump, is cooling and heating, its real economic usefulness what is known as an air-to-air unit. That is, nothing begins to emerge, and the recent rapidly rising trend but air and electricity are used to provide the heating toward complete year-round air conditioning of resi- and cooling. As its rather prosaic but technically dences has focused new attention on the Heat Pump- descriptive name implies, the Heat Pump, by the Year-round air conditioning includes heating in use of an ingenious arrangement of refrigerant and winter, cooling and drying in summer, air filtering, air flow, simply pumps heat from one place to an- circulation and ventilation. These functions are other and in so doing either cools or heats the space accomplished electrically, under automatic control, it serves depending on whether the heat is pumped without combustion and without fuel in the ordinary into or out of the house. Electricity provides the sense. 26 Spartan Engineer To better understand the operation of the Heat work delivers the wanned oi cooled air throughout Pump, one must keep in mind four basic laws of the house. An ideal system for distribution "I air nature, namely: within the space served delivers heated or cooled air 1. Heat exists in the air at all temperatures—below upward in a fan-like pattern low along the walls ol freezing as well as above—all the way down to the rooms that are exposed to the outdoors. Return absolute zero (-459° F.). air is taken from grills in interior partition walls 2. Heat always tends to flow from a higher tempera- The principle <«l the heal pump is not limited to ture to a lower one. the use ol aii for heating or cooling, It is also possible 8. All gases cool on expansion and become warmer to take heat from the ground, deep wells or ground when compressed. water. 4. Heat is absorved when a liquid changes to vapor The use ol ground coils as a heat source has prac and heat is given off when vapor condenses to tical limitations lor use with Heat Pumps. In addi a liquid. tion to the expense of installing a ground coil, then are so many variables (such as soil composition ami Your ordinary household refrigerator utilizes these moisture content I involved that each ground COil laws of nature in its operation every day and the basic has to be individually engineered and even then you principle of the Weathertron is the same as that of may not be sure of the results. an electrically operated refrigerator. Well water is a good heat source since Its tempera- ture is fairly constant throughout the year, However, in many sections of the country ground water is not HEATING OPERATION readily available and the cost ol providing a well of sufficient capacity may be prohibitive. Also in COOL AIR FROM ROOMS the event a deep well is used considerable power ma\ be consumed in pumping water. So from an over-all standpoint, weighing the ad- vantages and disadvantages, it was decided that an COOL AIR TO OUTDOORS air-to-air unit be made. The prime advantages are that air is universally available, is easy to move in sufficient quantities and results are relatively pre- dictable. In addition it permitted development of a OUTDOOR AIR truly packaged unit, sort of a large domestic appli- ance machine, which is ideally suited for the mass market. MOTOI COMPRESSOR In a refrigerator heat is drawn from the food stored COOLING OPERATION inside by evaporating a liquid refrigerant passing WARM AIR through a coil inside the box. The heat-bearing FROM ROOMS refrigerant gas is then compressed and pumped to another coil on the outside of the box where the gas condenses to a liquid and the heat is given up to H6ATED AIR the room (place your hand behind the refrigerator TO OUTDOORS when it is running and you will notice that it is warmer than the rest of the room). The cooled refrig- erant then returns to the inside coil to pick up more OUTDOOR AIR heat and repeat the cycle. The Weathertron works the same. In winter it MOIOH CO/«PK5SO« expands a refrigerant and sends it through a coil where it extracts heat from the outdoor air. The heat COOL REFRIGERANT laden refrigerant gas is then compressed and pumped HOT REFRIGERANT through another coil and the heat is released into the house. Air from the house is blown through the refrigerant coils at this point. The air absorbs the The Weathertron is compact in size and can pass heat from the tubes in the coil and warms the rooms through a 28-inch door. It can be placed in almost as any location, garage, basement, alcove; any place that it is gently circulated. The main difference between the refrigerator and is convenient to the home owner. Since it does not the heat pump, other than the difference in their burn any combustible fuel, its location is not depend- capacities, is that the heat pump is built to automat- ent on a chimney, and in fact, the house does not ically reverse its cycle of operation so that in summer, need a chimney. The flexibility and function of the heat is picked up from inside the house and dumped unit may have a profound influence on future home outdoors. The development of the Heat Pump fits that histori- The addition of equipment such as blowers, filters, cal pattern of "Electricity for Better Living." controls, etc., completes the system. Ordinary duct- 27 January 1954 New Developments Edited by: llarlow Nelson, M. E. '54 On the Ground Air Conditioning small arc on its periphery. This slip ring, turning for Airliners under a pair of brushes, closes a circuit each motor Passengers who have sat in airplanes waiting to revolution. A master reference, common to the ten take oil and cither sweltered or shivered, according motors, consists of a brush which is rotated at syn- too the weather, will find relief at the new Greater chronous motor speed around a stationary commu- Pittsburgh Airport at Pittsburgh, Pa. tator having ten evenly spaced contact segments, one for each motor. One side of a circuit, common to It's the only airport in the world to provide a central the ten units, enters through the brush and in one air-conditioning and heating system that connects revolution makes contacts with each of the stationary by hose to standing aircraft. contacts. Trap doors on the apron where airplanes park An idle motor is started, brought up to speed, and contain hoses lor fresh air as well as gasoline and oil. The hose for the air-conditioning and heating system synchronized by leaving the compressor unloaded is connected to the bottom of a plane and fresh air and the motor field weak. A set of relays then begins is pumped through the airliner's ventilation ducts as to reverse the motor field excitation and, with each long as the craft remains in the parking area. reversal, the motor slips a pole. This process con- tinues until the motor slip ring contact closes at exactly the same instant as that motor's indexing contact on the master reference. At that instant, a high speed relay closes to terminate the field reversing process and to increase the motor field current to normal; the relay also operates a signal to the oper- ator that the compressor may be loaded. The whole secret, of course, is that all ten motors are adjusted so that their slip ring contacts close at approximately the same angular positions of the com- pressor crank for each machine. However, since each motor's indexing contact on the master reference is different from that of every other motor, the ten compressor cranks are out of step with each other and station vibration is held to a minimum. Lamps the Size of a Pencil Lead A new light source is smaller than the head of a pin. It is a sub-miniature, neon-argon glow lamp and has a special job to do. Fifty of them are laid out side by side in front of a moving strip of 35-mm Ramp Hose Connection film for recording events in laboratory experiments where space is scant. This "lamp" is a slender glass Simple Method fo r Keeping Reciprocating tube 0.05 inch in outside diameter and 1*4 inches Machines Out of Step long. When a 110-volt, d-c potential is impressed Westinghouse has a solution for keeping compressors across the lamp, a glow is formed in a gap 1-mm (1/25 driven by synchronous motors out of step that is both inch) long between 0.03-inch diameter Kovar elec- novel and simple. This old problem of keeping a trodes in the glass cylinder. This lamp is a contender battery of reciprocating machines out of step to avoid for, if not the holder of the title of the "world's shaking the place apart has had many solutions—often tiniest lamp." very complex. This new scheme, already applied to an installa- The lamp and a tiny series resistor to limit the tion of ten machines, equips each motor with an extra current-y 2 milliampere-draw only 1/20 of a watt. slip ring which has a contact segment built into a The current in the glow is but 1/30 of a watt. One of the problems in making such a tiny glow lamp 28 Spartan Engineer is that the volume of gas is so small that any slight Noiseless Exhaust for Trucks contaminant has a large effect. Even the seemingly inconsequential volume of gas contained in the bit After two years of intensive engineering research, of glass pinched off the end when the tube is sealed an exhaust system has been developed thai renders must be taken into account. exhaust noises inoffensive to the human ear, Truck models with the newly-designed mufflers and exhaust pipes will 1><- in production next month. A special name, "Silent rower," was Originated for the system to indicate not only thai it has eliminated objectionable exhaust noises but has not had to decrease its engine power to achieve it. Although "Silent Power" system costs more to manufacture, it will be standard equipment at no extra cost to the user. "When we started work on this two years ago in response to demands by truck operators, we had no formulas or a base line from which to begin," an official explained. "Engineers by trial and error method, and in co- operation with muffler manufacturers, finally worked out a system that will absorb those noises so offensive to the ear." The mufflers are a reverse-flow type, larger than previous units and made more rigid by the use of heavier gauges of metal. New exhaust manifolding and larger exhaust pipes are incorporated in the sys- tem. A different system had to be developed for gaso- line and diesel engines because of the different vol- Control of Tension in Steel Strip umes of noise to be stifled. A new tensiometer regulator that has a total move- ment of only 100 mils—less than one eighth inch- Lights Dimmed Automatically controls tension in steel strip moving two thirds of The "Techtronic Eye," causing much excitement in a mile per minute over a range of 20 to one. Its the automotive and safety fields, is being readied for predecessor had a travel of two to three inches. The national distribution. shorter travel makes for faster response. Chart records Designed to reduce accidents caused during night show that the operator of a temper-pass mill can driving trips, the "Techtronic Eye" relieves the driver effect a change in strip tension from 8000-pounds down of the tedious task of dimming and brightening head- to 6000-pounds in one-half second. Consequently if lights. It functions whenever, and only when, the the operator sees a bad edge or other defect in the car's "open-road lighting" equipment is sent into ac- strip, he has a better chance of reducing the tension tion. The driver is completely relieved of the task before a tear occurs. of manually switching light beams. Accidents caused The tensiometer gets its signal from a reluctance- by temporary blindness due to headlight glare be- type pickup, similar in principle to that used in come minimized. phonograph record players. The signal is amplified PICTURE COURTESY OF WE5TINGHOUSE by Magamps. A special circuit takes the tensiometer out of operation when tension falls to less than 800 pounds thus preventing the tensiometer from trying vainly to maintain tension during start up, shut down, or when the strip breaks. The tensiometer is all electric. In contrast to sys- tems that are part mechanical this requires no damp- ening, thereby eliminating the jieed to readjust when operating tension is changed over a wide range. Although the previous type of tensiometer is widely used and will continue to be preferred for some In its regular pattern of functioning, an oncoming tension-regulation applications, the small-travel ten- car moving with its "brights" engaged, would cause siometer is better suited where the range in tension the device to undergo a switching-action as soon as B wide and also where rapid adjustment of tension is it appears on the device's horizon." Your headlights required. automatically go from bright to dim-stay that way In addition to controlling tension it gives a continu- until all oncoming traffic passes. When the opposite ous indication to the operator. The ability to contorl lane is clear they automatically return to bright. tension closely during acceleration and deceleration (Continued on page 32) reduces the amount of off-temper material produced. 29 January 1954 II The Therouxs by: Bruce Harding. M. E. '54 Clockwise, from upper left: Charles, James, Frank, and Paul. In the center, Prof. Theroux. The Therouxs The most unusual distinction about Prof, Theroux, In Room 108 of Olds Hall there is a man with an however, he must share with Mrs. Theroux, for they unusual distinction. He is Frank R. Theroux, a pro- are the parents of seven children, all of whom have fessor of civil engineering, who hails from New'Haven graduated from Michigan State! This, they believe, is Connecticut. Professor Theroux was in the first grad' a record. The seven children are, in order of their uating class, the class of 1909, at Technical High ages: Louis-34, Robert-32, PauI-30, Frank-28, School in Springfield, Massachusetts, and went on Charles-26, Frances-23, and James-22. from there to receive his bachelor's degree in civil Louis, who graduated in 1939, received a B.S. in engineering in 1915 at Valparaiso College in Valna electrical engineering, spent some time in the Air raiso, Indiana. After considerable field experience throughout the country, Prof. Theroux went back to rorce, and now holds an executive position in com- college and received his master's degree in 1924 at munications at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. Cornell University. Twenty-five years ago after a Robert, class of '41, has his B.S. in sanitary engi- few more years as a consultant, he joined'the staff " e e " " § - A f t e r serving in the Air Force, both during here at Michigan State College, and has remained World War II and on a tour of duty checking sanitary u here ever since. installations of European Air Force bases, he is now (Continued on page 42) Spartan Engineer THEY STARTED OUT EVEN AT GRADUATION: is one doing better now ? You'll work with the newest develop- You'll Be Happy—Not only because You may not see it in their outward of the interesting and rewarding work, appearances - but there's a big dif- ments in electronics and communica- tions as you help expand and improve but for many other reasons. For in- ference between these young men. stance, Bell Telephone Companies arc the world's best telephone service. One has held three jobs in the five There Are Places to Go—Each year located in all parts of the country. So years since graduation. lie's still the number of college people hired is you may be able to start where you looking for a job that offers him a want to live. And what about salaries? related to estimates of the number of It is the basic policy of the telephone lifetime career. The other has been future management positions expected with a Bell Telephone Company dur- companies to pay salaries that compare to be available. We are looking to the favorably with those positions of similar in g that time. He's on his way up! future—yours and ours. responsibility in other fields. Seventy-five per cent of college \bu Grow with a Growing Business men hired by the Bell Telephone —The Bell System is one of the fastest No matter what your military Companies since World War II are growing businesses in the world. Since status, it's worth inquiring about still with these telephone companies the end of World War II, it has spent Bell System employment opportu- about nine billion dollars for new con- nities. Your Placement Officer has after five years? Here's why: struction. The past five years have seen the details. And be sure to talk to Telephone Work Is Interesting - As the introduction of network TV trans- our employment representatives a n engineer, you'll be planning tele- mission, dialing of Long Distance calls when they visit the campus. The Phone facilities or supervising construc- and the development of the remarkable time to plan your future is now! "on, installation and maintenance. transistor. BELL TELEPHONE SYSTEM 31 January 1954 The paper reported that if, in addition, camera Developments (Continued from page 29) units were placed in each classroom, this would enable the principal to obtain an instantaneous check Television Camera Attachment on classroom conditions from his office. Furthermore, teachers in training and visitors would be able to New Small Television Camera for Use in Home, study classroom procedures and student reactions Schools, and Business Establishments Extends without personal intrusion. the Services of TV-Camera Over the Door Through the use of two cameras and receivers Can Check Callers, While Camera in Nursery tuned to complementary channels and linked by cable, or Yard Will Enable Parents "to Keep an Eye" it would be possible to set up a two-way television on the Children Through the Standard Televi- communication system for the transmission of visual sion Set - Many Other Uses for Such a Closed- Circuit Television System are Foreseen. information, the paper stated. The camera, it was explained, contains a Vidicon pickup tube and a three-tube signal amplifier. The A simple television camera attachment that can be camera is about the size and weight of a 16-mm combined with any standard TV receiver to extend motion picture camera. All power requirements and human sight in businesses, schools and homes was the signal pulses which control the scanning action demonstrated by scientists and research men at the of the camera are taken from the receiver through National Convention of the Institute of Radio Engi- adapters placed between the tubes and their sockets. neers at the Waldorf-Astoria. A standard receiver so used for closed-circuit pur- This attachment, consisting of a small television poses, it was emphasized, may be returned to regular camera and an electronic control device, can trans- TV broadcast reception in a moment. The quality form any <>l America's 23,()()(),()()() TV sets into a closed- of the observed picture, the paper stated, is limited circuit viewing apparatus supplementing the field of only by the normal picture reproducing quality of entertainment, according to Dr. V. K. Zworykin. the receiver itself. "Uses in the home," said Dr. Zworykin, "might in- The simplicity and economy of the system is a clude watching the children, asleep in the nursery or result of maximum utilization of receiver circuits and playing in the yard, checking callers at the door, and components. Its potential uses go far beyond those observing activities in the kitchen. This system would of the usual industrial television system. It brings make the receiver in the living room, not merely a us a step nearer to the fullest utilization of television means of entertainment, but the real nerve center in its broadest sense as an extension of vision. of the home." He also pointed out that up to the present broad- Providing Answers with cast television has far overshadowed all other tele- vision applications, but reported that closed-circuit, Electronic Computer or industrial-TV, is finding increasing use in industry, Have you a battleship that has acquired the quiv- research and education. He continued: vers? Or a chemical formula that needs exact control? "We shall describe a device which is aimed at the Or perhaps you're curious about the life expectancy fullest realization of potential uses of television pick- of that new oil well of yours. up equipment. This device is a camera adapter which A west coast airplane company, it would seem, can makes every existing television receiver a potential provide a lot of help with its electronic analog com- closed-circuit television system. It takes the form puter, a fantastic assembly of vacuum tubes and of the simple Vidicon camera which transmits video circuits which, if given all the facts and figures, can signals over a cable to the receiver. Its use does not provide the answers. impair the normal operation of the receiver in any Engineers and mathematicians make haste to point way. out, however, that their computer is not an electronic "The camera attachment is so simple and easy to "brain." It cannot create. But if given the differ- adapt to the receiver that applications in schools, ential equations of a problem through its dials and businesses and homes, as well as other fields, become wiring hookups, it can provide the answer with feasible. alacrity. It does this within its electronic circuits, "The school presents a fertile field for inexpensive regulating voltages so that they simulate the variables closed-circuit television. In an increasing number of inherent in the problem. schools, the television receiver is coming to be looked In short, it is a great mimic, and can imitate an upon as a standard piece of classroom equipment. The airplane in flight, a hockey puck skidding down the addition of even one camera attachment, linked by ice, or an incinerator burning trash. It can simulate cable to several receivers, can enhance their useful- anything that does not have a mind of its own, ness. provided the effects of an outside will can be deter- "With the aid of the attachment, the school princi- mined. pal can address all classes simultaneously, introduce It was in 1949 that the electronic analog computer distinguished visitors, and present visual demonstra- became an identifiable unit, although its pieces had tions at close range to the students. All this can be been operating for several months. It was not an accomplished with a minimum expenditure of time invention so much as it was a collection of existing and without disruption of classroom schedules." inventions rooting back to small, special-purpose 32 Spartan Engineer electronic sets which were built for use in the devel- New Paint Stops Fire from Spreading opment of automatic pilots for guided missiles. Engineers are studying with a great deal of Interest The units were expendable and junked after each the recent development of a new (ire retardant paint use, but as the scrap pile grew, engineers decided a that is easily applied by brush or spray and actuall) flexible set-up that could be re-used for different stops fire from spreading. Everyone realizes the loss problems was indicated. That led to today's comput- of life and property that results I nun rapidly spread ing flame, so this may well prove to be one ol the er. Physically, it resembles an up-ended telephone greatest advancements yet made to help prevent these switchboard. disasters. The computer has been used to solve numerous Because every drop of this paint is claimed to problems in industrial and college research, and has contain a mass of minute "built in" (ire extinguishers; brought about considerable savings in material, man- when exposed to flame it pours out carbon dioxide and calcium chloride which smothers fire and retards hours and dollars. the spread of flame right on the surface. A case in point was provided during the recondi- tioning of an escort-type aircraft carrier. Two electric Industrial Television Solves a Mystery generators had been replaced with a single higher- capacity generator, but when started the new unit Industrial television turned detective during the past summer and solved a case by giving police an was found to have vibrations, severe enough when eye-witness view of thieves at work. the ship was docked, but more objectionable when The locale was a stockroom of a television service the carrier put to sea and increasingly so when the in Holywood. Inventories had disclosed that tele- ship accelerated. vision equipment was being stolen on a substantial scale—some $38,000 worth (covered by insurance) Engineers at the shipyard came up with several was missing on the initial check. structural-change ideas, one of which called for altering the dimensions and rigidities of the existing Officials on the spot, recalling the success of structure supporting the generator and then observ- industrial television equipment in functioning as an ing the effects. Instead of actually cutting into the "eye" in locations too dangerous or inconvenient for ship's steel, however, the situation was simulated on human observers, decided to try the device as an a computer, and 16 modifications were tried out in electronic witness to the crime. Summoning the five hours without touching a torch to the floor police, they concealed the camera unit among the plates. One was found to reduce the vibration by rafters of the stockroom with the lens focused on 47 per cent and was selected as the answer. the loading platform. The rest of the unit—the TV receiver and viewing screen—was placed in a second- The computer can also be used for process control floor room some distance away. of the rate of flow of chemicals going into the making, for instance, of wood pulp. Hooked up between a Every day for two weeks, the TV "eye" was trained signal indicator and a valve-activating device, the on the loading platform as police watched at the computer can control the chemical composition at receiver. The camera recorded the routine activities much closer tolerance than can be done manually at the platform—but it also recorded the suspicious °r by a relay mechanism. The slightest detected actions of one clerk, who casually placed a number change of composition would be corrected by the of boxes of TV tubes on the loading platform during computer, assuring a constant quality of pulp. The the lunch hour ono Tuesdays and Thursdays when valve would be opened or closed only enough to four other people were around. At apparently pre- correct the slightest defection from the formula. arranged intervals a pick-up truck would back into the driveway, the boxes would be put aboard with The petroleum industry offers another example, the help of the suspect, and the truck would pull with the factors affecting the flow of oil in wells a w a y _ a l l before the gaze of the camera and the having been computed and the life expectancy of interested watchers at the TV screen. the wells determined. One of the facts had been made clear by the TV It is in the area of simulating dynamic situations unit, the trap was set. The police at the reeciver (motion problems) involving inertias, angles, forces, waited until the truck took off with another load of springs, displacement, frictions and temperatures, tubes. As they moved in to arrest the clerk, a police together with their electrical, chemical and fluid car trailed the truck to its destination and seized equivalents that analog computers are most applicable. the driver and two alleged confederates. Of course, in areas where the computer's answer The hero of the story is an industrial TV unit which w affected by the preconceptions of the operator, its already has been put to scores of uses—patrolling, accuracy is equal to the accuracy of the preconception, guarding, transmitting fingerprints and signatures, tjor predicting the winner of a horse race or a prize checking numbers of freight cars, supervising oper- "ght, the computer is not superior to the gambler ations of machinery at a distance, riding rockets, and Jho bets with the odds, but it would be glad to generally fitting itself handily into locations where «lscuss the inertia at the starting gate or the force be (Continued on page 38) h'nd a knockout punch. Jonuary 33 1954 Clubs & societies Edited by: Emory Geisz, M. E. '56 Triangle cers and a committee to draft a constitution to be presented to the Student Government consti- < Editor's Note: This is the story of the beginning tuted the rewards of this initial meeting. Activi- of a fraternity and their beliefs of what this new ties of other meetings that term included visits organization will accomplish for them.) of representatives from the national organization and the University of Michigan Triangle Fratern- Good scholarship is not intended to be, nor is ity Chapter. it often interpreted, as an accurate gauge of prob- Election of the officers for the year of 1953- able success in the business world. It is possible 1954 was carried out soon after the college re- and often happens that a man has developed per- opened for the Fall term. At this time official sonal qualities through contacts with others which recognition from the Student Government was go a long way in making him successful in the also obtained. Not having finished a year's pro- daily walk of life. Fraternity means brotherhood, bationary period, this organization operates under involving association with individuals of similar the name of The Triangle Club until official recog- background and understanding. With this in mind, nition is granted from the national headquarters a group of enthusiastic engineering students next spring. visualized a fraternity which would achieve closer Owing to the constant efforts of all the mem- relations with other engineering students and bers and their personal contacts with other engi- increase their scope of scholastic advancement neering students, coupled with frequent open through brotherly help and assistance. meetings and smokers, Triangle now boasts of photo by E. Geisz. over a thirty man membership. Also, a very prom- ising group is undergoing the pledge program. The aims of Triangle are those of the college— the development of well-rounded, educated gentle- men who will be prepared to go out and take a fitting place in society. Fraternities offer all stu- dents better living accommodations, superior food, organized home life, friendship, and valuable ex- perience in human relations. In addition to the advantages of joining any other good fraternity, Triangle aims at outstanding scholarship and emphasizes the advantages of living with a group of engineers, the men with whom the engineering student will be associated all his life. • • 9 O Tau Beta Pi The annual Fall initiation and banquet of Michigan Alpha chapter of Tau Beta Pi was held on Wednes- Front Row (left to right): day, November 4, 1953. The members initiated at Dan Robbins, Prof. Apple, Homi Kapadia. this time were seniors William Bartley, John Cheney, Back Row: Fred Copple, John Kuly, Don Koppelman, Roger Lloyd Reynolds, Dick Consiglio, Joe Piacenti. Miller, Richard Pfeil, James Reif, Robert Somerville, Michigan State College was the only Big Ten and juniors Jerry Griffith, Bruce MacDonald and college lacking a fraternity of this type. Forming John Rood. a nucleus in the winter of 1952, these prospective Mr. George Foster, chief deputy commissioner of engineers contacted the national headquarters of the State Highway Department, spoke on the "Pro- the Triangle Fraternity, a national professional- posed Strait of Mackinac Bridge." Prof. A. H. Leigh social fraternity of engineers and architects, and was toastmaster. asked for their help and assistance in organizing • • o o a chapter on this campus. In the following spring term, the intentions of the group were revealed Eta Kappa Nu to the Engineering School and a meeting of all The Gamma Zeta chapter of Eta Kappa Nu initiated interested was called. Election of temporary offi- six new members on November 7, 1953. The formal (Continued on page 36) 34 Spartan Engineer Another page for YOUR BEARING NOTEBOOK How to keep buried wheels turning smoothly Hidden under the pile of dirt (see arrow) is a 4-wheel truck that backs up this ditch digger's whirling buckets. To prevent breakdowns, the wheel bearings had to be able to absorb the shocks of boulders and the digging action itself. And they had to be protected from the dirt. The engineers who designed this application licked both problems by mounting the truck's wheels on Timken" tapered roller bearings. Timken bearings absorb the shocks because they have tough, shock-resistant cores under hard, wear-resistant surfaces. And Timken bear- ings make closures more effective. How TIMKEN bearings help keep dirt out—lubricant in Timken bearings make closures more effective because they hold the housings and shafts concentric. As a re- sult, dirt can't get in—lubricant can't get out. Main- tenance is minimized. Continuous, trouble-free opera- tion is assured. Want to learn more about bearings or job opportunities? Many of the engineering problems you'll face after TIMKEN TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS graduation will involve bearing applications. For help in learning more about bearings, write for the 270-page General Information Manual on Timken bearings. And for information about the excellent job opportuni- ties at the Timken Company, write for a copy of "This Is Timken". The Timken Roller Bearing Com- pany, Canton 6, Ohio. NOT JUST A BALL O NOT JUST A ROLLER