REVIEW ARTICLE S YTHESISING THE MODERN HISTORY OF TANGANYIKA A Review ofJ. ILIFE: A Modern History of Tanganyika Bonaventure Swai* When, in the 1950's, the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press first began to explore the possibility of embarking on a Cambridge History of Africa, they were then advised that the 'the time was not yet ripe'. Instead, it was impressed upon the Syndics that the most urgent need of such a young, but also very rapidly advancing branch of historical studies' such as African history 'was a journal of international standing through which results of ongoing research might be disseminated'. Such a journal, The Journal of African History, was launched in 1960.3 The journal gradually demonstrated the amount of work being undertaken to establish the past of Africa as an intergrated whole rather than — as it had usually been viewed before — as the story of a series of incursions into the continent by peoples coming from outside, from the Mediterranean basin, the Near East or Western Europe.' However, the amount of work which was published in this journal, besides others also considered 'respectable', convinced the Syndics of Cambridge University Press just within a matter of six years that there was a need for a Cambridge History of Africa1.2'Cambridge histories have since the beginning of the century been compiled on various aspects of 'respectable history'. The chapters are written by 'experts' on a particular topic 'and unified by the guiding hand of volume editors of senior standing'.3 The Cambridge Modern History was planned by Lord Acton, 'during an effective professoriate of six years' from 1894 when he accepted the Chair of Modern History at Cambridge, and appeared in sixteen volumes between 1902 and 1916!4' Lord Acton believed that it was possible to write 'ultimate history'1.'1 Such history was intended to be a work of 'synthesis' which would be as objective as it was factual. 'What I want' said Mr. Gradgrind inHard Times, 'is Facts Facts alone are wanted in life'. This enterprise was undertaken with the intent to produce 'ultimate history'1^ But works of synthesis presuppose 'original research': the concern with documents and other relics of the past with a view to establishing 'what happened in minute detail'® Here, then, as one of the leading initiators of empiricist historiography, Ranke, admonished his colleagues: 'My basic thought is not to accept either one theory or another, not even the one which lies in between them; but to recognize the facts, to master them and display them.® The ultimate aim in such a venture was to produce a 'learned monograph', or an 'erudite article', but these results in turn, somehow, contributed to the production of works of synthesis, ultimate history . J Such, it might be surmised, was the role assigned by the Syndics of Cambridge University Press to The Journal of African History. The various theses and other forms of 'original research' which were produced in the aftermath of the institutionalization of professional Africanist history were intended to perform a similar role. Many of these studies, as was said somewhat contemptuously about Walter Rodney's work on the Upper Guinea Coast by one professional Africanist historian of the nihilist streak, were published 'hot from the bench!-J2_ But such, nevertheless, are the kind of monographs and articles which made the undertaking of works of synthesis feasible.11 * B. Swai — Senior Lecturer, History Department, University of Dar es Salaam. 257 Swal—Review of Iliff e In tneir effort to facilitate the production of a synthesis of Africanist history, the Syndics of Cambridge University Press were preceded by the colonial governments of the two East African territories of Uganda and Tanganyika. The government of Kenya Colony, with a prominent settler population, had not yet come under the sway of the belief that the oppressed, a majority of whom happened to be blacks, could make their own history. Here, Africanist historiography was still backward just as it was South of the Zambesi; but not for long, # However, in 1952 the Governors of Uganda and Tanganyika proposed what was to become the three volumes of the Oxford History of East Africa, an enterprise which was to be funded by the British Treasury in conjuction with the two colonial governments already mentioned. 'Under the sustained practical support given by Dame Perham and the late Sir Andrew Cohen', the first volume of the OxfordHistory of East Africa series was published in 1963. The second volume followed two years later, in 1965; and the third appeared in 1976 a At a public lecture delivered at Nairobi University College on 4 November 1965 just before the publication of the second volume of OxfordHistory of East Africa, Roland A. Oliver, incumbent of the first Chair of African History in the World which was established at London Univeristy's School of Oriental and African Studies way back in 1943,%and co-editor of the first volume of the Oxford series, observed: 'what the two volumes give us is a cooperative work of some 1400 pages by some 20 different authors, each of whom has undertaken to pass in review at the very least every-thing that has been printed on the subject.' The Oxford history, Professor Oliver went on to say, ' is not a work of research: it is a work of synthesis. As such, it provides in its chapters and, above all, in its bibliographies a pretty complete conspectus of what has been done in the past, and that is of course the best starting point of any inquiry of what there is still to do. T"! If the OxfordHistory of East Africa was a work of synthesis, it was not final. Rather it was a pointer and guide to new areas of research. Such was what was underlined in Professor Oliver's public lecture. However, this work of synthesis was very well received. This was so because, for one thing, undertakings of this kind were still very rare in Africanist historiography^ and for another, it sougnt to establish a 'new orthodoxy' in Africanist history to act as a powerful solvent of the colonial historiographical mystagogy still extarr , ^ Works of synthesis are no longer rare in Africanist• .history .'**V But there is a sense in which the recent publication of John Iliffe'syl Modern History of Tanganyika is unique. The Cambridge History of Africa series, the OxfordHistory of East Africa series and so forth, are 'co-operative studies' which involved many authors. Although a work of synthesis, as the author admits, Iliffe's A Modern History of Tanganyika, is the work of a single author. Much of the research which went into this study was done while he was teaching at the University of Dar es Salaam in the 1960s: the writing was done at Cambridge University where Jor"~ Iliffe is Fellow of St. Johns College and Assistant Director of Research in History*** In terms of sheer volume, Iliffe's work is more akin to Sir Reginald Coupland'sEast Africa and its Invaders (1938) widThe Exploitation of East Africa 1856-1890 (1939) than any other workrpublished on East Africa by a single scholar ever since. The interpretation (not to be confused with the problematic), however, is differentJi9* The volume of Iliffe's work is formidable, the interpretation fascinating, if not tantalizing and mystifying. As a professional piece of work, the study is scholarly and erudite without being arid or muddled with recondite. conundrums.'50'Whether this work of synthesis is also intended to be ultimate history of 23$ Utafiti—Vol. 5 No. 2 December 1980 Modern Tanganyika is a different matter. The title, however, seems rather cautious, 'A' History of Modern Tanganyika2^ One point though is now clear in the study of professional Africanist history: postcolonial Africanist historiography is in a crisis.22 Empiricist historiography has been in this sort of crisis since the latter half of the nineteenth century.23 As a new arrival to an historiographical tradition already in shambles, it did not take long before Africanist history was subjected to the same kind of tremors.^ The crisis in Africanist Historiography is what Iliffe avoids, notwithstanding the intentions he adumbrates in his first chapter. In this way Iliffe succumbs to the nihilist tendency redolent in professional history, the belief in the-study of history for its own sake with the resultant mental masturbation that it produces. *' The last statement is deliberate, for much as professional historians have claimed that theirs is an objective enterprise, objectivism has been preferred to objectivity.^ Consequently, professional history has not been able to penetrate the dominant World-views and so come to grips with social reality^\ Thus everyone continues to write his own history, and hence relativism and relativity continue to be poles apart. ^ In such kinds of enterprise, studies which purport to be works of synthesis are in reality nothing more than the 'Tower of Babel!' The endeavour by empiricist historians to conteract parcellization of knowledge by producing works of synthesis which are something more than mere aggregations has so far failed because they have been unable to locate the basis of unity or integration of historical knowledge. *' It was Marx who observed: 'A scientific analysis of competition is not possible, before we have a conception of the inner nature of capital, just as the apparent motions of heavenly bodies are not intelligible to any but him, who is acquainted with their real motions, motions which are not directly perceptible by the senses'.® If that is so, what about works of synthesis? What is to be the inner nature of such a synthesis? Is it merely to be the availability of a plethora of monographs and articles, products of original research? The Syndics of Cambridge University Press and many an empiricist and professional historian would answer: 'Yeah Yeah!' But if it is merely quantity which matters, how much of it will be enough? Where is the recipe?. It has been said about the writing of history that it involves a constant dialogue between facts and theory, a dialogue which is dialectical and which is intended to capture the concrete reality in all its determinations.'31 If this is so with scientific history which is original, what about a work of synthesis? Are we to allow everything to depend on chance? Such are the questions which shall be used in the course of atomizing the anatomy of Iliffe's a Modern History of Tanganyika. As has already been mentioned, Iliffe's study is a work of synthesis which was undertaken in the hope that it 'may helf to focus thought and stimulate research'. The study was also conducted with the belief that the 'essence of history is complexity', and thus the need for organizing themes'. Iliffe chose five themes whose combination is indicative of the manner in which he has grown out of the previous swaths used in his earlier works. Many of these had been crude, some simplistic, and others utterly confused. This is particularly so with his work on agricultural change in Tanganyika whereby the theory of development of underdevelopment is muddled with the Schumpeterian notion of entrepreneurship ^' However, these ideas and studies have 259 Swlli-A Review of Wife Diffe considers the use of themes in historical studies of considerable importance because they are like beams of 'light penetrating the obscurity of the past. Sometimes the beams merge and a larger area becomes visible! The ftrst theme Iliffe utilizes is that of inlargement of scale: the increasing awareness which comes to societies and individuals as they are exposed to the wider world. With enlargement of scale went the phenomenon, of social differentiationJffi Much has been written on the two notions. Sufftce it to note .that the 'notion of enlargement of scale' itself presents ambiguities and is, as a potential toll of analysis, to be viewed with some circumspection! Whether it is used in the sphere of the political or the economic, it presupposes development from tradition to modernity, notions which are themselves extreptely ideological~.J TIiffe concentrates on the colonia! era of the modern history of TanganYika. He thus aptly notes that enlargement of scale.in Tanganyika took place within the context of the capitalist world econoIl}Y. Capitalism, he says, has been. alleged to have bred underdevelopment with its attendant features of unequal exchange, immiseration and so forth. But this, he argues, is not all that occurred: 'capitalism did not impoverish -Tanganyika as a whole, ;"ut impoverished some of it all.of the time and all of it some of the time. Capitalism did not only transfer surplus to Europe, but also generated surplus which remained in Tanganyika'. This is what he terms a dialectical process. As with the enlargement of scale 'modernization and depri'lation were two sides of the same process' . It is an argull1ent he has also mentioned with regard to the' notion of improvement. Improvement, Iliffe has said, went side by side with differentiation~~ Such assertions appedf plausible, but sworn of the social relations of production within which the process oc:cuWd they sound more like the accountant's balance-sheet than a work of dialectics. More of this shall be discussed at the appropriate junc.ture later. Sufftce it now to underline the fact that statements of this kind reek of the idea of the sovereignty of the market, of bourgeois economics, of loss and gain, and so forth. Yet enlargement of scale and capitalism, Iliffe warns, were impositions fron. without. Tht::y were notions more in line with 'imperial management' than with the 'African voice' .1m Thus mffe fmds it imperative to consider the two notions in conjuction wit1~the idea of Aflkan initiative and so establish and interplay between Euro-African forces in the making of African history, and more particularly that of Tanganyika. In a review of Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa, C.C. Wrigley says the following about its author: Dr. Brett tells us, he experienced Marxian enlightenment, and came to see these lesser conflicts in the larger perspective to which his title bears witness. So the book is introduced with 8: chapter on 'Development and dependency in Africa' in which the optimistic 'modernization' theorists are assailed, and the differen~ between Kenya and Uganda are made to seem of little account. The argument is forceful and ~mirably ~r~anized, yet, as with much nea-Marxist writing, the question presents Itself: how IS It that a passion for human freedom and dignity can create a lunar lan~cape from which all signs of human life have vanished, leaving only 'strata' and structures' and 'social formations' JID ~u~h is the ~W~~~d qu~tion which Iliffe sought to avoid and so impose the idea Qf mdIgenoUS lilltIatIve, If not entrepreneurship, within the context of imperial 260 management It nad been demonstrated that 'traditional ideas', Diffe quotes O.C.K. ~ -can be a progre&:'ive force' ~ have other authors likeAlpers tried to argue ~~- Whether \:!ythis is meant the form or substance of progressiveness, however, 18 a differen~ matter. What is clear, tho~, is that even the notions of tradi$n and ~~~~mq~oo .. Im~al management and African initiative precipitated. 8:ll historical }:n'OOe8s which was coerCIve and, allegedly, dialectical: the coexistence of t.he new and the old. Such coexistence was particularly noticeable in the years 1929 to 1945, a period which Iliffe ~. constitutes the pivot of his book. This is the period when imperial authority hi all its vanous facets obtained. It is also the period which witnessed'~ initial stages of the dissolution ofimoerial control. Yet the TanganyikaeconomYLasJt was to be inherited. by the Tanzanian postcolonial social formation, was also very much in the PUUdng. Such, it seems, are the contradictions. Whether the author manages to grapple with them ~fully, however, is a different issue. But this kind of narrative merely constitutes 'the story of the interaction bdween man and man'. To this, therefore, Illffe adds a fifth theme. This he calls the interaction ohociety and ecology. The theme is still in.its infancy, but it is the more important given the alarming threat of an ecological crisis in the modern world.B!ISuch .then are the five themes which Iliffe utilizes in analyzing the various facets of the history of colonial Tanganyika: the imposition of colonial rule together with its political and ideological apparatus, the disarticulation of the precapitalist social formations and their articulation under imperialist hegemony, ecological crises, religious and cultural caanges, working class movements, the nationalist struggles and their victories, etc. The colonial history of Tanganyika which comprises the bulk of Iliffe's book is preceded by a quick discussion of the societies of the territory in 1800, especi.aUytheir culture, technology, modes of livelihood, trade, religions, and so on. Into these societies was imposed the so-called long distance trade which initially was articulated with the Indian Ocean and Red Sea commercial complex, and subsequently the world capitalist system.BaThe long distance trade was based on such commodities as iron, gold, copper, and more signific.antly ivory and slaves. Many ideas have been ascribed to the trade .thesis, the most important being state formation. Here, ignorance of the concepts of production and exploitation, and even more so the notion of merchants and merchant capital, has been displayed most vividly. With such ignorance which is not accidental, though, capital has been 'h~' and in that way considered the source of wealth~ The era of long distance trade was. at its zenith during the period of free trade imperialism when 'Victoria ruled the waves' ~ This period was superseded by the epoch of monopoly capitalism whose onset witnessed the partition of Africa.~ The Germans arrogated what was, amongst other colonies, to be called Tangaa~ka: Transf~rmation of the precolonial political systeDlSwith a view to creating a t:errttonal colonial order under the Germans touched off a number of resistances in German East Africa.\B Disarticulation of the .erstwhile social formations and their articulation under the German imperial economy precipitated. the era of secondary- resistances, the most important of which was the Majl Maji rebellion of 1905-07. The rebellion engulfed most 261 Swai-A Review of IUffe of southern Tanganyika. As with other so-called 'typical colonial rebellions '1471 there has been a good deal of controversy as to what constitutes the Maji Maji. Some scholars have emphasized its mode organization, especially the ideological aspects coupled with methodS of warfare displayed in the. struggle, others have stressed the manner of participation particularly the involvement of agrarian classes which, .it has been alleged, was a pointer to the phenomena of enlargement of scale, continuity ~d so f9rth.>48• Yet it has also been indicated that resistances were not the dominant feature of colonial history, and if this was so, 'what of the period when there were none such?'J4)1 Either way, scholars have resorted to one set -ef--facts or another to prove their case. Consequently the manner of intellection has tended to be' banal and schizophenic. Neither the dialectic of the categories used nor the material conditions which caused such movements have been located. The wrangle has been arrested at the levc;:lof appearance. elf contradictions rather than their substance. Such a preoccupation may bring about live1y.debates, but they are barely ser.icfus.OO'I The articulation of precolonial social formation of Tanganyika under German imperial hegemony was a violent one. The resistance movements and the colonial r.ebellions staged by the.coloni2ed people of Tanganyika and their ruthless suppression are:-a-caseinpoint. But that was not all, for as the Director of the newly created German Cokmial Office observed on his visit to Tanganyika in 1907: In Oar es Salaam nearly every whiteman walks around with a whip; I saw one on the table on the main revenue office; in the station office of the Usambara railway there was. one right next ~to the inkpot - and thus almost every wbite indulges in ,thrashing any blackman he wants. The legal basis of this is found in the law relating to punishment of servants which is supposed to permit an employer moderate corporal punishment of his servants. Those white employers to wh~ this is repugnant send their glack servants with notes to court in order to have them disciplined for disobedien~ negligence, latecoming, disrespectfUl conduct, etdjjl Nevertheless, as has been stressed time and again, notwithstanding the colonial violence, colonial resistances forced the Germans to reform their administmtion in Tanganyika. The primary resistances forced the German Imperial Government to assume the administration of Tanganyika which had hitherto been under the German East Mrica Company. The Maji Maji put a stop to the wholesale endeavour to make Tanganyika a settler colony, and so ensured that peasant agriculture would be of importance in. the colonial economy.~' Thus conditions in Tanganyika metamorphosed until. the Frrst World War during which Imperial Germany was defeated, and the territory transferred to the British. The British, it is alleged, assumed the administiation of Tanganyika to ensure that it did not fall into the hands of other iinperialist powers. This was so, supposedly, because ~ritain had many other colonial possessions it had so far been unable to 'develop' • Yet, It should be remembered that Britain emerged from the war terribly weakened. This made it the more necessary to have extra colonies which, in the words of Lenin could be subjected to Super-exploitation either extensively Or intensive1y~~ ' The ecological disaster which occured in the initial stages of the German lidministration of Tanganyika was intensified towards the end of that rule:"". Such is 262 Utafltl-Vol.5 No.2 December 19f¥> what the British inherited from the Germans. Moreover, the commercial sector ~f Tanganyika was utterly shattered during the First World War. Added to this, the British witch-hunt against German settlers snuffed off whatever remained of this sector. This 5~' alloyed with the complicated system under which settlers were to be admitted to Tanganyika Trusteeship Territory, ensured that the area was to remain a pre-eminently peasant economy under the command of metropolitan capital.~ Nevertheless, under the British, Tanganyika recovered rapidly. With the era of 'development fever' and, the need to apply science to colonial agriculture in the offmg, the Great Depression which destroyed most of what had been achieved came as a great shock to economic watchers not only in the colony but also in the British empire and elsewhere in the imperialist world!"-- Thus was started the 'grow more crops campaign'''''' Side by side with this was the fear of soil degredation, and the need to enhance productivity through methods of soil conservation and manuring coupled with inter-croping.\M Tanganyika regained economic bouyancy in the latter half of the 1930s, but World War Two destabilized this. Hence started other 'grow more crops campaigns' which outlived the war and dominated most of the 19508. Britains' victory against the Axis during tire Second World War was a pyrrhic one. Moreover she soon lost what was considered the most important colony in the British Empire, India. The 'universal equivalent' of the British Empire, the pound sterling, was in trouble, and so it has remained. The colonies were deluged with frantic propaganda to save Britain from ~nomic ruin.1l!!J While Britain was trying to seal itself off from the rest of the Ullperialist World like a plague bascillus with the aid of all kinds of tariffs with a view to saving the pound from utter ruin she coerced the colonial empire to open its belly to imperial products with the same ~d in mind. The grow more crops-campaigns, the soil COnservation measures, the Groundnut Schemes of Nachingwea, Kondoa and Mpwapwa, the re~abilitation schemes of Usambara, Uluguru, Mbulu, UsuklJ!lUland so forth, all ~ere mtended to ensure the survival of the imperialeconomy~61-It has been said of nnperialism that it is its notorious characteristic that 'it is able to push the neo-oolonial COuntries to adopt economic policies which bring disaster not only to the working people but even to the national bourgeoisie in the underdeveloped countries. '~IThis was also the case during the colonial era for as has been observed by A.M.M. Hoogvelt and A.M. Tinker with regard to iron mining in Sierra Leone: Colonial exploitation was not interested in spreading or perpetuating reproductive capitalist relations in the colonies themselves - it was not, th~efore, just exploitative, but super-exploitative. It was rapacious rather .than ~eproductive: bent on quick returns rather than long-term exchange. It was destructIve of the soIl and resources, yet failing to provide for alternative forms of livelihood .. It ,;as con~ent to work in makeshift technological and capitalist enclaves, allowm~ Itself to be supported by the surrounding social formation, rather than attemptI?g to change or improve it. For the character of super-exploitation included a faIlure to fulry reproduce the factors of production within the enclave itself: the absysmally low wages were insufficient to reproduce that labour.~ Such colonical rapicity was displayed by the manner in which not only 'nativ~ l~bour' was subsumed under capital, but also the carelessness which attended the explOItation of nature. The two led to frequent famines and ecological crises of an unprecedented 263 Swai-A Revl;ow of D1ffe kind.1F '*' The aftermath of the Second World War witnessed what has been termed the 'second Colonial occupation,.m It also saw the augmentation of colonial authoritarianism. The latter was associated with the endeavour to extract more agricultural surplus. The oppressed classes together with some intermediary social strata were alienated by such coalescence which eventually brought about notionalist victory,.one of the initial steps.in the struggle for national liberation. The process was evident in the 1920s and intensified in the 19308for the same reasons. This, in outline, is the terrain traversed in Iliffe'sA modem History of Tanganyika. The explanaltions given for the various episodes covered, however, are somewhat strange. The imposition of indirect rule in Tanganyika is Been in terms of Governor Byatt's idiosyncrasy, and Sir Donald Cameron's paternalism which he had 4nbibed in Nigeria and such other places where the doctrine of social Darwinism was in vogue. No particular reasons are given for the intensification of tribalism in the 19308 other than the possibility that it was illherent among Mricans.~1 illffe argues that the period 1929 to 1945 were critical years, years of crisis which witnessed the law of ~shing returns. One would have expected that the 1950s would have been worse. But he argues that 19508 Sukumaland was then just on the vt')rgeof itsrn:ost prosperous years. It should not be forgotten, however, that this was also the period when there were a great deal of concern. about soil degradation in Sukumaland. The Sukumaland Settlement Scheme was formulated with the need to conserve soil fertility in mind. Whether such measures augured well for the future of Sukumaland is a different matter. What is clear is that the President of Tanzania, Mwalimu Nyerere, recently repeated what the Director of Veterinary Services had warned the Standing Cominittee on Soil Erosion in 1931: if care was not taken Sukurnaland would become a desert in twenty years.!!l . illffe shows that the colonial governments, German and British, showed an inordinate amount of concern for agriculture in Tanganyika, not to mention other areas of economic interest like mineral exploration.~ Yet he also asserts that pe~istence of poverty in colonial Tanganyika was due to the failure of the British to develop the territory fully. Tanganyika, Iliffe alleges was 'the runt of the litter', and perhaps for this reason native interests could be protected more adequately than in Kenya or South Africa! Such is a reproduction of imperialist paternalist ideology per excellence. In a similar vein, Iliffe asserts that 'colonial development' was as altruistic as it was propelled by self-interest. Perhaps these are the kind of dialectics which he wants to display,.as promised in his chapter on 'intentions' . Commenting on Hegel's philosophy the dramatist Bertold Brecht 'has one of his characters say ... that "he had the stuff to be one of the greatest humorists among philosophers, like Socrates, who had a similar method. But hehad the bad luck it seems to become a civil serVant in Prussia and so he sold himself to the state". That is to say Hegel's philosophy was at once dialectical, subversive as was Socrates', and idealist, mystical like a priest's,.m illffe has been in the forefront of showing the simplicity r~pant in the works of his fellow professional Mricanisci: Thus when there was much emphasis on pure and simple Mrican initiative, it was illffe who observed that this 264 Utallti-Vel.5 No.2 Decalbel'l_ varied from 'high colonialism' where it was thin, to the local level where it was dense.:!! When Mricanist historians asserted that the era of resistances in African history was succeeded by the age of improvement, it was lliffe who cautioned that this was a period of'improvemeut and differentiation'.WIn doing so lliffe ffia:naged to alen: Africa.Oists about some of the contradictions dominant in African history. But a significant aspect of modern Mrican history which confuses lliffe is whether imperialism was altruistic, as is advocated by imperial historians like Robinson and Gallagher)lal and to a more subtle degree by Stokes and Low:f31 or guided by self-interest as has been stressed by radical historians:19 In most cases, professional historians have emphasized either self-interest or altruism. They have thus faced 'the world in doctrinaire fashion with a new .principle, declaring, Here is truth, kneel herel~' Where the facts have been the betrayer, they have just declared, 'too bad for the facts'. Such is the empiricist ideology which purpo.rts to respect facts. For such scholars 'things and their mental reflexes ideas, are isolated, are to be considered one after the other and apart from each other, are objects of investigation, fixed, rigid, given once and for all'.~ Following this kind of procedure, abstracted empiricism, Robinson and Gallagher find it hard to understand why Mrica was partitioned Lnthe 18808otber than for reasons of 'scraping the bottom of the barrel' . ... the.statesmen who drew the new frontier lines did not do so because they wanted to rule and develop these countries. Bismarck and Ferry, Gladstone and Salisbury, had no solid belief in Mrican empire; indeed they sneered at the movement as something of a farce. A gamble in jungles and bush might interest a poor King such as Leopold II ... but the chief partitioners of the 18808glimpsed no grand imperial, idea behind what they were doing ... The partition of Africa is a remarkable freak.mJ A remarkable freak or etherwise, this is what should be explained. Yet that is the kind of imperialist ideology Iliffe reproduces in his work of synthesis, that Tanganyika was occupied by the British to. prevent it from falling into the hands of other imperialist powers. It was very altruistic of the British to have done so at a time when they were being pushed into the background as an imperialist power! Perhaps this is the kind of stuff Iliffe believes to have been the truth. Not that his beliefs are to be doubted; but a clear distinction should be drawn between schol .sticism which emanates from beliefs, and scholarship which is a product of investigation. Altruism and self-interest were dialectical processes wd should not be viewed in isolation; th~ former was intended to legitimize the latter. Short of realizing this, colonial history will continue to be viewed as a series of isolated phenomena which do not fit into any particular mould. An alleged work of synthesis therefore is bound to become nothing more than a collection of descriptions of various events, and in that way confusing the appearance of contradictions with the real contradictions which are determinant in a given historical process. Although IIiffe attelllpts to show the appearance of contradictions wit~n Tanganyika, he fails to explain them in terms of the real contradictions within the 265 Swai—ARefcwoflUffe imperialist world. Thus confusion about the real nature of colonialism, the characteristics of modern Tanganyika, and the manner of the nationalist struggle coupled with the way it was truncated by imperialist forces abound. Marx commented about political economists of his time that many of them concentrated upon sagaciously 'observing the clouds of dust on the surface and presumptuously declaring this dust to be something mysterious and important'.SI So too is it with Iliffe's work. The political economists of Marx's time, in confusing the 'dust for the real thing', sold their souls to the ruling classes of the time, the bourgeoisies. Iliffe has sold his to the imperialist ruling classes. Iliffe asserts that the British were reluctant imperialists in Tanganyika, and so the territory remained poor, and in poverty 'native interests' had the chance of being preserved. Such is indicative of the author's utter confusion of the historical process dominant in modern times. Marx remarked 'World history has not always existed; history as World history is a result', that is a result of the triumph of capitalism.™1 There had been economic systems before, but the capitalist economy was the first to display a World-wide phenomenon.^ The dominance of the world by the capitalist system was essential for the development of the system. 'The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape', said Marx and Engels, 'opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonization of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development'.2^ Exceptional regions such as Africa were designed as external arenas and subjected to outright plunder prior to the era of free trade imperialism and subsequently monopoly capitalismJsB Simultaneously with the penetration of capital in a given region began a dialectical process whereby this individual region became the universal and vice versa. Amplifying the concept of dialectics Lenin writes: ...the individual is the universal ... Consequently the opposites (the universal is opposed to the universal) are identical: the individual exists only in the connection that leads to the universal. The universal exists only in the individual and through the individual. Every individual is (in one way or another) a universal. Every universal is (a fragment, or an aspect, or the essence of) an individual. Every universal only approximately embraces all individual objects. Every individual enters incompletely into the universal, etc. etcJSl So is it with countries articulated with the capitalist system. Prima facie they seem to be isolated units, but this is merely at the level of appearance. Appearance is a pointer to substance, but that the former takes the nature it does has to be explained. Hence it, too, is part of reality. Nevertheless it should not be confused for the whole.84' The penetration of capital or the subsumption of labour under capital initially takes the relations of production as they are found extant and so concentrates on the extraction of absolute value by extending the working day. Such is what is termed formal subsumption or subjugation to capital whereby 'the mode of production is not yet determined by capital, but rather found on hand by it'.® Formal subsumption of 266 Utaftd-Vol. 5 No. 2 ~ U. to ,labour under capital leadS the preservation of 'allldnds of precapitalist relations of. exploitation and uses them in the service-of capital; .If' Where capital enters the process of production, as was the case with Westen? E.urope in the course of the. industrial revolution, formal subsumption of labour. gives way to real control by capiUtl. Here, methods of absolute surplus value extraction are superceded by those of relative surplus value. In most areas of the colonial empire, howeVer, such a transition did not take, place-. FOrmal subjugation With the attendant 'extra-economic relations of coercion, forced labour, political oppression and violence',.perservered unabated. Minimal capital investment with maximum pro.fit, and ~bn of productive forces in a preindustrial stage was on the ascendance~!'lI' The tendency for capital to acquire a national character coupled with its simultaneous process of global domination ana regional concentration in selected poles engendereq the perpetuation of formal sUbjUgation in some areas, and re& subsumptlon in others:N-- The former areas were subjected to what Lenin termed 'super-exploitation'. In these areas imperialism was parasitic in that what those who tOil w«e paid in exchange for their labour power was not enough for their maintenance let alone reconstitution and reproduction.~ I Yet whenever there was a capitalist economy the same people were coerced into producing more. It is not, therefore, that Tanganyika was poor because it was neglected by the British but that the nature that capital assmned dictated that things should be so. And in any case had the subsumption of labour been real, this would not have eliminated poverty. Only the hired coolies of imperialism who think that the salvation of the world lies in the capitalist system continue to assert that the Third World is poor because it has not been exploit'ed enough. To perpetuate super-exploitation of the labouring masses of Tanganyika, the precapitalist relations of production within which labour had to be reconstituted and reproduced had to be preserved by the colonial state. Such a policy took the form of 'the doctrine of Social Darwinism which had it that 'natives' had to be introduced slowly but surely to modernity .. 'I paused to think when 1 first saw these primitive ~ple', ob~ed Sir Donald Cameron when on a country tour of Ugogo in the 1920s, 'probably then not further advanced in scale of civilization than the ancient Britons, brought suddenly and sharply into contact with Western civilization in the market square of the Dodoma township, where they came to sell their cattle and ghee. What could we make ofthem1,!I~perial proconsuls had askeQ likewise in other areas of the colonial empire. The most popular of such questions, it has been alleged, was: 'what shall we do with the colony for its own good and ours?>?!] For Cameron the answer was obvious: exploit the natives in their own habitat and enforce this with the doctrine of indirect rule. Thus indirect rule was enforced in Tanzania. It was not for the mere reason that Cameroo liked it. Rather there were material conditions which justified the imposition of 'native administration' in the territory. The Great Depression offered the occasion to see indirect rule practice. The Native Authorities Ordinance to make Orders (Section 9), and Rules (Section 16) was involved. Chiefs and -their headmen were armed with. extra powers to coerce the 'natives' to produce more with the intent to save Britain from economic collapse. Where 'natives' could not be absorbed into the commercial economy and so produce the so-called cash 267 ,~A Review of lUffe crOps, they were ordered to sell tnerr labour power to plantation owners or to grow food • crOps.[!J Yet to force people to produce more is one thing; to ensure that the produce reaches the appropriate market, another. Thus were passed draconian measures in the name of paternalism to centralize the marketing of agricultural produce in Tanganyika. Such were the Trades Lincensing Ordinance, Itinerant Traders Ordinance, Market Ordinance, the Coffee Ordinance, and the Cooperative Societes Ordinance.2!In Kilirna- njaro, the Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association was destroyed, and the Ki1irnanjaro Native Cooperative Union instituted under the pretext that the former had become too political, andfitina too rampant in the area, to allow free play of the laws of the m.arket.i!4 With the corning of the Second World War, marketing boards were imposed on the cooperative societies. The real reason, however, was the same: to ensure free flow of colonial surplus to the im~st coffers.~ It should be noted that things did not merely happen, as is implied in Iliffe's work What occurs has LO be explained itirelation to other events, and such phenomena have iJ turn to be explained in relation to capital. But this will only be possible if the 'nature of capital itself ill'clearly understood. This applies to the interwar years as well as to the post war period. Iliffe argues that what he calls the pivot of the modern history of Tanganyika witnessed a crisis of diminishing returns. Such a phenomenon revealed itself in various kinds of ecological crisis such as soil erosion. Soil erosion had been noticed during the German era. The British became aware of it in the 19208, and by the 19308 this crisis was becoming a hot issue not only in Tanganyika but also in the whole of the British empire and beyond;9I\1 Stockdale, adviser on agriculture to the British Colonial Office who visited East Mrica in 1937 found soil erosion a serious issue. The Royal African Society monthly dinner of December 1937 discussed this matter and made a number of recommendations to the Colonial Office.1!!J 'Natives' were blamed for the occurance of soil erosion. A number of soil conservation measures were introduced. But such measures were not intended to improve the lot of the native; rather they were intended to facilitate his exploitation' in the interest of metropolitan capital. Such is the manner in which events in modem Tanganyika have to be viewed, if a real synthesis is to be achieved, and abstracted empiricism avoided. This review article has attempted to place Iliffe'sA Modern HlStory of Tanganyika within the general context of the trend to synthesize African history, a tendency which has been made possible by the publication of studies based on the so-called original research. Yet it has been argued that however overwhelming such plethora of original research c~uld' be, this cannot be the only justification for embarking on a work of synthesis. Not that such original pieces of work are not essential; but that the theoretical basis for the undertaking to synthesize historical knowledge has to be located. Abstracted empiricism is not to be reproduced in a miniaturized and caricatured form. The endeavour to integrate historical knowledge entails an awareness of the dominant material processes of our time!!ll Short of this, historical knowledge will continue to be as fascinating as it is confusing, and true integration of knowledge will remain as persistently mesmerizing as a mirage. That said, though, niffe is to be congratulated for, notwithstanding the frustrations of working within the empiricist problematic, he 268 utidu-Vol.5 No.2 nea.iitr iJIo has managed to assemble as much of what luls ~wrl~_about.tbe modern history ai' Tanganyika as can fit into the two covers of a-book. Where he fOWld published works and manuscripts lacking, he resorted to archival work. F.ewempiricist historians, save Leopold von Ranke obviously, have been able to demonstI1rte such sldlls, particularly in such a 'your.ig and integrated discipline' as Africanist history. His, then, is an historiographical achievement of its own kind •. 269 FOOTNOTES I. See the preface by Professors Faje and Oliver in R. Gray, ed. The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. IV, Cambridge 1975. p. XI. 1 Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. See Cue introduction by Hugh Trevor-Roper in Lord Acton, Lectures on Modern History, London 1964. p. 14. 5. E.H. Carr, What is History? London 1962. p. 1 6. Ibid. pp. 2 — 3 . 7. G. Connel-Smith and H.A. Lloyd, The Relevance of History, London 1972. p. 30. 8. Quoted by A.J.P. Taylor, Englishmen and Others, London 1963, p. 13. 9. Connel-Smith and Lloyd, The Relevance of History. 10. P.E.H. Hair, reviewing W. Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast 1945-1800, Oxford 1970, Bulletin oftht School of Oriental and African Studies, XXXIV, 1971. p. 444. I1. W. Rodney, "The Guinea coast', Gray, ed. The Cambridge History of Africa. 12. A.D.R. reviewing DA. Low and A. Smith, eds. History of East Africa, Vol. Ill, Oxford 1976, Journal of African History, XIX, 1978. p. 148. 13. Ibid. 14. R.A. Oliver, African History and the Outside World, London 1964. 15. R.A. Oliver, Public Lecture given on 4 November at the University College, Nairobi (Incorporating the Ohandhi Memorial Academy), in my possession. 16. Ibid. 17. B. Davidson, 'West Africa to 1800:"a new history'* Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana, XIII, 1972. D. Denoon, 'Synthesizing South African history', Trans African Journal of History, II, 1972. D. O'Meara reviewing T.R.N. Davenport, South Africa: a Modern History, Toronto 1979, Utafiti, 4,1979. 18. J. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika, Cambridge 1979. xi. 19. J. Depelchin, 'Towards a problematic African history', Tanzania Zamani, 18 1976. H. Bernstein and J. Depelchin, 'The object of African History: a materialist perspective', History in African, 5.1978. 20. J.H. Plumb, 'The historian's dilemma', J.H. Plumb, ed. Crisis in the Humanities, Harmondsworth 1964. The introduction in this book is also worthwhile reading. 21. Emphasis mine. 22. Bonaventure Swai, Antinomies of Local Initiative in African History, Dar es Salaam 1979. See also my 'Local initiative in African History: a critique', Tanzania Zamani, 19,1977. 23. Plumb, 'The historian's dilemma'. G.S. Jones, 'History: the poverty of empiricism', R. Blackburn, ed. Ideology in Social Science, London 1978. 24. A.J. Temu and Bonaventure Swai, Historians and Africanist History London: Zed Press, forthcoming. A. Mafeje, 'The problem of Anthropology in historical perspective: an inquiry into the growth of social science', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 10,1979. C.C. Wrigley, 'Historicism in Africa', African Affairs, 70,1971. 23. G.R. Elton, The Practice of History, London 1969. H.S. Hughes, Consciousness and Society, St. Albans 1974. R. Palme Dutt, Problems of Contemporary History, London 1963. B.W. Cook, A.K. Harris and R. Radosh, Past Imperfect: A Iternative Essays in A merican History from Reconstruction to the Present, Vol. II, New York 1973; see especially J. Weinstein, 'Can a historian be a socialist revolutionary?' J.D. Bernal, Science In History, Vol. IV, Harmondsworth 1969. pp. 1017 — 25. E.P. Thompson, The Poverty of theory and other Essays, London 1978. 26. V. Kelle and M. Kovalson, Historical Materialism, Moscow 1973. R.P. Wolff, B. Moore and H. Marcuse, A Critique of Pure Tolerance, Boston 1969. 27. M. Shaw, 'The coming crisis of radical Sociology' Blackburn, ed. Ideology in Social Science. 270 » . V.I. Lenin, Materialism andEmpirio-Criikim. Moscow 1970. pp. \W — %i-,. 29. M.O. Chepikov, The Integration of Science, Moscow 1978. 30. K. Marx, Capital. Vol. I p. 300; quoted by ibid. p. 67. 31. Thompson, Poverty of Theory and other Essays. R. Gray, E.P. Thompson, 'History and communist politics8, w Marxism Today, XXIII, 1979. E. Marsdel, Late Capitalism, London 1976. See alroMandd's foreword to K". Marx, Capital, Vol. I, Harmondsworth 1976. 'Faithfulness to facts in Party history research1, Peking Review, XXXIV, 1979. 32. J. Iliffc, Tanganyika under German Rule, Nairobi 1969; Modern Tanzankms, Nairobi 1972; Agricultural change in Modern Tanganyika. Nairobi 1971; 'A historiographies study of Tanzania', SOAS 1972. 33. Swai, Antinomies of Local Initiative in African history. Temu and Swai; Historians and Africanist History. J. Depelchin, 'The coming of age of political economy of African Studies', International Journal of African Historical Studies, XI, 1978. H. Bernstein, 'Sociology of development versus'sodology of underdevelopmenf, H. Bernstein, et al Development Theory: Three Critical Essays, London 1978. 34. J. Iliffe, 'Age of improvement and differentiation', I.N. Kimambo and A.J. Temu, eds. A History of Tanzania, Nairobi 1969. 35. J.S. Saul, 'Enlargement of scale in post-independence Tanzania', University of Ernst Africa Social Science Conference 1968. B. Davey, Economic Development of India, Nottingham 1973. S. Amin, CAtta-Mill, A. Bujra, O. Hamid and T. Mkandawire, 'Social Science and the development crisis in Africa: problems and prospects,* Africa Development, III, 1978. 36. Iliffe, 'Age of improvement and differentiation'. 37. A.D.R. reviewing D.A. Low and A. Smith, History of East Africa, Vol. III. T.O. Ranger, The African Voice in Southern Rhodesia, London 1972. 38. C.C. Wrigley, reviewing E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopmeni in East Africa, London 1973, African Affairs, 74,1975. 39. G.C. Gwassa, 'The Outbreak and Development of the M*aji Maji War 1905-7' Ph.D. Dares Salaam 1973. p. 505. 40. E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, London 1975. See also his 'Re-thinking African economics history', Kenya Historical Review, II, 1973. 41. The theme of ecological crisis is being taken more seriously than ever before. I am involved in an historical analysis of 'The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in British Tanganyika' Whether this problem is being approached correctly, however, is a different matter. However, see my 'Are natural disasters acts of god?' forthcoming in Tanzania Zamahi, 23, 1979. N.N. Luanda, 'The plethora of agrarian programmes during the 1930s depression: Kingolwira, Ukirigum and Uzinza Settlement Schemes in colonial Tanganyika' M A term paper, University of Dai es SrJaam 1979. E. Whitcombe, Agrarian Conditions in Northern India, Vol. I, Berkeley 1972. I. Laptev, The World of Man in the World of Nature, Moscow 1979. J. Ford, 'African Trypanosomiasis: an assessment of the tse tse fly problem today', African Environment, Special Report No. 1, 1975. See more particularly Ford's The Role of the Tryponosomiases in African Ecology, Oxford 1971. H. Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East Africa, London 1977. L. Vail, 'Ecology and history the example of eastern Zambia, Journal of Southern African Studies, II, 1977. M. Watts and R. Shenton, 'Capitalism and hunger in Northern Nigeria', Zaria 1978 mirnco. J. Iliffe, reviewing H. Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East Africa, London 1977, Journal of African History, XIX, 1978. F. Lambrecht, 'Aspects of the evolution and ecology of tse tse flies and, trypanosomiasis in prehistoric African environment', ibid. V, 1964. 42. I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System, New York 1975. J.E.G. Sutton, The East African Coast: an historical and archaeological review, Nairobi 1966. See also his Early Trade in Eastern Africa, Nairobi 1973. E.A. Alpers, The East African Slave Trade, Nairobi 1967. 43. I.N. Kimambo, 'Historical research in mainland Tanzania', Dar es Salaam 1968 mimeo. D. Birmingham, A question of economic history', Dar es Salaam 1972 mimeo. A.M. Sheriff, 'Ivory and economic expansion in East Africa in the nineteenth century', Dar es Salaam, n.d. mimeo. See also his 'The Rise of a Commercial Empire: an Aspect of Economic History of Zanzibar 1770-1873', Ph.D. SOAS, 1971; and 'The development of underdevelopment: the role of international trade in the Economic History of the East African coast before the sixteenth century, Dar es Salam 1972 mimeo — W. Rodney, reviewing R. Gray and D. Birmingham, ed. Pre-colonial African Trade, Trans African Journal of History, II 1972. G. Kay, Development and underdevelopment, London 1975. Bonaventure Swai, 'Eastern African states and European merchants capital', A. Salim, ed. State formation in East Africa in the 18th Centuries, forthcoming. R. Menon, Zanzibar in the Nineteenth Century: Aspects of Urban Development in an East Africa Coastal Town', University of California MA Dissertation 1978. 44. A. Briggs, 'High noon and sunset', Encounter, XXXV, 1970. R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, New York 1962. 45. D.W. Nabudcre, The Political Economy of Imperialism, London 1977. 271 46. K. Lubett'.ty. 'Sectoral development and stratification in Tanganyika 1890 —1914', East African Untonhfc* Social Science Conference 1972. L.H. Gann and P. Gufenan, eds. Colonialism in Africa, Cambridge 1969. 47. E. Stokes, 'Traditional resistance movements and Afro-Asian nationalism: the context of the 18S7 mutiny rebellion', Past and Present, 48,1970. 48. J. Iliffe, 'The organization of the Maji Maji rebellion'; Journal of African History, VIII, 1967. O.C.K. Owassa, 'African methods of Warfare during the Maji Maji War 1905 — 1907', B.A. Ogot, ed. Wars and Society in Africa, London 1972. 49. D.A. Low, Lion Rampant, London 1974. T.O. Ranger, 'The people in African resistance', Journal of Southern African Studies, 4, 1977.' See also the preface in Ranger's second edition of Revolt in Southern Rhodesia, London 1979. 50. K. Buttner, 'Historico philosophical aspects of the bourgeois concept of colonialism', Problems of African Histoi> and Anti-Colonial Resistance: Asia, Africa and Latin America, 2, 1977. J.F. Mbwiliza, ''Resistance and collaboration or the struggle and unity of opposite*'; Utaflti, 4,1979. L. Seve, Man. in Marxist Theory, Hassocks, Sussex, 1978. See also the introductory chapter in my forthcoming monograph, Creating Political Order: the British in Malabar 1792-1840. 51. Quoted, by M. von Freyhold, 'On colonial modes of production', Dar es Salaam 1977 mimeo. p. 24 52. Cf. H. Bley, South West African under German Rule, London 1970. See also J. Salaita, 'Colonialism and Under- development in Unyanyembe 1900-1960', Univeristy of Dar es Salaam M A dissertation, 1975; and 'Railway Underdevelopment in Tanganyika 1900-1960', Dar es Salaam 1975 mimeo. 53. V.I. Lenin, Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Moscow 1974. N. Bukharin, imperialism and World Economy, New York 1973. 54. Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika, pp. 163 — 67; 261 — 72. N.N.P. Shimwela, 'Development planning in colonial Tanzania: a study in Historical perspective', Dar es Salaam 1974 mimeo B.C. Nindi, 'Agricultural Change and Rural Class Formation in Iringa District, Tanzania', PhD Hull 1978. See also his 'Colonial agricultural policy in Tanganyika between the first and second world wars', Dar es Salaam 1979 mimeo. 55. A.B. Lyall, Land Law and Policy in Tanganyika 1919-1932', LLM Dar es Salaam 1973. 56. There has been the suggestion that Britain was prepared to handover Tanganyika to Oermans in line with Chamber- lain's policy of appeasement. But Tanganyika did not become another Czchekoslavia. This is therefore a metaphysical issue which in line with papal scholarship could be compared with the question: 'how many angels can stand on the head of a pin?' However see N. J. Westcott, 'British Imperialism in Africa: closer union and the future of East Africa 1939-48', Dar es Salaam 1979 mimeo. for this kind of speculation which is as tantalizing as it is simplistic. 57. Low, Lion Rampant. E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa, London 1973. 'Colonial Office Conference on colonial Scientific and Research Services', Tanzania National Archieves (TNA) 11161. 'Agricultural Research and Administration in the non self-governing- Dependencies', ibid. Bonaventure Swai, 'Imperial proconsuls and the marketing of colonial produce: the origins of cooperatives in Tanganyika', Dar es Salaam 1979 mimeo D. Meredith, 'The British government and colonial economic policy 1919-39', Economic History Review, XXVIII, 1973. 58. Secretariat Circular No. 36,1931, TNA 13044. 59. Lord Hailey, An African Survey, London 1957. 'Annual Report, Northern Province 1934', TNA 11681. F. Stock- dale, 'Soil erosion in the colonial empire', Empire Journal of Experimental Agriculture, V, 1937. Journal of the Royal African Society supplement, XXXVII, 1938. For more information see my report entitled 'Matuta: the political economy of soil erosion in British Tanganyika', submitted to the Ford foundation office at Nairobi in the latter part of 1979. 60. R.P. Dutt, India Today, Calcutta 1970. 61. J.R. Mlahagwa, 'The Uluguru land usage scheme: crisis in colonial production', Dar es Salaam 1977 mimeo. M. Wright, 'Agrarian intervention and the rise of the common people: a view from South Rukwa, East-Central Africa', Columbia University 1978 mimeo. The Colonial Territories 1948-49, London 1949. p. 48. The Colonial Territories 1950-51, London 1951. p. 59. 62. G. Kristoffel Lieten, Crisis of Capitalism, Social Scientist, 8,1979. p. 73. 63. A.M.M. Hoogvelt and A.M. Tinker, 'The role of colonial and postcolonial states in imperialism: a case - study of the Sierra Leone Development Company', Journal of Modern African Studies, 16,1978. p. 73. 64. L.E.Y. Mbogoni, 'Labour migration and famine', University of Dares Salaam BA dissertation, 1977. M.F. Lofchie 'Political and economic origins of African hunger', Journal of Modern African Studies, XIII, 1975. 65. D.A. Low and J.M. Lonsdale, 'Introduction', D.A. Low and A. Smith, eds. History of East Africa, Vol. Ill, Oxford 272 i976. p. 12. Quoted by Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika, p. 436. 66. Cf. Bonavcnture Swai, 'Notes on the colonial state with reference to Malabar in the 18th and 19th centuries', Social .Scientist, 7,1978. 67. 'Minutes of the first meeting of the standing committee on soil erosion', 15 June 1931, TNA 77/2/33/2. Quoted by Iliffe, A History of Modern Tanganyika, p. 348. 'Mwalimu Warns against false optimism on oil' Daily News, Dar es Salaam, 27 October 1979. See also I. Mruma, 'Rejuvinating soil to boost agriculture', Daily News, Dar es Salaam, 13 December 1979. 68. H.P.B. Moshi, 'Foreign investment, mineral resources and industrialization in Tanganyika, an historical perpective' University of Dar es Salaam ERB paper, 1979, A.C., Coulson, 'Merchant capital in East Africa', Dar es Salaam 1974 mimeo. J. Depelchin and S.J. Lemelle, 'Some aspects of capital accumulation in Tanganyika 1920-1940', Dar es Salaam 1979 mimeo. 69. M. Nicolaus, Toward', K. Marx, Grundrisse, Harmondsworth 1973, pp. 26 — 27. 70. Iliffe, ed. Modern Tanzanians. 71. Iliffe, 'Age of improvement and differentiation', 72. Robinson and Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians. 73. Low, Lion Rampant, see especially his ideas on 'colonial authority' in chapter one. E. Stokes, 'Traditional resistance movements and Afro-Asian nationalism: the context of the 1857 mutiny-rebellion', and 'The first century of british colonial rule in India: social revolution or social stagnation', Past and Present, 58,1973. 74. H. Zinn, The Politics of History, Boston 1971. 75. K. Marx to A. Ruge, September 1843, H. Selsam, D.. Goldway and H. Martei, eds. Dynamics of Social Change, New York 1975. 76. F. Engels, Anti-Duhring, p. 29. Quoted by Chepikdv, The Integration of Science, p. 39. 77. R.E. Robinson and J. Gallagher, 'The partition of Africa', The New Cambridge Modern History. 78. K. Marx, Capital, Vol. Ill, p. 357. Quoted by J. Depelchin and S.J. Lemeile, 'Some Aspects of capital accumulation in Tanganyika 1920-40', Dar es Salaam 1979 mimeo. 79. Quoted by A. 'Agh, 'Labyrinth in the mode of production controversy', Southern African Universities Social Sciences Conference, 1979. 80. Wallerstein, TAe Capitalist World System. 81. K.Marx and F. Engcls, Manifesto ofthe Communist Party<, Moscow 1973, p. 42. 82. Wallerstein, The Modern World System. 83. V.I. Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 38, Moscow 1961, p. 361, but pages 359 — 63 are extremely useful! 84. Mandel, Late Capitalism. 85. 'Agh, 'Labyrinth in the mode of production controversy', p. 36. 86. Ibid. p. 37. see also R. Bendix Works and Authority in Industry, Berkeley 1974; J. Depelchin, 'A contribution to the study or pre-capitalist modes of production: Uvira zone (East Zaire) 1800-1937', African Economic History Review, II, 1975; P. Paslett, The World We Have Lost, London 1968; U.B. Phillips, American Negro Slavery, Baton Rouge 1966; B. Brown, Marx, Freud and the Critique of Everyday Life, New York 1973, pp. 103-05. D.D. Kosambi, Art Introduction to the Study of Indian History, Bombay 1970 for examples of the notion of subsumpticn of labour*; and H. Mapolu and G. Phillipson, 'Agricultural cooperation and the development of productive forces: some lessons from Tanzania,' African Development, I. 1976; 'Labyrith in the mode of production controversy'; E. Mandel, Marxist Economic Theory, London 1971, p. 135. K. Marx, Capital, Vol. I. Moscow 1974, pp.476—78; J. Depelchin, 'The beggar problem in Dar es Salaam in the 1930s: a discussion of the reproduction of labour power', Dar es Salaam 1973 mimeo. D. Bryceson, 'Primitive accumulation and imperialism in relation to the reproduction of Third World peasants', Utqfiti, forthcoming; D.V. Williams, 'The interaction of legal superstructure and economic basis in the process of colonization', Southern African Universities Social Conference, 1979; I.G. Shivji, 'Semi-proletarian labour and the use of penal sanctions in the labour law of colonial Tanganyika 1920 - 38', Cambridge University Conference on Criminology, 1979; Bonaventure Swai, "Native" labour under colonialism', Tanzania Zamani, 21, 1979. Luanda, 'The plethora of agrarian programmes during the 1930s depression: Kingo- lwira, Ukiriguru and Uzinza settlement schemes in colonial Tanganyika', for some theoretical conceptualization. 87. 'Agh, 'Labyrinth of the mode of production controversy', p. 37. 88. B. Davey, Economic Development of India, See also T. Mbeki, 'The historical injustice', Sechaba, 13,1979 273 89. V.I. LcIIlu. OrIl~ IDId OpporUutbm, Copeobqen 1974, pp. 43 - SI. R. BemItein,'UIlderdevelopmem and the law of value: • critique of Kay' , Rnb oj Afrlcmt PoIitfazI I!coItoIrv, 6, 1976. C. MeiIJuIoux. "DeYeIop- oxntor exploitatlon: II the Sahel famlneJOOd bI1IInea?' Review of AfrlcmtPoliticlllEcoltom)l, 1,19'17. See Ilao his 'HlatodcaI modalities of the exp\oitatlQn and ovec..expklitation of labour', Crltiqw oj AlIJ/vopoIolY, 13 a 14, 1979. 90. Quoted by P.B. Mihyo, 'The backJround to the employment ordinance of Tanzanla', Dar CI s.Jum 1979 mfmeo. For UlCful bioarapby of Cameron aee H.A. OaiIey, Sir DoItIIId 0rmer0II: Colol!llrl Gowmor, Stanford 1974. 91. LOw, LiollRt:tnpQ1It. 92. TNA 10138 93. Ibid. 94. BonaventureSwai, 'TbeJosephMerinyocase', TIIIZIIlUIi, 9,1979. 9S. R.A.M. van Zwanenberi, 'Towards a history of marketlna and diJtrlbution in Tanzania', Dar CI Salaam 1974 JDimeo. 96. JOU17lllIof Royal AfrlCQ1l ~ty Supplt!mt!II!, Supplement, XXXVII, 1938. 97. Ibid. 98. 'Ash, 'Labyrith in the mode of production debate' , 274