T he physicist positions a single crystal of age-hardened steel under the sharp diamond penetrator. He touches a pedal, and the pyramidal tip of the diamond squeezes into the polished surface of the steel. The instant that it touches, things begin to happen inside the crystal. Atoms begin to slip and slide, in layers. Some layers abruptly wrinkle and corrugate. If you listen hard when this happens, you hear a faint, sharp, "click." This is the sound of atoms suddenly shifting within the crystal. You can see the action, too—or, rather, the results of it. The photomicrograph above shows the characteristic ridger and ripples. The black diamond in the center is the depres- sion made by the penetrator. By studying these patterns, and correlating the information with other data, scientists at U. S. Steel are trying to learn what happens atomically when a steel is bent, flexed or broken. Thus, they try to develop new and better steels for an exacting and ever-growing steel market. Research is only one area in which we need high-level scien- tific personnel. Partly, this is due to the fact that men progress so rapidly at United States Steel. Remember these figures: among the 20,000 members of our management team, 99% attained their position through advancement within the cor- poration. If you want to take advantage of odds like this, write for our booklet, "Paths of Opportunity." Write to United States Steel, Personnel Division, Room 5680, 525 William Penn Place, Pittsburgh 30, Pennsylvan UNITED STATES STEEL A MASTER'S DEGREE FOR SELECTED ENGINEERING GRADUATES You can get your Master's Degree during regular working hours, while earning the salary and all the benefits of a Chrysler Corporation engineer. At the same time, you will be preparing for a rewarding career as a member of the automotive engineering team that is the leader in the industry. Look at some of the advantages to students who qualify: • Master's Degree in Automotive Engineering in two years. • Regular salaried status. • Classes 8 hours a week, during work hours. • No tuition, no fees. • Broad work experience, through job rotation on 3-month assignments. • An opportunity to concentrate in the fields you select. Like to learn more? Contact your col.ege Placement Office for full details about the Chrysler Institute's Graduate Program and interview dates. If you need any additional information, write: Mr. R. W. Rockereller, P.O. Box 1118, Detroit 31, Michigan. INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING C HRYSLER GRADUATE DETROIT, MICHIGAN SCHOOL ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATES . . . don't get lost in a forest of details! DOUGLAS CLEARS THE WAY FOR CAREER BUILDING WITH MAJOR ASSIGNMENTS BASED ON ABILITY In planning your career, it's important to know that your job will be more than a mere detail in a vast project. At Douglas, you'll work as part of a team sharing total responsibility f or projects of prime importance. This gives greater scope to your assignment... and with promotion from within, more opportunity to chart your future. Many important Douglas assignments are awaiting career-minded engineers. F o r im P ° r t a n t career opportunities in your field, write: C. C. LaVENE DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY, BOX 61O2-J S A N T A M O N I C A , CALIFORNIA Recently AiResearch engineers were typical of many encountered at orientation program is available to called upon to develop an accessory AiResearch in aircraft, missile, aid you in selecting your field of Power motor for aircraft and mis- nuclear and electronic fields. Specif- interest. This permits you to survey siles which would operate at ically, you'll find them in system the project, laboratory and adminis- +1000°F.... a temperature area electronics; computers and flight trative aspects of engineering at where present-day hydraulic and instruments; gas turbine engines and Garrett. Also, with company finan- electrical devices fail turbine motors; cryogenic and cial assistance, you can continue Their answer was this cam piston nuclear systems; pneumatic valves: your education at outstanding uni- air motor, pictured above in a spe- servo control units and air motors; versities located nearby. ciallybuilt transparent shell.Operat- industrial turbochargers; air condi- Project work is conducted by small ing on hot air or gas, its efficiency tioning and pressurization; and heat groups where individual effort is dually increases as temperatures transfer. more quickly recognized and oppor- nse. Upon your employment, in addi- tunities for learning and advance- This problem and its solution are tion to direct assignments, a 9-month ment are enhanced. • For full information write to Mr. G. D. Bradley. A DU PONT JOB-FINDER CHART FOR BS-MS ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS Here is a sampling of the kinds of engineers and scien- column. The code letters refer to the type of work lists which Du Pont will employ this year with BS-MS (Research, Development, etc.). The departments of the training —and their fields of work. The chart is an easy Company are listed across the top. The column across A Research C Design t Plant engineering way to match your own interests against joh openings the bottom indicates some of the locations where these F c | at Du Pont. departments have openings. Du Pont also has oppor- B Development D Production I For example: If you are a mechanical engineer, tunities for other engineering and scientific specialties, run your finger across the "Mechanical Engineers" but space does not permit a complete listing. EDITOR Spartan Engineer BUSINESS MANAGER . . . FRAN WEIHL of michigan state university VOLUME 11 NO. 2 JANUARY, 1958 ASSOCIATE EDITOR LARRY PAULET FEATURES 14 How A Highway Is Built MANAGING EDITOR Courtesy of Portland Cement Association CHARLES PUMA 20 Fiberglas by O. H. Doutlick 24 When R Equals Zero by Richard J. Plugge PROMOTION MANAGERS 26 Coal-Fuel Or Raw Material . . . . by Charles W. Griffen JIM ROSSI 46 Reinforced Panels In Construction by Gary Eugene Gaffield 56 This Business Of Modern Forgings... by Robert R. Kroff DEPARTMENTS 30 C l u b s & Societies CLUBS & SOCIETIES JOHN TALBOT 35 New Developments 71 Sidetracked ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER 74 Index To Advertisers WARD FREDERICKS Cover: Carquinez Bridge presently under construction will link San Francisco Bay area with Sacramento Valley. Design features ADVFPTiciM/- U I M , r c n of the bridge include all-welded design and extensive use ADVERTISING MANAGER of high strength "T-1" steel. Photo by courtesy of The Lincoln ROGER FAUL Electric Company of Cleveland, Ohio. Frontispiece: INDUSTRIAL EYE-A symmetry in steel makes an "Indus- trial CIRCULATION MANAGER eye" of this portion of a giant generator stator at KATUV DAVEPORT General Electric's Large Steam Turbine-Generator Department. This generator, when fully assembled and installed along with its accompanying steam turbine, is capable of furnishing enough electricity to adequately STAFF satisfy the electrical needs of some 26,000 persons. It will be powerful enough to simultaneously light over PAT MILLER 3,500,000 60-watt light bulbs. BOB DENDY BURT MOORE MAGGIE McNAMARA MEMBER ENGINEERING COLLEGE MAGAZINES ASSOCIATED Published four times yearly by the students of the COLLEGE OF ENGINEER- ING, MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, East Lansing, Michigan. The office is ADVISORS on the third floor of the Student Services Building, Phone ED 2-1511, Ex- tension 2614. Entered as second class matter at the Post Office in East PAUL G. GRAY Lansing, Michigan, under the act of March 3, 1879. D. D. McGRADY Address Mail to: P. O. Box 468, East Lansing, Michigan Publishers representative Litrell-Murray-Barnhill, Inc. 369 Lexington Avenue, New York 605 W. Michigan Avenue, Chicago Subscription rate by mail $1.00 per year. Single copies 25 cents. January, 1953 7 Chemistry is engaged in the vital transformations of the universe Since the time of Ancient Greece, man has been prob- ing into the composition of the elements from which he derives existence and sustenance. And these first at- tempts, crude and unorganized as they may now seem, nevertheless marked the first advance toward some understanding of matter. Thereby chemistry was born. What progress has been accomplished since the Aris- totelian doctrine of the four elements! Man advanced from there to the alchemist's arcanum, and ultimately to the harnessing of the atom by our modern scientists! How far will the search go? So many secrets are yet to be unearthed. The scientific mind is understandably en- thralled by the magnitude of the task ahead. And the enchantment, too, for the mystery is irresistible. Partic- ularly when the solution means triumph over discoveries apt to profoundly influence generations to come. It is a tremendous challenge. But the true scientist's thirst for knowing, advancing, creating is only limited by his vision and his courage before the unknown. . . . and you, too, can help shape the future See for yourself. Write our Director of College Rela- tions. He will send you our booklet "Opportunities For College Trained People With The Dow Chemical Com- pany" and tell you when a Dow representative will visit your campus. At Sylvania a man may choose from 67 plants and laboratories doing research, development and production throughout the broad spectrum of activities in the electrical-electronics industry. Graduates will find tough, but challenging, problems waiting for them in these laboratories and plants. (We make no bones about the difficulty of the work — it will tax your every skill.) But hard work has many compensations at Sylvania — where 75% of the facilities have been completed in the last 6 years — where equipment is the latest — where your associates are men of stature and reputation — and above all, where the atmosphere is one of freedom and accomplishment. And, at Sylvania, personal recognition and reward are realities. In simple words, a Sylvania man goes as far as his own abilities take him in: Electrical Engineering (Radio-Electronics-Communications-Hlum- ination)—Mechanical Engineering — Chemical Engineering —Chem- istry (Physical-Analytical-Inorganic) —Metallurgy — Metallurgical Engineering—Physics—Industrial Engineering—Mathematics—Cer- amics— Ceramic Engineering — Glass Technology. Salaries are excellent, and comprehensive benefits include educational assistance plans. To learn more about these nationwide opportunities, see your college placement officer, or write us for a copy of "Today & Tomorrow with Sylvania." X-13 Vertijet Adds New Punch to Airpower Washington —Unveiled in an unpre- million manhours of research, develop- cedented flight at the Pentagon, the ment, and test in VTOL aircraft. Ryan X-13 Vertijet gave military officials a glimpse of the future of air- Navy, Army to use New Ryan Nevigator Power. Like a huge bat, the Vertijet unhookeditselffromitsnosecable*°UseNewR y° n into honzontal flight and roared out of World's first jet VTOL aircraft, the San Diego-Navy aircraft-piston Vertijet combines the flashing perform- engine, jets and helicopters will soon be ance of jet power with the mobility of equipped with Ryan lightweight auto- missile launching. It frees supersonic matic navigators and ground velocity airpower from runways and airports. Without lansing gear, flaps, actuators, the indicators. Lightest, simplest, most the X-13 concept means reliable, most compact of their type. less weight- these systems are self-contained and more Performance in speed and climb. based on continuous-wave radar. In the words of a top Air Force The navigators provide pilots with neral, "The Vertijet has provided required data such as latitude, longi- for planners with a new capability tude, ground speed and track, drift manned aircraft of the future." angle, wind speed and direction, ground Achieved in close cooperation with miles covered and course and distance the Air Force and Navy, the Vertijet is to destination. Ryan is also developing based upon Ryan's unsurpassed 2 1/4 guidance systems for supersonic missiles. "Scientific knowledge is derived from observations of one in its conceptual basis, must always agree with the the world. Our imaginations, however, are not bounded old theory in the predictions it makes for that class of by this constraint —we can easily imagine physical non- phenomena. Despite the greater generality of quantum sense. Not everything is possible. We sometimes get the mechanics, Newton's laws still apply to macroscopic opposite impression because new scientific discoveries objects. Parity is still conserved for the strong inter- force us to modify an old theory, and give rise to new actions. The old impossibilities still remain. Within the and unexpected possibilities. But the point is that the limits denned by the impossibilities, there is plenty of old theory was verified for some class of physical phe- room for man's inventiveness to operate. In fact, the game nomena, and a domain of validity was established. The is even more challenging that way." new theory, however radically it may differ from the old — Richard Latter. Head of the Physics Division If your answer is yes, you're a Detroit Edison engineering type. The kind who'll tackle an impossible problem—and lick it. You're not afraid to have a new idea. You're the kind of young engineer who works hard at finding faster, more efficient, more economical ways. In short, you're the inquisitive, exploration-minded sort of engineer Detroit Edison is looking for. At Edison, your assignments will be liberally sprinkled with exciting challenges to your training and ability. And creative engineering is called for even on ordinary jobs. You'll enjoy a big helping of prestige when you're associated with Detroit Edison, too. It's one of the Midwest's best-known, best-liked, most progressive public utility companies, noted for its pioneering accomplishments and leader- ship in America's business enterprise system. For some outside evidence of Edison's reputation, take a look at the March 25, 1957 issue of Electrical World. It contains eight pages, by some of America's leading electrical equipment manufacturers, devoted to recent engineering accomplishments in Detroit. They emphasize the important contributions Detroit Edison engineers make and will continue to make to equipment and systems engineering and design. Think we're stretching our story a bit? Here's your chance to find out. Drop us a note and we'll send you a copy of "Detroit Edison Engineering"—it tells about the challenges and opportunities waiting for you. Write to the Employment Department, Detroit Edison, Detroit 26, Michigan. Or check with our repre- sentative when he visits your campus. HOW A HIGHWAY IS BUILT Courtesy of Portland Cement Association The huge 13-year national highway program now mining right now how many vehicles, of what type, shifting into high gear over the country will give will be traveling between various cities, and by what many millions of Americans their opportunity to be routes, at various hours of the day in the year 1975. roadside superintendents at one of the greatest shows This is not to guide them in building tomorrow's on earth—modern, mechanized roadbuilding on a highways, but today's. By law, highways now being large scale. built on the 41,000-mile National System of Interstate To those who consider roadbuilding prosaic, a and Defense Highways must be designed and built word of caution is in order. Childhood remembrances to carry the traffic of 18 years from now. no longer apply. Highway design and construction This means land purchased now must be wide today are as different from that of the 192()'s—our enough to accommodate the number of lanes re- last big highway-building era—as 1957 model cars quired for future volumes of traffic. The road must are different from the Model A. From a cut-and-fill be located where it will be most needed in 1975 and operation Involving mostly manual labor, roadbuild- beyond, as well as today. ing lias progressed into one of the most complex of modern businesses, involving such varied skills as The decisions our highway engineers make will aerial photogrammetry and soils chemistry, and such play a vast role in shaping the future of America for specialized tools as electronic computers, diamond- not only must they plan for the needs of existing tipped saws and two-way radios. communities, but for communities as yet unborn which will result from these new highways. Pave- The path for a modern road may be cleared by a ments and bridges must be strong enough now to machine capable of removing eight truck loads of carry the increased volumes and the types and weights earth in one huge bite. The most modern of today's highways are built by paving "trains" of ingenious of vehicles that will use them in the year 1975. machines which actually move on rails, mixing, de- To build all roads to the highest standards would positing, spreading and leveling the concrete pave- be prohibitively costly. But to "under-design" a ment. Even the concrete itself is different, containing heavy duty highway is even more wasteful. Thus the literally billions of microscopic air bubbles in every responsibility resting upon the shoulders of the state yard. highway engineer and the difficulty of his forecast- ing job are enormous. These are some of the surprises which greet the roadside superintendent behind the barricades. But, engineers point out, such a casual visitor sees only Highways Don't Just "Happen" the final phase of roadbuilding. Planning and design of the highway started many years before. In early America, the first roads often followed Indian paths through the forests, or even routes favored by buffalo. Today's major highways are not Who's Going Where? left to such chance. Once traffic studies and forecasts have shown the needs, the actual routes of the new The job of planning an Interstate System highway highways are determined by the most advanced is staggering. State highway departments are deter- engineering skill. 14 Selecting the route begins with a survey of the intricate findings to scaled blueprints and accurate la nd which the new highway will cross. To deter- cost estimates. On the New York Thruway, for in- mine the most practical and economical route, the en- stance, an eight-mile stretch required a plan book gineer must consider the contour and geology of containing 1,200 separate maps. ne land, the flow of water, and even such seemingly An important step remains—acquisition of the remote matters as the angle at which the winter sun right-of-way. Today's superhighways are built on a will shine on the snowy slope of a hill. This is where strip of land often more than 300 feet wide. To obtain ae nal photography comes in: many highways are this much land is seldom -an easy, and sometimes a n ow designed on the basis of three-dimensional aerial very time-consuming task. It becomes even more Photographs which form an extremely accurate top- difficult and expensive when—in the case of a city ographical map. expressway—buildings have to be moved or wrecked and families relocated. For Chicago's Congress other engineers armed with boring drills, seismo- Street Expressway, for instance, right-of-way acquisi- graphs, and instruments for chemical analysis gather tion alone cost $4.4 million out of the total cost of ata on the soil. The surveyors determine whether $12.5 million per mile. the ground will be firm enough to withstand the anticipated load of traffic. They also plan how "cuts"- With right-of-way purchased, and plans and specifi- areas where earth is moved—can be most economically cations approved by the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads balanced with "fills"-sections w h e r e earth m u s t be to qualify for Federal aid, the project is at last ready added to minimize earth moving. to be advertised for bids. The responsible contractor who submits the lowest bid gets the contract. Now It they are ready to design the new highway. (Continued on Next Page) may take many months to reduce the surveyors' 15 January, 1958 The Builders Move In drainage pipe, work is begun on other structures The contractor's forces arrive at the construction such as bridges and culverts. site, set up camp, and take over like a modern mech- anized army. The first machines to see action are After the right-of-way has been cleared and drain- usually the bulldozers; they are sent crashing through age facilities installed, the earth movers pull out. the landscape to shave off trees, obstacles and under- They leave the roadway a few inches below grade, brush. When rock is encountered, it has to be blasted ready for placing the pavement. This "subgrade" is and hauled away in trucks. compacted tightly by giant rollers to prevent future settlement. The bulldozers are followed by giant scrapers that clear and shape the terrain along the right-of-way. Next, a four to six-inch thick layer of granular They rip off sod and top soil, shave off high ground material-sand, gravel or crushed rock-is deposited and fill in the low areas. One of these giant scrapers on the subgrade to keep the foundation well drained can move as much earth as a thousand men with and free of frost. This material is trimmed by a wheelbarrows. "grader" to a precise tolerance of about l/16th of an inch. Next come machines which cut roadside ditches or trenches for drainage pipe. Good drainage is es- Meanwhile, crews have been placing the forms for sential on any road. Unless the soil under the pave- concrete. Since these forms also serve as rails for ment is kept dry, it loses its ability to support the the finishing equipment, they must be placed very pavement. Simultaneously with the installation of accurately to make sure the pavement will be uni- formly even to satisfy exacting inspection. 16 Spartan Engineer Paving Begins at Last giant revolving screw is also often used for this pur- pose. All this work has been preliminary to building the After the concrete has been leveled, it is compacted Pavement. The giant paving machines which can m ix and place as much concrete in one day as is used by vibrators—a row of pneumatically operated "feet," in building 200 average-sized houses now appear. which beat into the concrete at the fantastic rate of The huge drums of the paver are loaded with dry about 4,000 times a minute. The vibrators remove material-cement and aggregates-delivered by truck any voids that may have been present in the newly wom a batching plant. Then in a series of automatic placed concrete. operations, the proper amount of water is added, Bringing up the rear is a self-propelled finishing the concrete is mixed and delivered to the dump machine called a "longitudinal float." A typical ma- bucket The bucket rides out over the roadway on a chine consists of a hydraulically controlled steel lon g boom, places its load-generally about IK cubic blade, or "screed," that moves slightly from side to yards of concrete—exactly where needed, and re- side as the machine progresses along the pavement. turns for another load. This final mechanical operation gives a smooth, true surface to the pavement. As the concrete is placed on the roadway by the Paver, the "spreader" moves up. Using the side forms For final finishing, men push long-handled wooden as r ails, this self-propelled machine pushes a big floats back and forth across the finished pavement, Paddle from side to side to spread the concrete (Continued on Page 32) evenly over the space between the side forms. A \7 January, 1959 This reproduction was made from an old photograph dated 1880, found in the Kerite archives at Seymour, Conn. It was taken as the steam tug "Western Union" completed the laying of an 18-conductor Kerite insulated submarine telegraph cable from New York, under the Hudson River, to Jersey City. It indicated that Kerite insulated cable was contributing to the . furtherance of submarine telegraph circuits long before the i turn of a century. How RCA brings a richer, wider range of musical sound to your home Before high fidelity, the that you can enjoy music almost as sound of recorded music though you were there. WHERE TO, MR. ENGINEER? was limited—much as And now, Stereophonic Sound! A new and dramatic dimension in re- RCA offers careers in research, piano music would be if development, design, and man- you could hear only the corded music is also yours to enjoy ufacturing for engineers with notes played on the center on RCA high fidelity instruments. Bachelor or advanced degrees of the keyboard. No Stereophonic units can be added to in E.E., M.E. or Physics. For rich bass notes, no keen, most "Victrola"* Hi-Fi systems any full information, write to: Mr. Robert Haklisch, Manager, t i vibrant highs. te ,s c c time you choose. In this, as in almost every area of College Relations, Radio Corporation of America, R C Aaancd ha cioeuvstics e m e n t si nt h es c i e n c eo f changed all that. electronic progress in home entertain- Camden 2, N. J. With R C A V i c t o r Today records and ment, defense and industry, the leader- should gn fidelity "Victrolas," the full range ship of RCA serves you. RCA means of sound is reproduced so faithfully electronics at its best! Fiberglas by O. H. Doutlick The origin of glass and its manufacture is not After three years of mutual cooperation and the spend- known with certainty. Historians state that the Phoe- ing of five million dollars in research, they were con- nicians discovered glass by a happy accident when vinced that mass production of fiberglas was tech- preparing a meal upon the seashore. They placed nically and economically feasible. Accordingly, in their cooking vessel upon blocks of carbonate of soda October of 1938, the two firms organized Owens- and sand, and the union of the sand and the alkali, Corning Fiberglas Corporation to take over their joint when subjected to the fire, resulted in pellets of glass. research efforts in this new product. Egyptians made jewels of glass as early as 5(K)() H. C. In some ancient tombs, glass has been found that imi- The Owens-Corning Corporation has granted patent tates emeralds, rubies, sapphires and other precious licenses, with reasonable royalties, to several major stones. manufacturers to produce fiberglas in its various forms. Down through the centuries, craftsmen and skilled artisans have guarded the art of glass-making with In its fascinating journey toward its various markets, the greatest of pride and jealousy. They have formed fiberglas starts out as a batch of silica, lime, soda guilds and maintained an air of secrecy in the prog- and other chemical ingredients in a huge melting and ress of glass manufacture. Venetian and Steuben processing tank. The material progresses through glassware, with others of skill and beauty, have en- several manufacturing steps, which fall into two basic joyed recognition by people throughout the world. categories. In the first system, the molten glass is steam-drawn, with high pressure, on to a moving The most recent development, in the glitter and belt which produces a delicate, fluffy mass of short are of glass, is fiberglas, which was still a laboratory curiosity a scant twenty years ago. The versatility of fibers, known as glass wool. In the second system, the fiberglas moved the product from the laboratory in- molten glass is extruded through minute holes in the to industry. bottom of the furnace, and the resulting threads of glass are caught on a rapidly revolving drum and spun Fiberglas was the result of research programs by into any desired thickness-coarse, or finer than human skilled people to better man's way of life. In 1931 hair, depending on the end use of the glass filaments. Owens-Illinois Glass Company, one of the largest The glass wool and the glass filaments are the basic makers of glass containers, was busily searching for foundation of the glass fiber industry. new products to supplement its line of manufactured products. They launched a program of research in Glass wool is widely used for insulation and for filtering. The product provides a vermin and moist- glass fibers, on which German technologists had al- ure-proof insulating material for homes. When glass ready done promising work. The Corning Glass is coated with oil, it makes a very effective air cleaner Works, in 1935, began studying the same field with or filter for numerous uses in the home and in indus- development and research programs. The two com- trial applications. The oil, on the surface of the glass panies started to exchange experimental and research wool, will catch dust and foreign substances drawn results in an effort to speed their technical progress. through the filter. 20 Spartan Engineer Glass filaments are the most widely used in the placed in paralled patterns, in random patterns or in home and industry. T h e glass filaments are woven layers at various angles depending on the specific into cloth and m a d e into very decorative curtain and loads which are encountered in the product or part wapery material. T h e material is easy to maintain, that is used in a product. Typical examples of interest durable and has an excellent appearance. The cost of are as follows: drapery and curtain material to the consumer is com- a-Fishing rods, in which all the strands of fiber- petitive to other materials that existed before the glas are made to run lengthwise, when the rod fiberglas era. is being made, to take care of the loads when catching and landing a fish. Whatever its specific use, fiberglas boasts a com- b-Automobile bodies, where the panel strength must Mnation of properties that are hard to match by rival be nearly uniform in all directions, so a mat of materials. Products m a d e from fiberglas arc durable, fiberglas is used. resist combustion, dimensionally stable (that is, will not contract or expand, w a r p or buckle) and resistant c-Bathtubs, which are made of plastic reinforced to moisture, corrosion and aging. Products with fiber- with fiberglas, are items that require a uniform gas may be stronger than steel or aluminum, lighter strength and therefore, also use a mat of fiber- than cotton and as flexible as silk. glas. Boats, furniture, lamp shades, safety hats, aircraft strands of fiberglas are used to reinforce plastics, ducts, radar scanner, radomes, truck tanks and wash- thermoplastic and and thermosetting compositions, in ing machine tubs, to mention a few products, require much the same was as steel is used to reinforce con the product to have uniform strength in all directions crete. The thermoplastic resins or plastic that are for maximum safety and durability. used are polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride. The ther- The combination of fiberglas and plastics is one of mosetting plastic used with fiberglas are phenolics. the most easily molded materials known to the mold- melamines, epoxies and the polyesters. The polyesters ing industry. The materials require extremely low have found the widest use, to date, as they are usually pressures of from zero to 250 pounds per square inch. thick liquids that harden when catalyzed (that is, The use of pressure is generally required only to when aided by a chemical that accelerates the react- (Continued on Page 68) ion) and heated properh-. The glass strands may be 21 Januray 1958 Temperatures within a fraction of a this superconducting state, they are degree of absolute zero are produced perfectly diamagnetic, i.e. will com- routinely by Westinghouse scien- pletely exclude magnetic flux when tists in their search for more knowl- placed in a magnetic field. edge of the important phenomena While this fundamental research of superconductivity. These phenom- is being conducted by theoretical ena rank with the nature of nuclear physicists in search of knowledge wees as one of the most funda- and understanding of first principles, mental problems facing the theo- from even the terse description above retical physicist. When supercon- of superconductivity, the imagina- ductivity is completely understood, tion begins to run wild with engi- its Principles could well revolu- neering applications. An electronic tionize the electrical and electronic computer using superconductivity memory elements will switch 10,000 industries. times faster than conventional com- The basic principles of supercon- puter elements, will store 10 times ductivity have eluded an explana- as much information per unit space tion since 1911 when the first ex- as ordinary computers. If the con- ample of the complete disappear- ditions can be fulfilled to make a ance of electrical resistance in metal substance superconductive in tem- was discovered. Today scientists at perature regions other than that thee Westinghouse Research Labo- ratories in Pittsburgh, are making significant contributions to the field by their low-temperature research. Superconductivity occurs in cer- tain metals, alloys and compounds which, below characteristic transi- tion their temperatures, completely lose electrical resistance. While in January, 1 9 5 8 When R Equals Zero By Richard ]. Plvgge Man lias always been interested in the world about that at 4.2° K the material had no resistance to an him. Throughout the pages of history he has acquired electric current. Contrary to all the basic physical a knowledge of the things he could see. Since the laws he knew, the resistance, R, dropped to zero at beginning of the 20th century, he has been making that particular temperature. This phenomena is now an intense study of all natural phenomena; the in- referred to as superconductivity. visible and not naturally occurring, as well as that easily seen. Lately, he has been concentrating on the To understand superconductivity, we'll have to look extremes in nature, lie is pushing back tile barriers ol at conductivity in normal temperature ranges. Physi- knowledge by studying the depths of the oceans, the cists believe that conduction is the process in which upper limits of the atmosphere, the antarctic, and electrons move through the lattice of atoms which the arctic. make up the material. At normal temperatures atom lattices contain a great amount of thermal energy. He is also observing the extremes of the tempera- In their high energy states, they vibrate with large ture range; studying the high temperature thermal displacements. The electrons, in passing through the barrier and the region near absolute zero. At low lattice, find they are hindered by these vibrating temperatures materials exhibit two strange results: atoms. Collisions and interactions between these vi- superconductivity and paramagnetism. These seem- brating atoms and the electrons produce a loss of ingly unexplainable phenomena rank with the nature displacements. The electrons, in passing through the of nuclear forces as one of the major problems facing energy to the electron current, and therefore is re- theoretical physicists. It is the phenomena of super- ferred to as the resistance of the material. conductivity in the region near zero that we would like to discuss here. As the temperature drops, the resistance also drops, yielding a curve of R vs. T as a straight line in figure Near the turn of the century Heike Kamerlingh 1. This curve is reasonable when we picture the Onnes, a Dutch physicist, was successful in liquefy- conducting material as a vibrating lattice structure. ing helium at 4.5°K. The K stands for the Kelvin As the vibrating displacement decreases because of temperature scale which is used by scientists. It is a loss in thermal energy, the atom structure becomes also referred to as the absolute scale, because it is more open space. Therefore, the resistance to the flow zero at absolute zero. Absolute zero on the common of electrons becomes less. Fahrenheit scale is — 460° F. Northern Siberia once recorded an atmospheric temperature of — 90° F, there- Because impurities in the material cause irregular fore, when Onnes liquefied helium, he had produced lattice structures, we find that there is a residual a temperature about 400° below the coldest man has resistance. Due to this residual resistance, the R does ever felt. not approach zero as the T approaches zero; instead, it levels off at the residual resistance, (figure 1) Using liquid helium as a cooling agent, Onnes be- In superconductive materials a different effect is gan studying the behavior of materials near absolute zero. When working with frozen mercury he noticed noticed. When the temperature approaches zero there 24 is a particular temperature, the transition tempera- Spartan Engineer ture, at which the residual resistance suddenly drops ones. Also, elements with 3, 5, or 7 valance electrons to zero. It is interesting to note that good conductors per atom become superconductive most easily. Super- at normal temperatures retain a relatively high re- conduction also seems to favor bulky crystal structures sidual resistance near absolute zero, and that super- with large amounts of empty space. The highest conductors at temperatures near zero are very poor known transition temperature is 18°K. It is for a conductors at normal temperatures. In fact, copper compound of tin and niobium which has an average is sometimes used as an insulator in superconductive of 4.75 valence electrons per atom and a bulky eight circuits. To date, there are twenty-one elements and atom, wide open crystal structure. One of the aims of ma ny alloys and compounds which become super- solid state physicists is to produce a superconductive conductive at transition temperatures between zero material with a high transient temperature so it can and 18°K. easily be used in electronic circuits. There have been many attempts made to try to There has been much data obtained experimentally explain superconduction. One of the most successful on superconductors. We find the transition tempera- tneones was made by Frohich and Bardeen. They ture is a function of the magnetic field strength, the thieve that at low temperatures the vibration of the material, and the absolute temperature. Figure 2 atoms in the lattice structure and the wave motions shows the interaction between the absolute tempera- of the electrons are synchronized. The result is that ture and the magnetic field strength for niobium and the electrons reduce their energies and ride along tantalum. These two elements are the most important with the lattice vibration as oil a wave. Thus, the as far as practical use is extended today. Below the resistance to the flow of electrons disappears. curves, the element is superconductive. Above the Some curves, it has residual resistance or normal conduc- su features that help to formulate a theory of tion. One can easily see that the transition from superconduction are that light isotopes become super- superconductivity to normal conductivity occurs with conductive at higher temperatures than do heavier an increase in the magnetic field strength at a con- stant temperature. It is this feature that makes super- conductive elements of practical importance in cir- cuits today. There are two ways in which we hope to use superconductors. One is as high frequency antennas, and the other is in switching and computer circuits. At present, the cryotron (figure 3) is receiving much attention as a superconductive computer element. The antenna applications are still very much theoretical. (Continued on Page 64) 25 With the advent of atomic power and solar energy, subjected to extreme pressures, the remaining sub- coal is oneof the foremosttechnological problems of stance consists of from 60 to 96% carbon, the rest he- OUR time. In 1953, For the first time in its history, coal ing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and mineral dropped from .1 leading place ai a source of energy ash. The analysis of coal into its elemental consti- to a position behind oil. each producing more than tuents, however, tells us almost nothing about it as one-third of the energy requirements. Coal is still a a chemical substance. For this we must know the big and vital element in the operations ol our indus- chemical structure of coal, the way in which its atoms trial s o c i e t y i S o m e 4 0 0 m i l l i o n t o n s , t h e a m o u n t a n - are linked to form molecules. Until recently the exact nually being consumed in this country, is not a trifling chemical structure of coal, due to its great complexity quantity. It accounts lor over three-fourths of U . S. and variability, was almost totally unknown. As the electrical energy; it is Indispensable, in the form of derivatives from coal were studied, their molecular coke, tor the production of iron and steel; and in structure fell into two geometrical divisions. From many other ways is woven through all the basic strata coal tars came a series of compounds, called aromatic of industry. because of their pungent odor, whose structure took The major fact about coal, however, is the vast the form of ring-shaped molecules. The basic unit store remaining underground. In carbon alone, mine- was benzene, consisting of a central hexagon of six able coal reserves represent 300 times the world's carbon atoms with six hydrogen atoms attached. On estimated reserves of oil. Carbon is the backbone of this ring all the rest of the compounds were built by all life and commerce; carbon compounds in one form the simple addition of one carbon atom at a time. As or another make up 9 5 ' , by weight of all the prod- the number of carbon atoms in the molecule reached ucts of human labor. In the past fifty years, coal has ten, two benzene rings were fused, sharing two of the had its biggest and most lucrative markets cut from carbon atoms between them to form naphthalene. under it by more convenient or more efficient fuels- Three fused rings formed anthracene, which is the oil and natural gas for heating, Diesel fuels for ships largest molecule in the series. and railroads. Now it is faced with the emergence of atomic power and solar energy. An intricate shifting From coal gas and the like came another series of of the technological base of industry is in progress. carbon compounds, called aliphatic because of their This may well prove to be a very definite asset to our fatty or oily character, whose distinguishing form was economy. Industry persisted in regarding coal primar- a linear or chainlike molecule. The basic unit in this ily as a fuel, while the petroleum industry began early series is methane, the simplest of hydrocarbons, con- to do heavy research on its basic raw materials. sisting of a single carbon atom surrounded by four attached hydrogen atoms. From methane the series \\ e need only to examine a lump of coal to be re- builds up, again by the increment of one carbon atom minded of its plant origin from the regular cellular per molecule into progressively longer and longer patterns. Some 300 million years later, after being carbon chains. 26 Spartan Engineer These two broad structual forms—ring and chain, as hydroxyl units (-OH) and methyl units (CH 3 ). turned out to be the cornerstones of synthetic organic The carbon ring may also be fused with other rings themistry. With the simpler coal derivatives as start- into discrete nuclear groups or clusters. These units, ing points, molecules could be built up, linked and divisible only by chemical means, probably form the rearranged by various reactions to form a vast variety basic molecules of coal. They range In size from about of compounds with different properties. Though the four to thirty fused rings. For a given coal the clusters number does not begin to approach the enormous all belong to the same skeletal arrangements, I lie variety and complexity of carbon compounds in clusters form rather flat molecules which are stacked nature, no fewer than 500,000 compounds have been so tightly that there may be some chemical bonds be- synthesized. These compounds embrace the whole tween the layers. This gives coal a basic structure range of dyes, drugs, perfumes, plastics, fibers, rub- like continuous layers of chicken wire. bers, explosives, adhesives, detergents, solvents, in- There are five basic processes for extracting tin secticides and other products that constitute the hidden wealth of materials from coal. Most of them modern organic chemical industry. were originally devised in Germany where, because Throughout this development the exact molecular petroleum was lacking, research centered on this structure of coal remained a mystery. Exactly how alternative source of basic hydrocarbons. The proc- coal was put together was a matter difficult to ascer- esses range from methods for reducing the chemical tain. To begin with, coal was a highly variable mix- parts of coal to the simplest gaseous molecules, then ture of complex plant substances converted by the rebuilding them into desired products, to methods for coal-forming process into other complex substances. extracting chemicals directly from coal in mixed Any attempt to break the complex coal molecules groups, then separating them. In order of increasing a Part by the usual combustion methods so drastic- complexity or specialization, the range of coal proc- ally altered them that the resulting fragments could esses are: not be confidently identified as bearing any relation- 1. Carbonization. This is the oldest process, noted snip to the structure of the starting materials. in the by-product coke oven, where charges of bitum- In the past ten years, a mounting attack on the inous coal are roasted to burn out part of the carbon, problems of coal has begun to clarify the chemical drive off volatile substances and give three main srtucture of coal. The sum of these investigations is product groups: metallurgical coke, coal tar, and that the basic molecular skeleton is now generally gases. The principal gas is CO, used as fuel gas and agreed to be a ring-shaped structure whose nucleus is to make ammonia, methyl alcohol and other chem- the six carbon ring of the aromatic compounds. The icals. Only about one-third of the tar finds its way total molecule is by no means as simple as benzene. into useful chemicals and nearly half of the coal tar chemicals remain commercially undeveloped. The skeletal ring of carbon atoms is surrounded by (Continued on Page 41) hydrogen atoms and a variety of atomic groups such 27 January, 1958 This can be YOU... an "Engineer-Journalist" grew, and in less than a year he applied for a position for you! You do not need previous writing experience, with McGraw-Hill. but you do need: ambition, an alert, inquiring mind Art started with E N G I N E E R I N G NEWS- and a desire to write. RECORD in 1948 as an Assistant Editor. Since Send today for your copy of "Successful Careers then, Art has been "up to his neck in engineering" in Publishing at McGraw-Hill." Or write and tell us In ten short years, Art has climbed rapidly in his . . . earned his P. E. license while an engineer- about yourself, your achievements and career goals. profession. Just back from a 2,500-mile editorial trip journalist . . . been active in A.S.C.E. and other Write to: to Canada, here's what he has to say: professional organizations. Peter J. Davies "To me, journalism is a form of teaching. Backed If you want a fast-moving career in engineering Assistant to the Editorial Director by the world-wide resources of McGraw-Hill, through journalism: prestige, variety, a view of the "big McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., Inc. travel, by working with leading engineers, I report picture" in your industry, and more—we're looking 330 West 42nd Street, New York 36, N. Y. on what's new and significant in engineering and construction. I try to make my articles more than instructive—to inspire readers to tackle and solve projects they might otherwise shy away from." Other than preparing reports in college, Art had no early writing experience. Immediately after grad- uation, he was employed by a leading firm of con- sulting engineers. While on the job his appreciation for the inspiration-power of the industrial magazine Eta Kappa Nu sented to supplement the material presented in tl classroom. E t a Ka Eta Kappa Nu is the only Electrical Engineering P P a Nu, working with AIEE-IRE also plans Honorary at Michigan State University. This honorary exhibits and assists with the Engineering bxposu is selected from the men in the top one-third of the The present officers of Eta Kappa Nu are: senior class and the top one-fourth of the junior class for their outstanding character, scholarship and gen- President: John Eidson eral engineering knowledge. Vice President: Phil Eiche This year Eta Kappa Nu is preforming another Corresponding Secretary: Dave Norton service to the Electrical Engineering students. They Recording Secretary: Bob Becker are sponsoring a series of seminars in which informa- Treasurer: Stan Auld tion concerning scientific education, engineering Bridge Correspondent: Al Dasher ethics, scientific concepts and other material is pre- Faculty Advisor: H. E. Koenig 30 Spartan Engineer Engineering Council Because the Engineering Council consists of two representatives from each professional, honorary and social The Engineering Council, the student engineering engineering society, it acts as co-ordinator be- tween governing body, is one of the busiest organizations these societies. One of the services they have preformed this year lias been correlating the meetings in the engineering fo school. Its predominate r and out- ° of the various societies, standing service is organizing and administrating the annual May Engineering Exposition. The Engineering Council with the help of Dean Ryder has also assisted in organizing the knights 01 The council which consists of approximately 36 St. Patrick. members handles details of the Exposition such as the T h e p r e s e n t o f f i c e r s of t h e Engineering Council are: selection of the Engineering Queen, with the help of the Knight's of Saint Patrick, organizing the student President: Ed Janoschka Vlce and industrial exhibits, supervising the midget car President: Bill Schuhardt race and sponsoring the May Hop. The Engineering Secretary: Ed Fox Council also awards cash prizes to the outstanding Treasurer: Don Stroud Facult student and High School exhibits. This year the Coun- y Advisors: B. C. Kmgo, C.E. cil is also sponsoring the state-wide meeting of en- Carl Cooper, Chem. E. gineers during the Exhibition Week. H. G. Keeney, E.E. A. S. E. HOW A HIGHWAY IS BUILT (Continued from Page 17) The Society of Automotive Engineers is the profes- sional society which serves as the center of technical smoothing out the slightest imperfections. Others drag thought and discussion for engineers of the automo- a strip of rough-textured burlap or draw a stiff tive industry. bristled broom across the slab to give the concrete Here at State tlit; student branch gives interesting a grainy, skid-resistant surface. Finally, a curing mem- programs to all engineering students who are inter- brane is sprayed over the concrete to retain moisture ested in going into that field. Last term on October until the pavement has fully hardened. 17, there was a technical meeting on "Automotive Air Shortly after the concrete is finished, thin, almost Suspension." The speaker was Mr. C. O. Slemmons, invisable contraction joints are cut. These are sawed chief development engineer for General Tire and in the pavement by a diamond-tipped or carborundum Rubber Co. On November 14, there was an organiza- blade after the concrete has partially hardened. tional meeting and then two films; Styling the Motor Sawed joints, now widely used, provide smoother Car and one on the Darlington Race. riding than the formed joints used in the past. The student branch plans to have many more meet- Another important development is the use of "air- ings this term and next where more speakers from entrained" concrete which contains billions of tiny air industry will come in and give talks. bubbles. These air spaces provide expansion chambers The I958 officers are: for freezing water and thus eliminate the scaling formerly caused by freezing and applications of salt Chairman William Harris to melt ice. Vice-Chairman Robert Pautsch When the paving train has placed and finished the Secretary Fred Rigotti concrete, many jobs still remain. Firm shoulders Treasurer Jack Kline must be constructed; slopes must be sodded and the Representative to Engineering right-of-way landscaped to prevent erosion as well as Council Robert Pautsch to beautify the roadside; and fences and traffic signs Engineering Exposition must be erected. Committee Jack Kline When the road is opened for travel, the motorist Fred Rigotti is likely to notice only the wide smooth ribbon of Faculty advisor Dr. L. L. Otto concrete, unaware of the years of research and plan- ning that give him the world's finest roads. But be- cause the motorist is also a taxpayer helping to pay M.S.U. Amateur Radio Club for these roads, it is up to him to help make sure his One of the least known of the clubs on the campus money is invested in the safest, most durable high- is the Amateur Radio Club. For over thirty years ways possible. The roads being built today are a this organization has made available to all interested multi-billion dollar investment in America's future. students the facilities for transmitter operation on If they are built of the most durable materials, to the "ham" bands, workshop for experimenters, and the high standards demanded by future traffic, they an atmosphere of congenial fellowship for those in- will be one of the best investments America ever terested in radio and electronics. made. At the present time, there are many activities un- derway. Four transmitters are standing by and wait- ing for any qualified amateur license holder to oper- ate. Teletype reception and transmission is now an actuality. The weather radar is almost completed and the club has hopes of having it in operation during the tornado season. Last April, the organization was honored by being selected as the State Civil Defense Communications Headquarters. Now during times of emergency, stu- dent operators will be on duty. The club meets every Thursday evening at 8:00 p.m. in the tower of the Electrical Engineering Build- ing. All students are invited to attend a meeting and become acquainted with the members and club facil- ities. Chairman Dick p r y Secretary-Treasurer Clyde Replogle Chief Operator Don Donath Faculty Advisors J. O. Ebert J. Hemmyc 32 Perhaps you have heard some classmate say, almost complacently, "Times have changed." With many branches of industry today openly competing for good science and engineering graduates, who can blame the young graduate-to-kx for feeling supremely confident. You know you can get a job, know that salaries are high and are fully aware that men with technical backgrounds are moving up to administrative positions in ever-increasing numbers. Nevertheless, in many respects, times have not changed at all. That "first job" is every bit as important today as it was five, ten, twenty years ago. Starting salaries remain only one of many factors to be considered. And a man's future is still necessarily linked to the future of the company for which he works. Moreover, a thoughtful examination of such matters as potential growth, challenge, advancement policy, facilities, degree of self-direction, permanence, benefits and the like often indicates that real opportunity still does not grow on trees. For factual and detailed information about careers with the world's pioneer helicopter manufacturer, write Mr. Richard L. Auten, Personnel Department. TECHNICAL ARTICLE CONTEST For the Best Article Published in THE SPARTAN ENGINEER NOW!! THREE PRIZES First Prize $25.00 Second Prize $15.00 Third Prize $10.00 Deadline for Articles: MARCH 1st, 1958 OFFICIAL RULES 1. Articles may be technical or semi-technical on any engineering subject. 2. All students are eligible. 3. All articles should be at least 1500 words in length. 4. All articles submitted become the property of the SPARTAN ENGI- NEER and may be changed, edited, or published at the discretion of the staff. 5. Judges will be SPARTAN ENGINEER editors and faculty advisors. 6. Judging will be based on suitability, accuracy, reader interest, coherence, illustrations, and general effect on the reader. 7. Contest closes March 1, 1958. 8. Winners will be announced in the May issue. 9. No student may win more than one prize. Interested students may leave articles in room 346 of the Student Services Building. In levitation melting, compressed metal powder is placed inside a copper coil which carries a high- frequency current of electricity. Reversing its direc- tion nearly a million times a second, the electric current generates a field of force which floats the metal charge inside the coil. At the same time, it converts the metal into a white-hot molten mass in a matter of seconds. Temperatures of 4500 to 5000 degrees Fahrenheit are achieved in half a minute or less, melting all but the most stubborn of metals. At white heat, metals such as niobium and titanium are among the most active chemicals known. They react chemically with any known vessel in which they are melted. The traces of impurities they pick up can- not be tolerated in research on the pure metal. Levitation melting eliminates this problem entirely. No containing vessel is required, since the molten metal floats freely in space, confined only within itself. The whole process is carried out inside a sealed vessel containing an inert gas such as helium or argon, thereby protecting the pure metal from con- tamination by the air. Simplicity of apparatus, speed of melting and ease of handling a wide assortment of metals and alloys are other advantages of levitation melting. The molten metal even stirs itself, yielding unusually uniform al- loys from mixtures of different metals. Scientists are using levitation melting to prepare Man's newest "wonder" metals are now being in- a wide variety of the newest metals and alloys for vestigated by heating them thousands of degrees metallurgical research. Such research with ultrapure above white heat, while they float, freely suspended metals seeks the fundamental knowledge which lies in space. Called levitation melting, this unique and behind their full-scale use as metals of the future. versatile technique was brought to its present state of development by the combined efforts of scientists Thus, in the past few years, titanium has emerged at the Westinghouse Research Laboratories and the from the laboratory as an important building mate- University of British Columbia. rial in supersonic aircraft and missiles, and zirconium has developed into a vital structural metal in nuclear Levitation melting was given its first major public reactors. demonstration at the International Ampitheatre dur- ing the National Metals Exposition and Second World Although not yet "graduated" from the laboratory, Metallurgical Congress, sponsored by the American niobium—the latest "wonder" metal—may soon be- Society for Metals. Levitation melting is used to pre- come an outstanding high-temperature, high-strength Pare highly purified laboratory-scale ingots of niobi- structural metal. Levitation melting is one of the um, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum and dozens of few methods known for the preparation of niobium alloys. Because they melt at very high temperatures, and niobium-base alloys in the purity required for and are extremely active chemically at such tem- fundamental research on the metal. Peratures, these metals and alloys are difficult to Prepare with equal purity by any conventional (Continued on Page 40) method. 35 January, 1958 FIGURING OUT A CAREER? Selecting a career can be puzzling, too. computer work," he says, "you can actually Here s how Gerald Maley found the solution see electronics at work. This is not the case to his career problem-at IBM: w i t h a l] s u c h equipment today. In this new 'What sold me on IBM," says Jerry, "was field, you can be an important contributor their approach to engineering. I'd expected in a very short time." rooms full of engineers at desks. Instead, I . » * « found all the friendly informality of my col- There are many excellent opportunities for lege lab. Starting as a Technical Engineer well-qualified engineers, physicists and in Product Development, Jerry learned a mathematicians in IBM Research, Develop- great deal about electronic computers in a ment and Manufacturing Engineering. Why very short tune. He was promoted to Asso- not ask your College Placement Director ciate Engmeer after 16 months. Recently, when IBM will next interview on your ne was made Project Engineer, supervising campus? Or, for information about how the development of magnetic cores. "In your degree will fit you for an IBM career, Mr. R A \A/h;»=k-, n « INDIANAPOLIS, IND.: (Special) It takes a lot of teamwork to carry out the missions of carrier-based fighter pilots of our New Air Navy. And, it takes a lot of teamwork to design, develop and produce a fighting machine for these dedicated men. Such teamwork is exemplified in the Allison J71 turbo-jet engine with afterburner (above) which powers the Navy F3H-2N Demon all-weather fighter-interceptor. Many Allison engineers—out of school only a few years ago and now well entrenched on the Allison Division team of General Motors Corporation—contributed to the operational success of this powerful engine. If you would like to know more about the Allison team, write Personnel Department, College Relations, Allison Division of General Motors Corporation, Indianapolis, Indiana Among the many engineering problems relative to Pratt & Whitney Aircraft is a special group of elec- designing and developing today's tremendously tronic, mechanical and aeronautical engineers and powerful aircraft engines is the matter of accumu- physicists. Projects embrace the entire field of lating data — much of it obtained from within the instrumentation. Often involved is the need for engines themselves — and recording it precisely. providing unique measuring devices, transducers, Such is the continuing assignment of those at Pratt recorders or data-handling equipment. Hot-wire & Whitney Aircraft who are working in the highly anemometry plays an important role in the drama complex field of instrumentation. of instrumentation, as do various types of sonic Pressure, temperature, air and fuel flow, vibra- orifice probes, high temperature strain gages, tran- tion — these factors must be accurately measured sistor amplifiers, and miniaturized tape recording at many significant points. In some cases, the meas- equipment. uring device employed must be associated with Instrumentation, of course, is only one part of a special data-recording equipment capable of con- broadly diversified engineering program at Pratt & verting readings to digital values which can, in turn, Whitney Aircraft. That program — with other be stored on punch cards or magnetic tape for data far-reaching activities in the fields of combustion, processing. materials problems, mechanical design and aero- Responsible for assembling this wealth of infor- dynamics — spells out a gratifying future for many mation so vital to the entire engineering team at of today's engineering students. The excellent electrical characteristics, high thermal NEW DEVELOPMENTS stability low water absorption, and high tensile strength of LEXAN film make it suitable for use (Continued from Pane 35) as an electrical insulating material. Significantly, the original polycarbonate chemistry New Polycarbonate on which LEXAN polymer is based grew out of re- The discovery and initial development of a new search efforts directed at new, improved insulating plastic material tough enough to replace metals in materials. Like polycarbonate resins, these products many applications was recently announced. have traced a pattern of original scientific discover} leading to development and application in a wide Parts made from the new compound, LEXAN poly- variety of products not always related to their orig- carbonate resin, are reportedly strong enough to with- inally intended use as electrical insulating materials. stand the blows of a carpenter's hammer. LEXAN molding compound is expected to replace cast metals, ceramics and other plastics in some applications. LEXAN resin offers an unusual combination of toughness, impact strength, heat resistance and di- mensional stability. These properties make it promis- ing for applications not previously handled by conventional thermoplastic materials. LEXAN resin is now being made in small lots and all available material is being used for testing pur- poses. The polymer is being evaluated in the form of molding compound, extrusion compound, film, var- nish and coatings. Early studies indicate that LEXAN resin can be made in a variety of transparent or opaque colors, with parts showing good surface hardness and gloss. Properties of the polymer suggest its use in such applications as coil forms, decorative and functional appliance parts, gears, automotive parts, housings, structural parts, handles, drawer rollers, electronic c omponents, and telephone accessories. Strange Crystal Growth May Explain Steel Failure Crystals, which grow as delicate plates from the surface of stainless steel, may explain, for the first time, a destructive failure of the metal known as "stress-corrosion cracking." This new theory was revealed by an international authority on corrosion, Dr. Earl A. Gulbransen, advisory chemist at the Westinghouse Research Laboratories in Pittsburgh, Pa. Dr. Gulbransen spoke before the Second World Metallurgical Congress, at the International Amphitheatre, Chicago, under spon- sorship of the American Society for Metals. Stress-corrosion cracking can occur in metal struc- tures which are chemically corroded while under an internal or applied stress, such as a pull or twist. It can cause complete failure of the structure. Stress-corrosion cracking can be- triggered even by such mildly corrosive substances as steam or human perspiration; and it occurs in objects subjected only (Continued on Page 42) Spartan Engineer START TODAY TO PLAN TOMORROW By knowing about some of the projects underway at the Babcock & Wilcox Company, an engineer may see his personal avenues of growth and advancement. For today B&W stands poised at a new era of expansion and development. Here's an indication of whatjs going on at B&W, with the consequent opportunities that are opening up for engineers. The Boiler Division is building the world's largest steam generator. The Tubular Products Division recently introduced extruded seamless titanium tubing, one result of its metallurgical research. The Refractories Division developed the first refractory concrete that will withstand temperatures up to 3200 F. The Atomic Energy Division is under contract by the AEC to design and build the propulsion unit of the world's first nuclear- powered cargo vessel. These are but a few of the projects — not in the plan- ning stage, but in the actual design and manufacturing phases — upon which B&W engineers are now engaged. The continuing, integrated growth of the company offers engineers an assured future of leadership. How is the company doing right now ? Let's look at one line from the Annual Stockholders' Report. CONSOLIDATED STATEMENT OF INCOME (Statistics Section) (in thousands of dollars) 1954 1955 1956—UNFILLED ORDERS $'29,464 $213,456 $427,288 """ °9 temperature (850° F) and high pressure (3,000 COAL-FUEL OR RAW MATERIAL pounds per square inch) literally to explode the coal (Continued from Page 27) molecules and attach hydrogen to their dismembered 2. Partial combustion. This also is based on an old chains and rings. This, with its massive additions of process, the "water-gas" reaction. A jet of steam is hydrogen, produces the widest range of coal chemi- blown over a bed of coals in a closed chamber to pro- cals: gasoline, Diesel and heavy oils, benzene, phenols duce large quantities of mixed carbon monoxide and and the range of coal tar chemicals, aniline, hydro- hydrogen, the base of domestic fuel gas. Since the carbon gas and high-grade coke. Depending on the steam cools the coals, the process is inefficiently inter- catalyst and controls, oil products or other chemicals mittent and has lost ground to natural gas. However, may be the major yield. this simple, important process is the first cheap 5. Solvent extraction. A great range of solvents has method for adding reactive hydrogen to coal to get now been explored for selectively dissolving specific a synthesis gas that can be manipulated into many chemicals out of coal paste. None of these has yet chemicals. By substituting oxygen for air and feeding reached commercial status. Solvents are expensive the steam and oxygen steadily, the reaction may be to handle, being merely temporary vehicles in the made continuous. By raising the pressure, part of the process. But with the increasing efficiency of solvent carbon may combine with hydrogen to form methane, recovery, chemical extraction by this means may thus enriching the gas. The efficiency of these de- prove quite profitable. It is low in heat cost and is velopments is now being increased to produce syn- the least destructive method of obtaining certain com- thesis gas of great chemical promise. pounds. 3. Fischer-Tropsch. If the synthesis gas or the resi- For a time during one of the recurrent oil short- dual gas from coal carbonization are now fed across ages it was thought that the oil industry would lead a catalyst at low heat and pressure, a stream of prod- the way toward making chemicals from coal. But ucts results. Heat, pressure and catalyst force the shifting reserve estimates, regional resource patterns small gas molecules to link up into short-chain mole- and the even more shifty economics of hydrocarbon cules. By varying the controls, the resulting propor- sources make prediction dangerous. The development tins of oil or chemical products may be altered. of carbochemicals will probably follow the pattern of the petrochemicals. Thus, with atomic and solar 4- Hydrogenation. This process, developed in Ger- energies freeing coal from its role as a fuel, greater many i n 1 9 1 0 is the first c hemical process to work emphasis is being placed on the value of coal as a directly from coal. A blast of pure hydrogen is shot raw material in the production of chemicals. mto a paste of pulverized coal and catalyst at medium 41 January, 1958 NEW DEVELOPMENTS A small disk of stainless steel, five thousandths of (Continued from Page 40) an inch thick and having a hole six thousandths of an inch in diameter, substitutes for the wire in some to the internal stresses left in them during their manu- experiments. After corrosion by the hot atmosphere, facture. Stainless steel pipes, turbine blades—even the wire or disk is examined and photographed with coffee urns and cooking vessels can fail by stress- the electron miscroscope. The pictures which result corrosion cracking. are startling. Using very pure oxygen and water vapor, the sur- face of a typical sample of stainless steel erupts with billions of oxide "whiskers." Only about one or two millionths of an inch in thickness, these whiskers grow to a height 300 or 400 times their diameter. Their density is about six billion per square inch of metal surface. These dimensions can be visualized by imagining a three-foot chimney built to a height of 1000 feet. The vast number of whiskers on the metal surface is apparent when it is realized that the aver- age human head of hair contains only about 100,000 hairs. "Completely unexpected changes occur in this crystal growth simply by prestressing the stainless steel and adding only the slightest trace—less than five parts per million—of chloride ions to the atmos- phere," Dr. Gulbransen said. Instead of long thin filaments, we discover rows of thin, upright, parallel plates growing along a definite crystallographic direction. Under the electron microscope, these crystals are easily penetrated with a 60,000-volt beam of electrons, placing their thickness at half a millionth of an inch or less. Analysis shows them to have the characteristic structure of an oxide of chromium Cr 2 0 3 . Chromium is a metal normally present in stainless steels, and each tiny plate appears to be a single crystal of its Dr. Gulbransen described the newly discovered oxide. crystals as "submicroscopic platelets of chromium oxide." They form on strongly stressed stainless steel For some time scientists have known that the chlo- specimens which are exposed to corroding atmos- ride ion is a major factor in producing stress-corrosion pheres containing traces of negatively charged chlo- cracking of stainless steel. It would now appear that rine atoms—more properly referred to as chloride ions. "We believe that this unique crystal growth has important bearing on the whole general problem of stress corrosion," Dr. Gulbransen said, "for it has sug- gested to us a mechanism on the atomic scale to ex- plain such corrosion. "We think that this growth of platelets on the sur- face of the steel could lead to a chemical cutting of the metal. Minute crevices, therefore, might grow downward into the metal surface as the platelets thrust themselves above it. This, we believe, may lead to concentration of stress at the base of the crevices and eventually to failure of the metal." The experiments are inherently quite simple, but extremely delicate and precise. In a typical experiment, a small piece of stainless steel wire, nine thousandths of an inch in diameter and subject only to the residual stresses it normally possesses, is exposed to a carefully controlled atmos- phere of oxygen and water vapor at a red-hot tem- perature of 1100 degrees Fahrenheit. 42 "One of the reasons I joined a Bell Telephone When construction is finished in December of this Company," John says, "was because the engineer- year, I'll be responsible for the technical consider- ing would be more interesting and challenging. I ations involved in connecting radio relay and tele- knew I'd chosen well when I was assigned to assist phone carrier equipment. Initially this system will in planning a microwave radio relay system between handle 48 voice channels, but can be expanded to Phoenix and Flagstaff, Arizona. This was the kind 540. In addition to long distance telephone service, of challenge I was looking for. it will also provide data transmission circuits. "It was to be a system requiring five intermedi- "This assignment is an example of the challenges ate relay stations, and I began by planning the a technical man can find in the telephone company. tower locations on 'line of sight' paths after a study You take the job from start to finish —from basic of topographical maps. Then I made field studies field studies to the final adjustments—with full re- using altimeter measurements and conducted path- sponsibility. To technical men who want to get ahead, loss tests to determine how high each tower should that's the ultimate in opportunity." be. This was the trickiest part of the job, because John Reiter is building his career with the Moun- it called for detecting the presence of reflecting sur- tain States Telephone and Telegraph Company. Find faces along the transmission route, and determining out about career opportunities for you. Talk with the measures necessary to avoid their effects. the Bell interviewer when he visits your campus. "Not the least part of the job was estimating And read the Bell Telephone booklet on file in your the cost of each of the five relay stations, taking into Placement Office, or write for a copy of "Challenge consideration tower height, access roads, and the and Opportunity" to: College Employment Super- need for special equipment such as de-icing heaters. visor, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, All told, the system will cost more than $500,000. 195 Broadway, New York 7, N. Y. TODAY, air power is one of the industry's 17,250 hp, in pressures from vacuum to X most vital requirements. Compressed air 35,000 psi. and gases are the "breath of life" to chemical Ingersoll-Rand also manufactures pumps, and process industries, refineries, power rock drills, diesel and gas engines, vacuum plants, steel mills, manufacturing plants, equipment, blowers, air and electric tools mines and all types of construction jobs. and specialized industrial machinery as illus- Hence, compressor and blower engineering trated at the right. These products require offers an exciting and ever-expanding field of engineering know-how in their design, manu- challenging opportunities that are virtually facture and field application. industry-wide. If you are looking for a leadership career with long-range job security and excellent Ingersoll-Rand is the world's largest man- opportunities for advancement, you'll find ufacturer of air and gas compressors and it at Ingersoll-Rand. For further details, con- Turbo-Blowers — supplying over 1000 differ- tact your Placement Office, or write to ent sizes and types, ranging from 1/2 hp to Ingersoll-Rand, 11 Broadway, New York 4. • These are important days for you. You're From our many experiences, we've found coming down the "home stretch" of your that our brochure "YOUR ENGINEERING college training. And you're probably won- CAREER" has proved to be very helpful dering just where you can best start on a reading to men confronted with exactly the productive, satisfying engineering career. same questions and decisions you're facing There are many directions in which you can right now. Why not mail the coupon for go. You want to be sure you select wisely. your copy? It's packed with down-to-earth It isn't always an easy decision. information which may help you...plenty. The architects of the nation owe a tribute to the Two important types of reinforced plastic used industrialists, chemists, and engineers who pioneered in building today are corrugated panels, or sheets, reinforced plastic in building. Architects have always and flat panels. They are from twenty-seven to ninety- dreamed of a building material which is free from six inches wide and two to fourteen feet long. The maintenance, termites, rust, discoloration and disinte- thickness of the materials varies with the require- gration. Now we have a revolutionary construction ments of each particular application. The appearance material which may be used to build ultra-modern of these two types on the market was made in late homes and commercial buildings with fewer support- 1946 and early 1947. Two companies developed re- ing beams and solid walls, thereby allowing maximum inforced plastic panels. The Allied Synthetics Com- use of floor space and sunlight. Proper utilization of pany of San Diego and Macrolyn Incorporated of reinforced plastic by architects will certainly mean Houston independently worked on the same project. great progress in the building construction industry. The Allied Synthetics Company manufactured table Fiberglas reinforced plastic is a combination of tops and wall tile; they developed reinforced plastic flexible strands of glass and a plastic. The plastic is panels as a side line. The first panels produced by usually of the thermosetting type, which becomes Macrolyn early in 1947 were opaque. They were es- quite hard and rigid upon being heated. Fiberglas sentially developed for use by the Great Lakes Steel has unique qualities when it is added to a plastic. Corporation as an external covering for Quonset The plastic has an increase in mechanical strength, buildings. In the fall of 1947, the first commercial stiffness, impact resistance, and ability to hold its full-size translucent panels were manufactured. The shape. The improved properties vary with the growth of translucent panels has been phenomenal. amount of Fiberglas that is added. The glass strands In 1949, the volume of panel sales was half a million reinforce plastic as steel reinforces the concrete in square feet. By 1950, this volume had grown to an our bridges and highways. The glass strands may be excess of a million and a half feet. The translucent placed directionally to resist specific loads, or in a panels market in 1956 reached twenty-five million random pattern for uniform strength in all directions. square feet. In a fishing rod all the strands run lengthwise to take care of the loads that will be essentially in that direc- Price lists of the Fiberglas panels in 1950-51 ranged tion. In the new plastic body cars a random mat is from sixty-nine to seventy-eight cents per square employed that will have uniform strength in all di- foot. In 1952-53 the prices of plastic and Fiberglas rections. These products weigh about one-half as advanced. In spite of this, the panel manufacturers much as steel, yet are five times as strong. Reinforced dropped their prices approximately fifteen percent. plastic can be shaped into deep intricate parts that This lowered the selling price to sixty-three to sixty- are not practical in sheet metal. Formability plus six cents. Today, the price structure is almost un- strength permits the use of this material in many known. Prices are ranging from forty-nine to sixty applications. cents per square foot; a seven cent reduction in four vears. 46 Over the past five years, important advancements sirable appearance, will definitely affect the use of have been made in the color stability and surface reinforced plastics in construction in the immediate appearance of Fiberglas panels. The plastic manu- future. The plastic industry faces a long, tough, up- facturers deserve the credit for the improvement in hill battle in penance for its past sins. color stability. Five years ago, panels showed signs of yellowing after one hundred hours of exposure to Another problem which must be conquered is the sunlight. Today, if a good quality of plastic is used "blooming" of the fibers. Reinforced plastic panels and the panel is constructed correctly, no color change can be made so that the fibers are vertually invisible, is detected even after one thousand hours of exposure. yet under certain conditions the fibers will begin to There are still no translucent white panels that will "stand out" or to "bloom" after short periods of time. stay white for even two years in the southern half The "blooming" is thought to be caused by the shrink- of the United States. It is impossible to determine age of the plastic away from the fibers. Unfortunately, whether this is the result of a change in a minute all panels do not show the same uniform rate of bloom- quantity of impurity, or change in the entire mass ing, and therefore, an entire installation, which was of the panel. originally uniform, might suddenly become blotchy. "Blooming" results in reduced light transmission and There is far greater uniformity of appearance in questionable bonding of plastic to the glass. All these the panels manufactured today. Improved manufac- things point to the fact that the bond between plastic turing techniques deserve the most credit, although and glass is still the weakest link in the reinforced raw materials are also more uniform. Nevertheless, plastic product. This bond must be improved con- n o manufacturer has yet been able to put out a pro- siderably if the construction industry is to continue duct which is really consistant in appearance from accepting reinforced plastic panels. Panel to panel or from month to month. The industry is still faced with certain problems which it must The proper use of reinforced plastic panels is very overcome if it is to stay in existence. Perhaps the worst problem is that of surface erosion. Surface important in its application. Every material of con- erosion gives the panels a rough, irregular surface. struction is a compromise in one respect or another. While the structural strength of the panel is not af- Whenever a compromise with the perfect exists, limi- fected, the appearance is unattractive, and the light tations must be placed on its applications; plastic- transmission is reduced. Today's industrial competition panels are no exception. The present and future suc- and the tendency to reduce the quality and quantity cess of this new construction material can depend, to °f raw material for price reduction, does not help to a large extent, on its proper use. A nearly perfect ma- solve the problem of surface erosion. Well-known is terial, improperly used or applied, can meet with such the fact that the greater the thickness of resin cover- public disfavor that its merits are drowned in criticism. ing the fiber, the less noticeable will be the erosion in a given period of time. Surface erosion, with its unde- (Continued on Next Page) 47 January, 1958 Listed below are some of the limitations and recom- introduced by several custom cabinet builders. mendations for the use of reinforced panels: Kitchen cabinet doors that slide are made with flat reinforced plastic panels, 3/32 to /s inch in 1. Industrial skylights should be limited in extent. thickness. They are easily fabricated, requiring It is possible to obtain too much light and heat only a smooth-cut edge and no further finish- in certain areas of the country by employing too ing. Panels can be made in any color or degree large a proportion of daylighting areas. Present- of translucency and all that is required to com- day reinforced plastic panels will burn slowly plete the door is to attach a knob. The entire anil are difficult to ignite, but nevertheless, they door may be removed in a matter of seconds will burn. for the housewife to clean. An uninterrupted band of roof section, under 7. Reinforced panels have found wide use as storm optimum conditions, might spread a fire un- shutters. The panels have been subjected to necessarily. Usually a two-foot to six-foot separa- severe tests by the University of Miami proving tion of a relatively non-combustible material grounds, and found to perform satisfactorily. will completely stop the spread of flame. Persons in hurricane areas find them easy to install and store. Once again the advantage The separations do not interfere with the light- of translucency finds a use. During a storm, the ing. Such roof-lighting panels should be stop- inside of a house is bathed in a soft diffused ped within two or three feet from the ridge. In light, which defies the horror of the storm. A the event a fire should ignite the panels on one house, closed for seasonal reasons, benefits from slope, the separation at the ridge would not al- the sunlight, which reduces mildew and damp- low the spread of the flame to the other side of ness. The advantage of using the Fiberglas the slope. panels just described, far outweighs the slight additional cost of the material. 2. In certain types of construction, such as patios, careful consideration should be given to the There is no question that the corrugated metal spacing and construction of the rafters. The laps and asbestos buildings will continue to be built; pos- occur directly over the rafters so they can not sibly in even larger numbers. Insulation materials, be seen from the underside. By this method, it such as Fiberglas, have made possible easily installed is also possible to minimize any unsightly collect- panel construction rather than high labor cost mason- ions of dirt and leaves in the laps. ry construction. Also corrugated reinforced panels will continue to enjoy an increased market in the 3. Where water-tight installations are desirable, replacement field wherever fenestration is required. due consideration should be given to providing The market for corrugated, translucent panels for an adequate number of fasteners in both end decorative and functional uses will probably continue and side laps. Three or four years ago, some of to grow in certain sections of the country and fall the manufacturers either could not, or would off in other sections. The use of some panels for such not. produce a panel whose pitch was sufficient- purposes as awnings and patios has somewhat a "fad ly dose to corrugated metal or asbestos so that status. Other building materials of a similar "fad" the panel could be nested with the sheet metal status have a history of going through a cycle. After a or asbestos without undue strain. Today the problem is virtually non-existent among expe- neighborhood or city reaches the saturation point, rienced manufacturers. people want something new. There are still many sections of the country where translucent panels for patios and awnings are virtually unheard of, and 4. Spans should be kept within reasonable limits these areas will continue to enjoy growth in the to avoid undue deflection which might cause future. leaks in joints under wind and snow loads even though failure of the panel does not occur. Translucent panels have truly changed the appear- 5. For tub enclosures, adequate spacing between ance of the entire country. One can say, literally, the panels and adequate room for expansion of that they have left their mark on the landscape. There panels on all sides should be provided. Panels are few places in the country where various colors heated suddenly with very hot water will ex- cannot be seen in the roofs and side walls of indus- pand and bow slightly. If the sliding panels are trial buildings, residences, and commercial establish- too close together, they will rub against each ments. The colorful patio roofs and windbreaks, once other and be difficult to open. a landmark of the sunnier climates of Texas, Cali- fornia, and Florida, are becoming more evident in 6. Many homes have been constructed with the the summer resort states of the North. It has been use of reinforced translucent plastic wall panels proven that chickens and turkeys under hail-resistant behind the kitchen cabinets. These usually dark roosts, produce better because they wake earlier. cabinet positions have the benefit of an outside light source, which make it possible for the lady Skylights, patio roofs, awnings, woven fences, out- of the house to see, rather than grope, into her door signs, garage doors, portable cabanas, free shapes cupboard. The modern kitchen of today is de- suspended by chains as light fixtures, and wind- signed to accommodate the wonders of the breaks demonstrate the versatility of this colorful mechanical age. A neat little trick has been 48 (Continued on Page 68) Spartan Engineer Sure you want a job . . . but you want more than just a job. You want a job with opportunity, a job that offers a challenge. Union Carbide offers such jobs. Jobs with opportunity for what? Advancement, for one thing. Union Carbide is introducing new products at the rate of one every fifteen days. Each new product opens up new avenues of advancement. Not only that; markets for our present products are expanding at an exciting rate too. Jobs with what kind of challenge? Union Carbide has always operated on the frontiers of science. The challenges are the challenges of that frontier—the challenges of new ideas. Union Carbide is already among the largest U. S. producers of titanium—will tantalum be the next "wonder metal"? Union Carbide pioneered the two major plastics, vinyl and polyethylene—is another major break-through in the making? Challenging questions, and Union Carbide people are answering them. Representatives of Divisions of Union Carbide Corporation, listed below, will be interviewing on many campuses. Check your placement director, or write to the Division representative. For general information, write to V. O. Davis, 30 East 42nd Street, New York 17, New York. NEW DEVELOPMENTS A high temperature furnace for studying changes in specimens at variable high temperatures up to (Continued from Page 42) 1,000° centigrade is available as an auxiliary device for the Electron Diffraction Instrument. chloride ions could stimulate the growth of these unique, plate-like crystals in a strongly stressed metal, About the size of a conventional cigaret lighter, which gowth might result fa cracking and the ulti- the unit incorporates a cylindrical ceramic body into mate failure of the steel. which is embedded a heater coil and a thermocouple. The specimen tray and several other components are "Corrosion in all its forms is a major national made of tantalum to utilize this metal's good con- problem, costing American industry an estimated ductivity and high melting point. $5,500,000,000 annually in replacement costs alone," Dr. Gulbransen added. "Our experiments, we think, Because electron diffraction "completes the pic- are typical of a new approach to this whole problem— ture," it is expected that this technique will receive an approach which seeks a better understanding of the wide application to industrial problems now real- the fundamental mechanisms involved in corrosion. ized by X-ray diffraction. The advantages can be summarized as follows: "Such an understanding, we believe, will only come from carefully controlled experimentation on the (1) Electrons can be diffracted by shorter atomic atomic scale, not from observations which depend crystal plane spacings. This is because, for upon massive effects under relatively uncontrolled practical accelerating voltages, electron wave- conditions! lengths are about 1/20 that of X-ray diffrac- tion. As a result, crystal size estimates for a smaller size range can be determined. Electrons That "Kiss and Tell" (2) The electron beam is much easier to collimatc and reduce in size than the X-ray beam. Electrons are revealing the answers to problems that have been plaguing manufacturers for years, (3) Sharper patterns are possible because the elec- thanks to the Electron Diffraction Instrument. tron beam is highly monochromatic. And pat- terns can be seen visually on a fluorescent "Why did the paint peel off the automobile?" screen. Therefore, it is not necessary to photo- "Why did the gas pipe rust through?" graph the pattern for some types of routine control work. The answer to these and many other questions are Starting with the electron gun, the filament operates being studied by users of the unit, which "bounces" at a fixed potential, variable from 20 to 50 kilovolts a stream of electrons off the surface of various ma- and negative with respect to ground. To obtain a terials and produces a characteristic pattern that can more constant temperature, the filament is heated be used to guide the development of better manu- with separate radio frequency source. facturing processes and materials. The resulting electrons are accelerated through a It is also expected to prove useful in such fields grounded aperatured anode and focused on a fluores- as lubricating films, metal-plating, powder metallurgy, cent screen in the camera chamber by means of an boiler scale formation, and catalyst behavoir. electro-magnetic focusing coil. The Electron Diffraction Instrument is similar to An instrument capable of chemically analyzing as X-ray diffraction apparatus. The basic difference is— minute amount of material as five micro-micro grams electrons penetrate much less than X-rays. As a re- will naturally lend itself to many research and pro- sult, the chemical composition and crystal structure duction applications. Here are a few: of a substance's surface can be determined. On the other hand, a beam of X-rays from a sample provides CORROSION: The losses due to corrosion are tre- information relative to the average of the entire mendous. Thus, the need to study its cause in the sample. very early stages. The Electron Diffraction Instru- ment will detect the first changes and help identify Electrons can detect samples as thin as 15 angstrom the chemical nature of these changes before they units, (4 millionths of an inch), permitting electron are visible with a microscope or detectable by other beam transmission through very thin surfaces. Diffrac- means. Such analysis has helped in the selection of tion patterns so produced usually require exposures the best material for gas-turbine buckets. of only one second to two minutes. CATALYSTS: Catalytic action is a surface phenom- The specimen is positioned by means of a manipu- enon. Therefore, the detection and measurement of lator. The resultant diffraction pattern can be ob- material forming the surface is of vital importance. served on the fluorescent screen and photographed Conventional methods of analysis may show one with the camera mechanism. Five exposures can be chemical composition, whereas electron diffraction made at one loading of the camera. 50 {Continued on Page 52) Spartan Engineer "Not too long ago 1 was in the same situation you fellows are in now. Senior year and the big de- cisions. What am 1 going to do with my education? What am I going to do for a living? "Well, 1 talked to a number of people and did as much letter writing and looking around as 1 could. The way 1 figured it, 1 wanted opportunity... a fair chance to put my capabilities to work and to be recognized for what I could do. Of course, I wanted to be well paid, too. It all seemed to add up to the aircraft industry ... and to me it still does. "In the space of just a few years I've worked on quite a few projects, important projects that some day may mean a great deal to this country. They sure meant a lot to me. And I wasn't standing still either. My salary and my responsibilities have in- creased with each promotion. That means lots oh challenges, new and tough problems that we have to solve, but that's the way 1 like it. So, if you want some advice from this "old grad," choose the aircraft industry. It's the wisest choice, I'm in the business and 1 know." »• probably no other industry in America has grown so fast and advanced so far in a short time as has the aircraft industry. And yet there is no limit to how far man's inventiveness and imagination c a n ' push the boundaries. Radical new concepts that would have been unthought of just a few years ago are the drawing-board problems of today. Truly aviation is still in the pioneering stage, and one of the leaders is Northrop Aircraft, which has been making successful contributions to our nation's defense for over 18 years. Projects such as • the Snark SM-62, world's first intercontinental guided missile, have identified Northrop as a suc- cessful pioneer. And new aircraft such as the super- sonic, twin-jet T-38 advanced trainer are maintain- ing this reputation. Let us tell you more about what Northrop can offer you. Write now, regardless of your class, to Manager of Engineering Industrial Relations, Northrop Division, Northrop Aircraft, Inc., 1034/ East Broadway, Hawthorne, California. NEW DEVELOPMENTS The unit can create heat conditions encountered by missiles and aircraft at least three times faster than (Continued from Page 50) standard systems now in use. photographs reveal a very thin layer of another ma- This increased speed enables us to eliminate time terial responsible for the catalytic action. Thus, the lags and thus more nearly simulate actual heat con- Electron Diffraction Instrument permits closer study ditions met in flight. At the unusually high speeds of surface conditions for early determination of now being reached by missiles, heat is generated poisoning and better control of catalysts. much faster than it can be dissipated. As a result, metals distort, melt or vaporize completely. This area LUBRICANTS: Lubrication is a function of the sur- in which metals are subjected to such terrific punish- face film. What changes occur in oil films determines ment—in the vicinity of 2000 miles per hour and over- the efficiency of running machinery. Thus, the im- is called the "heat barrier." portance of the Electron Diffraction Instrument in determining good lubricating films and control pro- The test facility—which can create 2500 degree cesses for their production. In addition, the instru- temperature in twelve seconds—will enable aircraft ment is useful for studying surface changes in bear- builders and designers to pretest structural parts and ings and cylinder walls, and for detecting and study- whole aircraft in simulated flights through the heat ing preferentially-deposited oil films. barrier. METALLURGY: The interaction of thin films of Heating of the aircraft surface due to friction and metals can be studied and used as a control for the compression of the air is related to the difference be- processes of making alloys. For example, a thin film tween the effective air temperature and the skin tem- of nickel was deposited on a sample holder and perature of the vehicle. Under transient flight con- another film of iron deposited on top. The diffraction ditions, the temperature of the aircraft varies with pattern was taken at room temperature and again at time. Because heat flow is variable, the temperature a higher temperature. The change in pattern showed alloying of the two metals. In powder metallurgy, distribution throughout the aircraft is uneven. This surface conditions of the powders determine whether condition results in differential thermal stresses aris- they will alloy readily. ing in the structure which are superimposed upon aerodynamic structural loads. An elevated tempera- PIGMENTS: The covering power and other prop- ture test facility simulates all of these load effects erties of pigments depend upon their crystal structure in conjunction with the differential thermal stresses. and chemical composition. For the development of The equipment is used to arrive at solutions of ther- better pigments, control of production, the Electron mal transient distribution throughout different types Diffraction Instrument permits easy determination of of aircraft structures. material and structure. Banks of quartz infrared lamps are used as the SURFACE DEPOSITS: The instrument is a powerful heating source. Each lamp is rated at 1000 watts, tool for studying the nature of surface deposits as 240 volts and is operated, in many cases, at 440 to boiler scale and other chemical residues. Early de- 480 volts. These lamps operate satisfactorily at 600 tection of such phenomena may indicate means of volts and up to 900 volts, if necessary. In addition to control. the 10-inch, 1000-watt, 240-volt nominal rating lamp, 2500-watt, 480-volt and 5000-watt, 960-volt lamps are GRAPHITE: The crystal structure and orientation available. These lamps have an extremely rapid in graphite during and after manufacture can be determined by examination with electron diffraction warm-up time. photographs. These photographs are helpful in the Induction heating equipment can be used as the use and processing of graphite. heating source. Actually, surface heating with power inputs of 150 to 750 kw per square foot are possible Test Facility Simulates Flight with r.f. induction heating equipment. Through The "Thermal Barrier" The ignitron unit is designed to control the effec- The intense heating of aircraft and missiles flashing tive heating voltage impressed across a fast-response, through earth's atmosphere at speeds above 5000 variable-resistance load. This unit is an economical miles per hour imposes problems of structural design. method of controlling the amount of heat delivered At supersonic speeds, air vehicles must withstand to missiles and aircraft. The ignitron control unit pro- temperatures above 2500 degrees F. To investigate vides many advantages: and overcome structural limitations, the Westinghouse Electric Corporation has developed a complete 1. Rapid response and a broad range of power elevated temperature test facility. control for a large number of infrared lamps. The equipment consists of banks of tubular in- 2. Maximum safety of operation of equipment frared lamps, three-channel ignitron controller, strip which is applied under conditions conducive chart temperature recorders, regular control (com- to accidents to personnel and apparatus. puter) channels, master control desk, unit substation and bus duct distribution. 3. The ignitron unit is either manually controlled or used with the automatic regulator control. 52 Spartan Engineer missile under test. At present, the temperature re- corder is calibrated for thermocouples in a tempera- ture range from minus 350 degrees F to plus 2650 degrees F. Chromel-alumel thermocouples used with this equipment are provided in three ranges; minus 350 to 650 degrees F, zero to 1000 degrees F and minus 350 to 2650 degrees F. The temperature sens- ing and recording equipment incorporate special features, to eliminate the high stray fields induced by the rapid power changes and unusual power wave form from the ignitron units. Future tests will require surface temperatures of 5000 degrees F and above. Exclusive of the tempera- ture recorder, the elevated temperature test facility operates reliably in the higher temperature range. Sufficient gain is provided making the ignition The regulator develops the control signal used to unit applicable to other types of regulating modulate the ignitron controller. This unit develops controls which may be developed. the signal either to regulate to a given time-tempera- 4. Physically, the equipment is built as an inde- ture schedule required of the aircraft, or to a given pendent cubicle which is easily and quickly power required signal as developed by arbitrary moved from one location to another with only aerodynamic input functions and surface temperature a reconnection of the incoming power line. measurement. 5. Power control characteristics are insensitive to The power control response to a signal which is the change in resistance of a load of lamps with proportional to the error between the power desired change in temperature of the filament, or change to be transferred and the actual power transferred. in the number of lamps. Since no satisfactory heat transfer measuring equip- ment is known, two approximations are used. Two inverse-parallel ignitron tubes are connected in series with the load and act as valves to control One method takes the product of the voltage and the amount of power delivered. The cathode of one current to obtain the power to the lamps. The effi- is connected to the anode of the other. The resultant ciency of transfer of energy from the lamps to the output is an a-c current. The point in the cycle at aircraft is then calculated. Thus, the product of effi- which the thyratron energizes the ignitron tube de- ciency, voltage and current gives the energy into the termines the magnitude of the power delivered to the test floor aircraft. lamp, and thus the heating effect. Each cubicle contains three channels whose out- puts can be independently controlled. Three-phase power is used by each three-channel cabinet. The independent channel takes power from one phase only and delivers it to a single-phase load. Ignitron control channels now operating are cap- able of carrying 800 amperes for five minutes. This current rating holds regardless of voltage. Thus, at 460 volts each channel delivers 360 kw. This cor- responds to approximately 120 T-3-1000 CL radiant lamps connected to a 460-volt channel. In addition, each channel operates adequately with one lamp connected to a channel. This equipment has an extremely high short-time overload capacity. Current ratings of 3000, 1600 and 1200 amperes at three, fifteen and twenty-five seconds respectively are achieved. Each short-time rating can The second method considers the heat per unit be followed by a continuous rating of 300 amperes. time into the aircraft as proportional to the derivative of the skin temperature. A signal proportional to the The response of the power control is rapid. For a power into the aircraft is obtained. The command change in control voltage the effective output voltage signal, showing the power into the aircraft required squared (heating effect into a constant resistance load) attains 63 percent of its final value in 0.02 to simulate a given flight trajectory, is developed by seconds. the computer. Using an injected coefficient of heat transfer and the effective temperature of compressed A high-speed temperature recorder transcribes the {Continued on Page 54) temperatures of the control zones of the aircraft or 53 January, 1958 NEW DEVELOPMENTS sonnel hazard while work is being done in an ignitron control cubicle. (Continued from Page 53) Other safety features include extensive interlocking. air, and the measured value of the skin temperature For instance, door interlocks are provided to trip of the vehicle, the computer instantaneously calcu- appropriate power supply controls when the door is lates regulating Signal. This calculated signal is the opened. The door interlocks are connected with the power which is desired to inject Into the aircraft to channel "on-off" push buttons located on the master simulate theflight the Might condition which would occur. control console. Therefore, the line contactors can never be energized from the master control consult The ventilated bus duct system consists of low- when the doors are open. voltage drop plug-in busway using aluminum bus ban. The receptacles lor plug-in devices are equipped Wide application of the elevated temperature test with barriers to prevent live parts from being ac- facility is foreseen for the missile industry because of cessible at any time during installation or removal. the effort to perfect intercontinental ballistics missiles. Circuit breaker plug ins prevent removal from the The missile reaches its highest speed before plunging receptacle until the breaker is in the off position. into the atmosphere, and the ability of its metal "skin" to withstand the searing temperatures is critical at this stage. Carbon-matrix Technique Replaces Spectrochemical Determination of Elements of Unknown Origin and Basic Composition A new, simplified technique for overcoming one of the laboratory chemist's chief time-consuming problems, that of spectrochemical determination of the elements in samples of unknown origin and basic composition, has been developed. Known as the "car- bon-matrix technique," the new method utilizes a The bus duct requires a minimum of field measure- graphite electrode to create the necessary dilution ments and installation time. Fittings are interchange- and a known, small amount of germanium to produce able and reusable. To provide for future additions or a reference intensity in the spectrum. alterations, standard flexible fittings are available. In making any spectrochemical analysis, it is neces- A thermal overload relay coordinated with the sary that the instruments be calibrated with materials long thermal characteristics of the contactor and of the same basic composition, or matrix, as the bus work, anil an induction disc overload relay co- samples to be analyzed. ordinated with the short-time characteristics of the When these samples are of an unknown basic com- ignition tubes, permit full use of the equipment position, it is difficult to determine the concentration Capacity. Both of these relays are arranged to trip of the various elements present. This is because there (lie line contactor in case of equipment overload. is a characteristic wavelength for each element and its Under these circumstances only one control channel concentration is measured by the intensity of light is lost during a test run. Since the shutdown is re- of that wavelength emitted when the sample is ex- stricted to a small number of lamps, maximum test cited in an electrical discharge. The light intensity, data are obtained. however, changes with the matrix of the sample, and In case of short circuit, the induction disc overload calibrations prepared for one material may not be relay trips the ignitron feeder breaker. This short- applicable to another. Thus, when the matrix is un- circuit trip setting is fixed below the setting for the known, the spectrochemical method cannot be ap- transformer breaker. For this reason the feeder plied, since the calibration which should be used for breaker trips off a small portion of the control cir- the analysis cannot be determined. cuits avoiding possible loss of all control channels. The usual way to overcome this difficulty is to The flow of test data is uninterrupted. mix the sample with some standard substance for The equipment is suited for ease in maintenance. which calibrations can be prepared. A procedure All electrical equipment is completely enclosed in involving dilution of up to 800 times the unknown a metal cabinet. Where applicable, the electronic sample with varying amounts of germanium dioxide equipment consists of plug-in type units. This con- and then by a mixture of equal amounts of graphite struction permits replacement of faulty components and copper oxide in the ratio of 1 to 40 has given rapidly. satisfactory results. By using copper as the internal standard and analyzing in triplicate with a series of Power for each channel is supplied by its own in- standards, an over-all accuracy of plus or minus ten dividual control transformer. No second source of per cent is achieved. power in any control channel section can cause per- 54 (Continued on Page 69) Spartan Engineer Primitive man was the first to discover that certain Forging impact on heated metal has the same effect desirable changes take place in metal when it is as kneading a piece of clay. Not only does it shape; pounded or worked while hot. Although our prehis- it refines. From center to surface, the metal is made toric cousin did not know it, this discovery was the start of mankind's use of forgings. more dense and more uniform. At the same time, grain flow of metal being forged is also oriented to Since this simple beginning, forgings have been follow part contours for added toughness. used by mankind for countless thousands of applica- tions—from waging war to washing clothes. In fact, What is meant by grain flow? It is a parallel, longi- historians believe that the caveman blacksmiths first tudinal arrangement of crystalline structure, pro- forged spears and knives. They found, more likely duced by hot rolling the original metal bar or billet. by accident than intention, that metal melted out of rocks made stronger weapons if it was battered and The design engineer, in planning a forged part, shaped while it was still glowing from fire. can assure that the die impressions are so formed that they will direction grain flow in the most favorable Centuries later, forgings provided the superior and strength-giving way. weapons that made Tubal-Cain and Xenophon and Solomon great. Alexander had forgings with him in his conquests. Later, the Saracens used them to drive Grain Flow Follows Part Contour the Crusaders out of the Holy Land. Just as clay responds to pressure and assumes a In our own country, forgings aided and, to a large particular shape, according to the pressure of the extent, made possible the Industrial Revolution. To- craftsman's hands, heated forged metal responds to day, forgings are the crankshaft in your car, the cable the shaping and dimensioning effect of closed forging shackles for the elevators you ride, that tiny blade dies. The dies are the forging hammer operators clamp on your jig saw. "hands;" the metal held between them is his "clay. Tomorrow, forgings will be parts for turbo-powered Closed forging dies are made and used in matched automobiles, for atom-powered ships, trains, aircraft, sets or pairs. Each mated die contains a precisely atomic power generating plants—perhaps even for formed reverse impression which, when the dies are space ships—and, most certainly, parts that will play brought together, shape metal to the exact form and an important role in automating industry. dimension desired. How Forged Metal is Shaped A metal blank is placed in the cavity of the lower or stationary die. The upper or striking dies is then While we can hardly credit primitive man with brought down in repeated blows, carefully controlled knowledge of grain structure, what he attempted to by the operator. Each blow brings a further change accomplish, was, in effect, the same as that which is accomplished with the modern forging hammer-im- in the shape of the forging blank as impact and provement of metal quality. pressure causes the metal to "move" and fill the die cavities. 56 Spartan Engineer Grain flow of the metal undergoes a similar trans- sunk can be drawn on the coated surface, using a formation, changing from a straight flow into an exact template, a forging, or a die drawing as a guide. This repetition of part contours. is an exacting operation, performed by a skilled spe- cialist using modern precision equipment. One of the greatest values of this characteristic is that the flow lines remain unbroken and thus the part With the design specifications and the outline is unified into a continuous structure, strong and drawing on the die faces as a guide, another specialist tough throughout. then carefully machines the forging impressions- sinking each to exact part size. Where a slight extra With background on how forgings are made, a surface is needed for precision finishing or fitting natural question would be, "What is a typical forg- machining is done a few thousandths of an inch over- ing?" The answer isn't simple, because there is no size. such thing as a "typical forging." The only limitation on the shape of a forging is the designer's ingenuity. These impressions are scraped, filed, ground and Sound design and forging craftsmanship make it pos- polished. This assures a smooth surface that will allow sible to produce a wide variety of shapes, including forging metal to move easily, filling the die cavities parts with deep impressions, recesses, bosses, pro- properly for completely accurate production. jections or thin sections. Weights vary widely, too— from as little as one-half ounce to as much as four A Rough "Proof" Is Made First tons. When each die block reaches this stage of com- pletion, the blocks are clamped together, face to face, Dies Shape the Forging and molten lead is poured into the cavity formed The key to closed impression forgings is the dies. by the die impressions. Die blocks are made of high alloy steel, since they The resulting cast or "proof" is an exact replica of must be hard in order to forge metal between them. the parts that the dies will later produce. This proof Die blocks range in weight from a few pounds to sample is carefully checked for accuracy. several tons each. After the proof sample has been approved, addi- The first production step in making a set of closed tional impressions are machined into this or another dies is to fit handling bars to the solid steel block set of die blocks. These impressions are for the pur- a "d mill shanks for fastening the dies to the hammer. pose of rough shaping the forging blank before final Next is the planing of faces that will eventually con- forging. The number of additional pre-shaping im- tain the die impressions. Then, two sides of each pressions depends on the complexity of the part. b 'ock are planed, providing a perfect right angle with the planed face. This aligns and dimensions the The basic rough or pre-shaping impressions, in impressions to be sunk in the die face. sequence, are: Each die face is then coated with a solution to (Continued on Next Page) darken it, so that an outline of the impression to be 57 January, 1958 MODERN FORGINGS 1. fullering and edging—to alter cross section of the metal being forged too thick or thin as re- quired. 2. blocking—to "block out" or rough shape the metal into the first definite indication of its final shape. These die impressions are given the same careful surfacing and inspection as the finishing impressions . . . steps that assure unrestricted movement of the forging metal into each die detail. The die blocks are now installed in the forging hammer and production of accurately forged parts can begin. To those previously unfamiliar with the process of forging, this definition now takes on meaning-a closed die forging is the product or result of hot working metal, by impact and pressure, between matched dies containing reverse impressions of the two sides of the part shape desired. Forgings Work for Us Everyday To the average American, a forging might be char- acterized as peace of mind—for, no matter where he is, forgings support and sustain the safe operation of every mechanism he uses to fulfill his needs or satisfy his wants. To the housewife, a forging is all of these things, plus assurance of dependable performance from her modern appliances. That dress for little sister will be finished in time for the school party because mother's sewing machine has forgings in its con- struction. The pruning that mother wants to do in the garden will be made easier because her shears are tough, strong forgings. In industry it's much the same story. The boss rigger at an oil well, watching as drill bits chew into the earth to tap its riches, knows he can rely on those bits. They're forgings. Contractor, road builder, mine operator, or jet pilot-each shares a similar assurance. They know the hardest working parts of the equip- ment they use are forgings. The first caveman blacksmith had the basic idea of the value of forging. But little did he realize how important the process would become to mankind. He wanted only two things from the metal in his tools and weapons, strength and toughness: 1. Strength to withstand unexpected impact or repeated strain far in excess of service actually required. Literally, strength with brittleness. 2. Toughness, or ability to "give" under abnormal load without permanent distortion or sudden fracture. So successful was he in initiating the process that produced these results in metal, that modern forging manufacturers use this slogan today-"many parts are strong . . . many others are tough . . but a forging is both." Spartan Engineer Weapons Systems Responsibility In the development of guided missile One outstanding product of this type of systems, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory systems responsibility is the "Corporal," maintains a complete and broad respon- a highly accurate surface-to-surface ballis- sibility. From the earliest conception to tic missile. This weapon, developed by JPL, production engineering—from research and now in production elsewhere, can be and development in electronics, guidance, found "on active service" wherever needed aerodynamics, structures and propulsion, in the American defense pattern, through field testing problems and actual A prime attraction for scientists and troop use, full technical responsibility rests engineers at JPL is the exceptional oppor- with JPL engineers and scientists. tunity provided for original research The Laboratory is not only responsible for afforded by close integration with vital and the missile system itself, including guid- forward-looking programs. The Laboratory ance, propulsion and airframe, but for all now has important positions open for ground handling equipment necessary to qualified applicants for such interesting insure a complete tactical weapons system. and challenging activities. From Magellan's three years and a month, to Phil- Sputnik is equipped with radio transmitters which eas Fogg's eighty days, to Sputnik's 96.1 minutes. had been transmitting signals, exciting anyone who That's progress! could pick them up, but meaningful only to the Sovi- Sputnik, which is Russian for satellite, was launched ets. After listening to the "beep-beep" produced and October 4, 1957, and is still circling the earth. Many examining oscilloscope photographs of its sound pat- people. United States politicians in particular, were terns, scientists decided definitely that coded infor- unhappy about the launching despite the tremendous mation was being sent - possibly about weather con- scientific advances it represented, because it was made ditions. But they were unable to translate it. The sig- apparent that Russian satellite knowledge is superior nals were emitted continuously at a frequency of to the United States'. The Russians had beaten us 20.005 and 40.002 megacycles and could be picked at what seemed to be our own game - great cause up by ham radio operators, and regular radio receiv- tor a mighty power's embarrassment. The launching ing systems, also, after being adjusted to the lower has succeeded in doing one thing though - uniting frequencies. On November 10th it was officially an- purpose in the West. Democrats and Republicans nounced that the transmitters had gone dead. both see the necessity of stepping up the United States missile development. However, most people Sputnik follows an elliptical orbit reaching as far are quite happy because at last the initial barrier to as 570 miles from earth and 170 miles away at its outer space has been crashed. The possibility of cos- closest point. The orbit follows a direction at an angle mic flight with the help of rockets was first scientif- of 65° to the equator but does not pass the same ically sustantiated in Russia as early as the end of point on the equator each time around. It is inter- the 19th century, in the works of the outstanding esting to note that the Russian scientists were able Russian natural scientist Konstantin Tisiolkovsky - to plan the orbit so that it passes over Moscow every- according to a Soviet news agency. The present day day. The Russians chose this particular angle (65°), creator of Sputnik and sparkplug of the Red satellite as opposed to the U. S. choice of around the equator, program is Leonid Sedov. because of the location of the gravity center of the earth, feeling the center would better help the satel- Just what is this object which is causing so much lite's motion in this position. It would seem that the) excitement? It is a small sphere, 58 centimeters in made the right choice since Sputnik has been in its diameter, with four antennae, resembling a tetrahe- orbit for two months now with no signs of coming dron. There was some controversy over its reported down. weight, whether 184.3 or 18.43 pounds. The former was the reported weight but the latter seemed more Two Bonn Observatory natural scientists estimated likely as compared to the U. S. satellite weight of 22 the location of launching to have been Irkutsk, Siber- pounds. The Russians later verified the 184.3 pound ia. It was done with a multi-stage rocket. Severa report. rockets are attached to the satellite. One fires until 60 it exhausts itself, drops off, and the next one fires- Spartan Engineer This way enough power may be obtained to shoot the friction that the satellite will burn up before it reach- satellite beyond the atmosphere. The final stage rocket es the earth. This theory has been partially supported traveled in an orbit of its own somewhat smaller by the falling of the final-stage rocket. It was burning than and therefore ahead of Sputnik's until early while falling but whether it completely disintegrated December. Some scientists believe the launching has not been officially announced. This problem of success to be due to an advanced fuel - perhaps exotic re-entry merited some discussion. While it seems de- mixtures of ammonia or ozone and hydrogen. Others sirable for the satellite to burn up so as to prevent feel that the conventional fuel of kerosene and liquid injury to the Earth and its inhabitants, it would also oxygen is sufficient with multi-stage rockets being seem desirable to have the satellite land intact, es- the secret. pecially since the plans eventually include men trav- eling in the satellites. Dr. Simon Ramo, chief scien- Sputnik is held in its orbit by its speed - 18,000 tist of the Air Force ballistic missle program, says miles per hour. It works on the same principle as a they have solved the problem, but does not say ball whirling on a string. Gravity tends to pull it towards the center but its continual high speed moves exactly how. A method hinted at is a series of jumps the ball forward all the time it is being pulled in, down and forward glides (called skipping) within resulting in circular motion. If the speed is too small the atmosphere, rather than a direct downward the ball will fall inward, the gravity overpowering plunge. the velocity. And if the speed is too great, above Satellite experts believe the satellite to be equipped what is known as escape velocity, the string will to make measurements of temperatures, and bombard- break. Sputnik's minimum speed is around 12,000 niles per hour and its escape velocity is around 25,000 ment by solar particles, radiation, cosmic rays and miles per hour. meteors. Soviet natural scientist, A. A. Blagonravov, was quoted as saying that the satellite contained only Because of Sputnik's altitude (not high enough) a radio transmitter and power supply. Whether the there is air friction which will eventually slow the transmitter is capable of making these atmospheric satellite down until it falls to Earth. However, be- measurements was not stated. As was said before cause of the unknown characteristics of that segment though, the radio signals picked up from Sputnik the atmosphere, it cannot be definitely decided definitely indicated information of some sort was when Sputnik will fall. General estimates of Sputnik's being transmitted. Some sources say Sputnik contains life vary from t w o days to a century or more. The a telephoto camera, others say not, but whether it Soviets figured about a month. Of course this has does or does not, such a camera is a possibility in already been disproved since Sputnik has been up future satellites. for two months. Scientists feel that after it does start (Continued on Next Page) to fall the denser atmosphere will create so much 61 January, i 9 5 8 that astronomers have never seen. The actual value AROUND THE WORLD of this has been demonstrated by sun pictures taken (Continued from Page 81) from a balloon carrying a telescopic camera above Sputnik is being watched all over the world with 95% of the atmosphere. It is possible that the satellite's avid interest. The U. S. has an apparent advantage orbit varies with the shape of the Earth, its irregular- in facilities although clearly lacking the all-necessary ities, and the effects of gravity. So precise knowledge technical information. The U. S. has a special tele- of the satellite's orbit should disclose new information scopic' camera which can track a tennis ball at a dis- about the Earth's contour. tance of 300 miles. There is one located at Pasedena, The rate at which the satellite slows down will be California, and others are being set up. The USSR an indication of air densities at various heights. wants to purchase ten of these cameras, $100,000 each, Equipped with photocells, the Earth's clouds could be indicating a lack of tracking facilities. Long range studied by recording the amount of sunlight reflected radar systems have been locating the satellite. Also from the Earth. With an analyzer the sun's ultraviolet (here are the 150 moonwatch teams that were first rays could be studied; these play little-understood organized to watch U. S. satellites when launched roles in storms. Winds could be studied by measur- and who are now getting an unscheduled workout ing the difference between infrared rays emitted from with Sputnik. The teams are made up of professional the sun and infrared rays emitted from the earth; the and amateur astronomers, telescope makers, military difference varies with wind currents in the lower at- men, and space exploration enthusiasts. They are lo- mosphere. The auroras could be studied. By observing cated at observatories around the world and Soviet a satellite simultaneously from two or more points on moonwatch teams are swapping information with Earth, experts can use elementary geometric triangu- U. S. teams. To these people the satellite looks like lation to determine the precise distances between a bright sphere, in the sky for only a few seconds. these points - something geographers have never been Many members of the teams and fascinated crowds able to do. Satellites will be able to observe patterns regard the whole thing as an exciting adventure as of weather formation on Earth, enabling meteorolo- they crane their necks to spot the Sputnik. However, gists to make weather predictions months, and possi- serious astronomers and moonwatchers, their work bly even years, in advance. And if escape velocity is coordinated by Dr. Armand Spitz, director of the reached, through improved fuels and rockets - what Spitz Laboratories, are faithfully putting in their time then? The moon, the universe! The development of starting at six o'clock every morning and recording Sputnik has opened the door to first-hand knowledge any information they come across. When all the infor- of the whole universe around us. mation was fed to the giant electric brain at Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, a nearly exact plan Many feel that the Russians are now at a military of the satellite's orbit was obtained. advantage. They feel that the USSR has increased There are different reports as to who first spotted observation power over the rest of the world, a "Big Sputnik. First American spotting credit goes to Dr. Brother" in the sky. But it must be remembered that Gordon B. Little, assistant director of the geophysical in looking down through the atmosphere to the earth, station at the University of Alaska. He was quoted as one is faced with the same problems of one trying to saying that what he saw at 5:01 A.M., October 6, look up through it. The atmosphere simply does not was a surprisingly bright object which stayed in the lend itself to clear observation. If the Russians are sky for about five minutes. There is some speculation, at any advantage it is in their knowledge gained for though, that what he saw was the still-orbiting final- the launching and guiding of missiles and rockets. stage rocket and not the satellite. Russia gives first But American scientists have a tendency to deny credit to a natural science worker at Alma Ata, V. S. this advantage, too. The Russians have claimed to Matyagin, who reported seeing the sphere just before have an intercontinental ballistic missile, which the midnight October 5th. U.S. has not yet perfected. This claim seems entirely possible now. And if apprehension and fear is to be The value of satellites in adding to scientific knowl- felt, it should be of the ability to so well overcome edge lies not only in their reaching great heights the tremendous barriers in the field of missile science but also in their ability to stay there. This type of and research, and of a willingness to pursue progress satellite is an essential forerunner to space travel. without regard for cost. As Dr. Werner Von Braun, The satellite is equipped to convey the nature of con- top U.S. space expert said concerning fear of being ditions at that height. By knowledge of these, scien- kidnapped by the Russians, "That danger no longer tists will know much better how to construct manned exists. I couldn't tell the Russians anything about vehicles and high flying missies so that they can with- rocketry. I'd only learn." stand the rigorous tests of endurance put on them: extreme temperatures and pressures, bombardment Dr. John Hagen, director of the American satellite by meteors, cosmic rays, etcetera; and so they can program, said that the Soviet satellite now spinning re-enter the atmosphere and land unharmed by the around the globe appears to be a test vehicle and that tremendous increase in air density and friction. Also this explains the lack of any advance announcement the satellite gives, for all practical purposes, an un- by the Soviets. The USSR announced that the launch- obstructed view of the sun, moon and stars. Unham- ing of Sputnik was planned in accordance with the pered by the obscuring and distorting effects of the International Geophysical Year program of research atmosphere, sun and star photographs taken from a and that several more bigger and heavier satellites satellite are expected to disclose a wealth of detail (Continued on Page 69) 62 Spartan Engineer You enjoy pleasant living in one of many attrac- Right at the start, it's nice to feel you "belong"- tive communities. Through Raytheon's graduate to know what your job is, and the kind of future programs you can continue your studies at one of open to you. several convenient centers of learn- At Raytheon, while we recognize the importance ing in the Boston area. of trying your skills in various places, it's company policy to make you a producing engineer as soon WRITE FOR THIS HELPFUL BOOKLET as possible. Raytheon conducts campus interviews at Career opportunities exist for engineers, physicists many colleges. Check with your place- and mathematicians to man important projects in: ment officer for more information. Write missiles, radar, communications, transistors, micro to William J. Howells, Jr., for a copy of "Your Life and Your Future at Raytheon" wave and cathode ray tubes, physics, infrared; -no cost or obligation. metallurgy, servomechanisms. WHEN R EQUALS ZERO (Continued from Page 25) Why Vought Projects The cryotron Is basically two wires; one wire of tantal , which is aboul one-half inch long, and a Bring Out The Best second wire of niobium, which is coiled around the first as in figure 3. The niobium wire carries a cur- In An Engineer rent which is called the control current. Both wires are in a superconductive state due to the absolute At Vought, the engineer doesn't often temperature. forget past assignments. Like all big The cryotron is a current operating device. When events, they leave vivid memories. current flows in the niobium wire a magnetic field And it's no wonder. is set up which causes the tantalum to shift from superconductivity to normal conductivity. In figure For here the engineer contributes to 2, we can see that the niobium wire remains super- history-making projects — among COnductive at a much higher field strength than does them the record-breaking Crusader the tantalum. Using the magnetic field of the control fighter; the Regulus II missile, chosen to arm our newest nuclear subs; and the new fast-developing 1,500-plus- mph fighter, details of which are still classified. The Vought engineer watches such weapons take shape. He supervises critical tests, and he introduces the weapons to the men with whom they will serve. current to vary the resistance in the tantalum wire between superconduction and normal conduction, we Engineers with many specialties share can vary the amount of current flowing through it. these experiences. Today, for exam- With this arrangement we can then obtain current ple, Vought is at work on important gain and power amplification, because a smaller cur- projects involving: rent in the control winding will effect a larger current moving through the tantalum wire. electronics design and manufacture The cryotron is of great interest to computer cir- inertia] navigation cuits, because it is small, light weight, easily fabri- investigation of advanced propulsion cated, and dissipates very little power. It is predicted methods that a large scale computer would need approxi- Much 5 configurations mately five thousand cryotrons. This would mean that the computer would dissipate about one-half a watt Vought's excellent R&D facilities and fit into a cubic loot of space. Present large-scale help the engineer through unexplored computers dissipate many thousands of watts and oc- areas. And by teaming up with other cupy hundreds of cubic feet of space. specialists against mutual challenges, Thus, low temperature research offers us many op- the Vought engineer learns new fields portunities. It gives us a limitless temperature range while advancing in his own. of physical observation. It lowers thermal energy so *•* that other forms of energy can be studied; namely magnetic, and electrical. Superconduction, a low tem- Would you like to know what men perature phenomena, is applicable to computer cir- with your training are doing at cuits and high frequency antennas. However, before Vought. .. what you can expect of a the phenomena has wide spread applications, we Vought career? must know more about refrigeration techniques, and For full information, see our repre- reduce insulation problems by creating new super- conductive materials with higher transition tempera- sentative during his next campus visit. tures. * • • Or write directly to: Joe served as clearing house and consultant. Vought's Regulus II missile took shape just a Flight data was reduced and released to design and short walk from the desks of its developers. Engi- support groups. It revealed not only missile per- neers handled the new hardware and monitored formance, but the temperatures and pressures of a tests in person — literally flying the big missile on strange new environment. When data pointed the ground at Dallas. It was a convenient arrange- toward design changes, Joe's time and cost esti- ment while it lasted. mates helped specialists reach decisions. Then a big USAF Globemaster landed and Thanks to Vought's fast overland relay of hard- taxied to Vought's Experimental Hangar. The mis- ware and data, the records of one flight were sile was winched aboard and airlifted to a desert decoded and digested in time to improve the next site for flight tests. By nightfall there was a 1,000- hop. Dividends in performance and reliability were mile rift between Regulus II and home base. obvious after six flights had been logged by Joe Boston was ready to step into this gap. As Regulus II. Project Assistant for Field Liaison, he'd already All six had been flown by one vehicle. equipped Vought's desert crew for extensive flight tests. Now he'd make sure that test data and hard- ware flowed uninterrupted from the desert to Vought. High-speed feedback of facts on one flight could influence the success of the next. Mail from the desert poured in to Joe at Vought. From project men at the flight test site came parts for immediate rework and return. From the flight test crew's mobile ground station came rolls of tele- metered brush records. From the recoverable Regulus itself, came packets of oscillograph data. And from Field Service — for repair or replacement — an occasional wrench or relay. Aluminum is where the excitement is. New uses, new designs, more metal being produced than ever before. Tomorrow will be even better. Maybe you've seen Alcoa's Forecast ads in r Time, Saturday Evening Post, The New Yorker. The men who will make this forecast come true are in college today. Perhaps it's the man who sits next to you in Advanced Phys Met or Machine Analysis or Heat Power Design or Chem Engineering Kinetics or Marketing or Cost Accounting. Or maybe it's you. If you have that extra spark of imagination . . . creativity . . . adventurousness . .. take the first step: see your Place- ment Director or write for your copy of Alcoa's Career Guide. It tells an exciting story . . . of the future of the young Imagineers who join up with the men who built the aluminum business. The engineers who designed this new surface grinder had to be sure of the highest spindle accuracy in order to get the smooth spindle operation re- quired for extreme precision work. To hold the work and wheel spindles rigid, maintain highest accuracy, the engineers specified Timken® "00" tapered roller bearings. Timken "00" bearings make possible the closest machining tolerances ever achieved. Run-out is held to 75 millionths of an inch. And they gave the manufac- turer greater capacity in less space, cut manufacturing costs Vi over earlier spindles used. How Timken bearings hold shafts rigid to maintain accuracy—The full line contact between Timken bear- ing rollers and races gives shafts rigid support over a wide area. Shaft deflection is minimized. And the tapered design of Timken bearings permits them to be set up with the most desirable amount of end play or preload that gives the best performance. FIBERGLAS (Continued from Page 21) compact the fiberglas reinforcement and to force the plastic throughout the mold. If a small amount of fiberglas is used for a large amount of plastic, or if the plastic resin is applied uniformly over the entire area, extremely low pressures become practical. The combination of fiberglas and plastics require a moderate temperature to cure the liquid plastic, such as the widely used polyesters, to a hardened state. The addition of catalysts and accelerators will cure the molded material without the need of exter- nal heat. When heat curing is used, the temperatures required are between 180° F. and 250° F. The low pressures and low temperatures for the curing of fiberglas with plastics make it practical to mold extremely large parts in a single unit on light forms using simple equipment. Parts 35 to 60 feet in length and several feet in width have been produced by various molding techniques. The low Looking for a solid, satisfying career molding pressures also makes possible the use of with a vigorous company in a grow- inexpensive molds when a small number of parts are ing industry? American Air Filter to be manufactured. For two to five moldings, plaster Company, Louisville, Kentucky — molds are suitable; for a few hundred, wood, alum- world's largest manufacturer of air inum, or zinc alloys; for larger quantities fine grain filters, dust control and heating and cast iron or steel. ventilating equipment — needs gradu- The molding method is dependent on the type, ate engineers to fill responsible jobs in size and economical consideration. The well-known sales, engineering and production in contact, vacuum, pressure bag, flexible plunger and its 125 field offices and nine manu- vacuum injection molding methods are used to pro- facturing plants located in six cities. duce parts in small to large shops and factories throughout our nation. In July of 1958, AAF will inaugurate its next five-month technical training Fiberglas, alone or in combination with other course for a select group of engineer- materials, goes into everything from awnings to air- ing graduates. This full-time program planes, from insulation to decoration, from pipes and combines classroom work, under the pipe wrappings to plastic boats, from ducts to draper- direction of competent instructors, with ies, from sport cars to swimming pools. It combines field trips to both company plants and with gypsum in wallboard and with vinyl in insect screening. large industrial users of AAF products. The future of fiberglas is dependent on the in- An American Air Filter representa- genuity of man and his foresight. The present day tive will be on your campus at an usage of fiberglas, alone or in combination with early date to interview interested sen- other known materials, is aglow with the glitter and iors. For the exact date and time, fascination of durable strands of glass. contact your Placement Office, now. NEW DEVELOPMENTS image furnace cannot be extended to larger arcs with (Continued from Page 54) higher power to heat larger samples, and work along those linos is already underway. This procedure, while giving satisfactory results, is complicated and sometimes quite lengthy. In addi- In addition to its use of Standard equiment. the tion, when the sample is very small, it is difficult to new system has the advantages of providing a narrow prepare a homogeneous mixture with the diluent. beam midway between the two minors where a Many of the samples submitted weigh less than a shutter can be plaood to turn the energy on and off few tenths of a milligram. very quickly without disturbing the arc. A tilted mir ror can be placed at the same point to tip the beam The carbon-matrix technique developed by scien- at any desired angle if it is to be used in molting a tists is, in effect, a simplified method of diluting the specimen. sample with a standard substance. A tiny amount of As an extremely "clean" source of high tempera- the sample is placed in a small crater drilled into tures, the arc image furnace is ideally suited to metal- the end of a graphite electrode. When the electrode lurgical research where purity is particularly import- plus the sample is placed in the electrical discharge, ant. The beam can be projected through a transparent the necessary dilution with a standard substance is window into an enclosed vessel in which the atmos- performed by the carbon of the electrode. phere can be controlled, and which can even bo In this way, the intensity of the emitted light de- raised to high pressures if a combination of high tem- pends in a reduced degree upon the matrix of the perature and pressure is desired. Because of these sample and an approximate analysis becomes possible. features, it is a very valuable research tool, and might well become a useful production tool in the future as high temperature operations become more common Scientists Duplicate Sun's Heat in industry. With Movie Mirrors Scientists probing the mysteries of intense heat AROUND THE WORLD IN MINUTES have produced temperatures approaching that of the (Continued from Page 62) suns surface with ordinary motion picture projection equipment. are also to be sent up during IGY. Already one of these has been launched - the one containing the dog, Highly-polished curved mirrors concentrate rays Laika. Scientists around the world arc hoping that, from a carbon arc into a small but extremely high- also in accordance with IGY, the Russians will share energy beam that can produce temperatures above the knowledge gained, but past experience makes 7,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The technique is actually a this seem a little doubtful. It is a realization of the scientific version of the use of a magnifying glass to USSR's "closed-mouth" policy that I would like the set fire to a piece of paper. readers to keep in mind while reading this article. If the information at times seems a little vaguo, this The arc image furnace, as this versatile research is due to the nature of the information available. tool is known, is not new, but an entirely new twist All the details known are either ones obtained from has been introduced that adds immensely to its use- long-range observation, comparison with similar U.S. fulness and makes practical the high temperatures developments, or the information regarded as harm- required in modern-day research. Previous furnaces less by the Russians and therefore eligible for release. have used specially-designed parabolic mirrors to These details have been pieced together to give a focus the arc's energy onto the substance to be heated. fair but far from satisfactory picture of Sputnik. The new design uses two elliptical mirrors of the Lloyd Berkner, nuclear physicist, summed up scien- standard type found in motion picture projection tific feelings on the Russian surge in satellite advance- equipment. One mirror directs the energy of the arc ment - "It would have been nice if the U.S. had been at the other, which in turn concentrates the radiation first, but let's be glad that it's been done." Scientists on the specimen being heated, forming a life-size also feel that now that Russia has actually beaten the image of the actual arc. U.S. in launching a satellite, the government will pay The new equipment is highly compact and portable some serious attention to the program and allot an d can be operated practically anywhere, at any enough money so that the U. S. can catch up. Dr. time. It is said to produce results comparable to that Ramo does not even feel that the U. S. is behind, but of a solar furnace with a 60-inch diameter reflector, rather that emphasis in research has been put on dif- which depends on the sun's rays for its energy and ferent subjects. Whether it is correct or not is hard to can be operated only under favorable climatic con- say not knowing Russia's exact standing. ditions. But why all the interest in space? Why are men so The arc image furnace now in use uses arc carbons anxious to venture into the forbidding regions be- les s than one-half inch in diameter, focused by mir- tween the stars: This was answered by a great ex- rors approximately 18 inches in diameter and placed plorer, Fridtjof Nansen, when he said, "The history about 6 feet apart. The arc draws a current of 200 of the human race is a continual struggle from dark- amperes, which is approximately twice the electrical ness toward light. It is, therefore, of no purpose to re quirement of a modern home. Normal operating discuss the use of knowledge. Man wants to know voltage is 80 volts. There is no reason why the arc and when he ceases to do so, he is no longer man." 69 January, 1958 Exploring new frontiers is still a pretty excit- Mills, Iowa, he did his graduate work in or- ing business, especially in the great scientific ganic chemistry at the University of Chicago. and research centers like the Whiting Labora- He received his BS in chemistry from St. Olaf tories of Standard Oil Company. Here men College, Northfield, Minnesota, in 1950. He like Dr. Omar Juveland are engaged in impor- is a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, tant exploratory work such as the search for and the American Chemical Society. new and improved catalysts for use in high Busy young men like Dr. Juveland have polymer chemistry. In the photograph, Dr. found opportunity and work to their liking in Juveland is recording data on a polymerization the Standard Oil Laboratories at Whiting, process taking place in this research area. Indiana. They share in the progress and ac- Dr. Juveland is one of the group of young complishment which contribute so much to scientists in Standard's Hydrocarbon and the technical advancement and improvement Chemicals Research Division. Born in Lake required by America's expanding economy. "So you met your wife at a dance! Wasn't that ro- Professor: "You in the back of the room, what mantic?" was the date of the signing of the Declaration of "No, embarrassing. I thought she was home with Independence?" the kids." "I dunno. "You don't eh? Well then do you know when the battle of Bull Run was fought?" Mother: "Daughter, didn't I tell you not to let "Nope." strange men come to your apartment? You know how "Can you tell me anything about the Battle of it makes me worry." Gettysburg?" Daughter: "It's all right, Mother, I went to his "Nope." apartment, now let his mother worry." "You can't! I assigned this stuff last week. What were you doing last night?" Then there was the M.E. who stepped up to the "I was out drinking beer with a couple of buddies." bar very optimistically, and two hours later went "You were! How dare you stand there and tell away very misty optically. me a thing like that? How do you expect to pass this course?" "Wai, I don't, mister. Ye see, I just come in to fix During a layover on a recent week-end trip, we the radiator." overheard the ticket agent make assurances that a certain train would be on time. One man, after pac- ing the station platform for more than an hour, stalked "How can you keep eating this dorm food?" angrily to the ticket window. "Oh, it's easy. I just take a tablespoon of Drano "Why didn't you tell me this train was late when three times a day." I asked you before?" he fumed. "Look here, mister," replied the complacent agent, Jane: "I said some foolish things to John last night. "I ain't paid to sit here and knock the railroad." Mary: "Yes?" fane: "That was one of them." C.E.: Is your sister expecting me tonite? Little boy: Yeah. You can lead an engineer to water, but why dis- C.E.: What makes you so sure? appoint him? Little boy: She just went out for the evening. Student Nurse: "Every time I bend over to listen First father: "Has your son's Liberal Arts educa- to his heart, his pulse rate goes up alarmingly. What tion proved helpful since you took him into the busi- should I do?" ness?" Intern: "Button your collar." Second father: "Oh yes, whenever we have a board meeting we let him mix the cocktails." A beautiful girl was walking along the sidewalk one evening on her way to the movie. She noticed a Angry Father: What do you mean by bringing my small bird laying at the side of the walk with a broken daughter in at this hour of the morning? wing. Instead of going to the movie she took the Student: Have to be at class at eight. bird home, bandaged its wing, and fed it. In a few weeks the bird was well enough to fly away. Now, let's see you guys find anything dirty in that. Four year old: "Daddy, are there any skyscrapers in heaven?" M.E. Dad: "No son, C.E.'s build skyscrapers. Typist: "But, professor, isn't this the same exam you gave last year?" Professor: "Yes, but I've changed the answers." Girl: Isn't that a lovely moon tonight? B oy: I'm not interested in astronomy now, and besides I'm in no position to say. Familiarity breeds attempt. Confucius says, "Modern woman putting up such The main trouble with the straight and narrow is a false front, man never knows what he is up against." that there is no place to park. 71 January, 1958 Marquardt Means Opportunity Every day, young engineers are finding opportunity at Mar- quardt—and for good reason! Marquardt grew and still grows on a foundation of engineering skill—guided by an engineer- management with an engineer-philosophy. Engineers are key men at Marquardt. And because engineers are key men, their work and accomplishments are readily recognized and rewarded. If you are an engineer, physicist, or mathematician with ability to meet and conquer supersonic and hypersonic propul- sion and controls projects, you'll want to investigate the oppor- tunities at Marquardt, the leader in ramjets—"Powerplant of the Future". Meet the Marquardt representatives when they visit your campus. See your placement director for further information and exact dates, or write to Dock Black, Professional Personnel, Marquardt Aircraft, 16555 Saticoy Street, Van Nuys, Calif. Pump-turbine design is now the work . . . Water conditioning chemical, service, and hydraulics/ the field . . . of John Jandovitz, equipment specialist in Houston is new BSME graduate of College of City of New assignment of Arthur Brunn, BS Chem. E., York, '52. University of Tennessee/ '56. Field sales engineering of America's widest range of industrial products is choice of Roy Goodwill, BSME, Michigan State College, '54. Starting up a cement plant in Mexico after coordinating all work on it is latest job of John Gibson, BS Met. E., University of California/ '54. T H E R E ' S variety at Allis-Chalmers. Whether Nucleonics is chosen field of R. A. Hart- you're thinking in terms of types of industries, field, BME, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, kinds of equipment, types of jobs, or fields of work, '53. Currently he is working on design and development of new nuclear power plant, the diversification of Allis-Chalmers provides un- surpassed variety. For example: A is available for those with sufficient background. " outstanding training program, started in 1904, Learn more about Allis-Chalmers and its train- is designed to help you find the activity within ing program. Ask the A-C district office manager in these groupings for which you are best suited. Up your area or write Allis-Chalmers, Graduate Train- to two years of theoretical and practical training ing Section, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. are offered. Direct employment at Allis-Chalmers EDITORIAL Well, another year has just rolled around and finds the Spartan Engineer staff with offices in the new Student Activities building. Since we have two large offices and plenty of new furniture and equipment, we should be able to concen- trate on the content and make-up of a magazine which best appeals to you engineers. Our office, room 346, is open for any criticism, and we'll welcome all suggestion. Incidently, there are three vacancies on the staff at the present time, so why not come up and help us make the S.E. the best collegiate engineering quarterly? Say, gang, why not pull out those dusty re- ports and research papers, brush them off, and enter them in the technical writing contest? Better yet, sit down, take pen in hand, and write on some technical subject with which you are familiar. Let your technical interests reap dividends for you. Here is a grand opportunity to pick up some extra cash, and have your article be the cover-feature of the May issue. To tell its story in 75 coun- one. With photography, people tries, Pepsi-Cola puts pictures are real; situations authentic, to work to add meaning to the convincing. This is what makes product's global billing as "the photography such a powerful refreshment of friendship." salesman. To build up an atmosphere of Large businesses and small can friendliness and understanding u s e this powerful salesmanship— in markets around the world, c a n also use photography to cut Pepsi-Cola International pub- costs and save time in many other lishes "Panorama"—and gives the ways. It can help with problems brunt of the job to photography. of product design —can watch Photography knows no Ian- quality in production. It trains, guage barrier. It is clear to young It cuts office routine. You'll find and old alike—appeals to every- that it can work for you, too. Where do you find belter advancement plete appraisals of professional em- as his career progresses. Along any opportunities in a large company or a ployees. They enable a manager to of these paths he may advance small one? To help you, the college make a thorough and objective within the Company to very high student, reiolve thai problem, Mr. Abbott search of the entire General Electric levels of recognition and salary. answers the following question con- Company and come up with the cerning advancement opportunities in man best qualified for the job. Q. What aids to advancement dan engineering, manufacturing and tech- General Electric provide? nical marketing at General Electric. Q How do advancement opportunities for technical graduates stack-up with A. We believe that it's just sound Q. In a large Company such as General those of other graduates? business policy to provide a stimu- Electric, how can you assure that every lating climate for personal develop- man deserving of recognition will get it? A. Very well. General Electric is ment. As the individual develops Don't tome capable people become lost? recognized as a Company with out- through his own efforts, the Com- standing technical skills and facili- pany benefits from his contribution!. A. No, they don't. And it's be- ties. One out of every thirteen em- General Electric has done much to cause of the way G.E. has been ployees is a scientist or engineer. orginized. By decentralizing into provide the right kind of opportu- And approximately 50 per cent of nity for its employees. Outstanding more than a hundred smaller oper- our Department General Managers ating departments, we've been able college graduates are given graduate have technical backgrounds. study aid through the G-E Honors to pinpoint both authority and re- sponsibility. Our products are engi- Q. How about speed of advancement? Program and Tuition Refund Pro- neered, manufactured and marketed Is G.E. a "young man's Company"? gram. Technical graduates entering by many departments comparable the Engineering, Manufacturing, or A. Definitely. A majority of all Technical Marketing Programs start to small companics. Since each is supervisors, managers and outstand- completely responsible for its success with on-the-job training and related ing individual contributors working study as preparation for more re- and profitability, each individual in the engineering function are below within the department has a defined sponsible positions. Throughout the age of forty. We believe that a their G-E careers they receive fre- share of that responsibility. There- job should be one for which you are fore, outstanding performance is quent appraisals as a guide for self qualified, but above all it should be development. Company-conducted readily recognized. one that challenges your ability. As you master one job we feel that courses are offered again at a Q. If that's the case, are opportunities levels of the organization. These for advancement limited to openings consideration should be given to moving you to a position of greater help professionals gain the increas- within the department? ingly higher levels of education responsibility. This is working, for A. Not at all. That's one of the in the professional field, one out of demanded by the complexities of advantages of our decentralized four of our people are in positions of modern business. Our goal is to use organization. It creates small oper- greater responsibility today than every man advance to the full linaiti ations that individuals can "get their they were a year ago. of his capabilities. arms around", and still reserves and // you have other questions or want enhances the inherent advantages of Q. Some men want lo remain in a information on our programs for a large company. Widely diverse specialized technical job rather than go technical graduates, write to E. G. opportunities and promotions are into managerial work. How does this Abbott, Section 959-9, General available on a Company-wide basis. affect their advancement? Electric Co., Schenectady 5, N.Y. Q. But how does a department find the A. At G.E. there are many paths best man, Company-wide? which lead to higher positions of recognition and prestige. Every man A. We've developed personnel reg- is essentially free to select the course isters to assure that the best quali- which best fits both his abilities and fied men for the job are not over- looked. The registers contain com- interests. Furthermore, he may mod- ify that course if his interests change