&laDsh Lanpage Teae~1                           II!Tanzania:            A Colloquium
    H. R. Trappes-Lomax              ..
    Senior Lecturer. Uepartment of ForeIgn Language
   and linguistics, University of Dar es Salaam ..
                                                               the FClCuity of Arts and Social
                                                               Univer.rityofDaresSolaom.
                                                                                               ScIe-.
                                                               Utafiti Vol. WINo. 2. 1985.JOUftltllof
   (This is a revised and updated version of a paper originally written in O<;tober, 1978.
   The revisions, mainly of q,mission, are in the body of the paper; the updatmg has large-
   ly been done in the footnotes).
    Introduction
  Language, like water and forests, is a national resource. It is in no dan~er of
  becoming exhausted through .overuse - the reverse, indeed, is true - but it
  can be well managed or poorly managed and, if wrong choices are made, the
  results may be serious for the social and political life of a people and in partic-
  ular for education. It is nowadays generally accepted that, if such results are
  to be avoided, language resources must be protected and develoQed and the use
  and teaching of languages ~ithin the national speech community must be care-
  fully planned ..
         In 1978, the Institute of Education organised a Colloquium with the aim
  of giving those professionally concemeda chance to discuss one important aspect
  of lan8Qage 'manager.ne:Qt' in Tanzania.            the tea~hin~ of English at the primary
  leveL This is an issue that connects Wlth very many mteNelated problems of
  language use and planning in'the country, and the prese~t paper, Wh~ch was
  originally written immediately after the colloquium as a summary Of unpres-
  sions. tOllchel'i on a number of these. The event itself is now several years in
the paSt, but the fact that the issues are still energetically alive is adequate tes-
 timony to the continuing significance of those otherwise somewhat distant dis-
'cussions. A recently completed report(2) on the condition of English in the Tan-
~an         educa~ional' system makes this fact abundantly clear .
 . 2.•.Tbe Problems •
.2.1 'Dedining standards'
         It is part of the. background assumptions of all discussion of the present
 position of English and EL T in Tanzania that standards - i.e. observed levels
 of proficiency-         have declined and are declining.(3) There is little in the way
 of c9I:lcfete data to. support t~..}Y~d~ly held bell~f., Still less is it DOssible to
~y preasely.how, and.prescisely how far, standards have declined(4) But there
 is no-shortage of suggested reasons to account for 'what is happening. The fol':
 lowing is a list, in no particular order, of the most rrominent of these:
 • absence of opportunity and incentive to use English particularly in the primary
      school, associated with the fact that English is no longer a medium of in~
      struction at any level of primary education;
 • the .diminishing functions and declining prestige of English in Tanzania;
 • abSf'nce of clear official guidelines on what the present functions of English
     in Tanzania are or should be, br on the value of the language iJt the develop-
     ment of the nation;                                            .'                            .
• uncertainty among teachers !is to            the nature of their role in teaching English
     and in creating favourable conditions for its successful use;
                                                   11


 .lack of speCiilist English teachers at primary level;
  • generally low qualifications of-many primary school teachers, a problem in-
      evitably aggravated by the move towards universal primary education;
  .lack of commitment to the teaching of English in the schools, so that the
      subject does not always receive its due share of time and attention in school
      curricula;"                                                                 .
  • shortcomings of the existing coursebooks at primary level, a lack of any
      coursebook at secondary level and a general shortage of good supplemen~
      tary materials such as leaders ...                                    , .
  • uncertainty on the part of parents as to the benefits to be gained by their
      childrep. froJIl tile, effort$ Qf lea,fIlingEnglish;
   • an .absence of-.effective motivation in school pupils to learn the language
 'well.) .
  2.2. 'Attitudes'
        Tanzania, in the pre-Independence period, was linguistically 'tri- focal'. fin
  Whiteley's term), using a non-Afriean world language, an African lingtla fran-
  ca, and a large number of localised African language~ "in specific well-define4,
 social settings which would over time invest these languages, with'
,particular values, themselves capable of exploitation for various:
 purposes".6' Tanzania, Whiteley noted, has remained linguistically
 trifocal, "but witli some re-allocation of settings", At the time that
 he was writing, Whiteley could report that English was still the:
 language associated with upward social mobility. He described the policy
 of adopting Swahili as'the natlonarIanguage as "an ideological imperative in-
 ducing a state of mind towards the language as one of the behavioural corol-'
 lari~s of the national ethos" . In 1978, on the evidence of what was said atthe
 colloquium, the process of re-allocation of settings, though no doubt obvious
 and striking to anyone with experienceof the situation ten or twenty years previ-
 ously, seemed less significant than the concomitant re-alloa~ion of vallies..The
 positive values attached to English as "the language asSOCiatedwitl:iupward'
 social mobility" , of access to higher education and the world of international
 culture, had been largely lost, and had been replaced with negative valu~s, As
 the lang~age of fO!ll1e~.      cO~Qnialdomination, as a language to be spoken out
of nece~slty (for ~~me)rather than out of choice..In the process of change of
 values and exploitatiOnof values, the rise of Swahili, it appeared; had to a small
  e~tent resulte.d from, and to a large extent resulted in, the decline of Eugli$.h,
  both in its symbolic and'lts instrumeituiI aspects. To \lS~ English unnecessarily
 was felt (some.said) to be "kasumba' ":"":indicative      of a non-Tanzanfan mentali-
  ty. How are th~se two realitiesto be reconcile4? So far as the teaching of .I?n-
  glish is concerned, it is presumably part of the t~her's role to foster posttive,
  attitudes to what he teaches, but sU(fhananswer clearly does not get to Jhe root
  of the problem if, amongst teachers themselv~, there is M element of Uncer-
  taint~, anam~ivalence in their dealings with the langu~ge (7) ,
    ~.3 'Functions"
        Re-alJocation of settings, as mentioned above, 'appears not to have been
  10 tX<I':l)sive, nor t? ha\:,~~ad'so decisive an inwact on the language,learning
  aiwl.;,.vu, as the shift,in ..tt1tu~es l!!.1~v~ues.There are now"as previollSJ.y,four
  Rrtnclpil tunnctlons that English serveS1Jl tw1.Zapi,a.It.is ~.la.n~agt(.of mterna-
,tlon~ eorr.m~nicatlon.a lanauaae of cPmmef(;e.~, o.fflclaf. afunill,istiativelan-
                                                ,12


  guage, and a language of education. In each of these functions except the first
  there has been some reduction in ~nglish use. In relation to the commercial
  and official functions, neither the existing situation nor the process of change
  are easily described except in the most impressionistic terms. English is still much
,in evidence in the 'literature' of commerce - advertising material, guarantees,
  'Y~rnings ang it.lstructions 011products, etc - far less so in jhat 0,( ~dJIPpistr!:l--
,~on-forms,         clfculars"official correspondence"etc.      One'hears conflicting ac-
'rounts of the extent to which English is still used in offices, whether government
  or commercial, and in the processes of laW<8).What is not in doubt is that many
  people confidently expect English to yield fo Swahili, in all these settings, in
  the foreseeable future. In relation to the educational function, both the immed-
  diate and lon,$er-terni future present greater uncertainties. English has not been
 a medium ol(instruction in the primary schools, except in the teaching of En-
  glish since the mid 1960's. It is the medium of instruction in secondary and
  university education but, piuticularly in the former, there is said to be a certain
  amount of unofficial use of Swahili. There is a general expectation that Swahi-:
  Ii will become the principal, if not the sole, medium of instruction in secondary'
   schools (Forms HV) in the fairly n~ai fqture and that this wil1,eventually ex-
  tend to Forms V-VI and the University.<9)j This is not to say that people are
  unaware of the difficulties in the way of this process, particularly in the provi-
   sion of teaching materials, the training of teachers and the working out of a
   smooth programme for transition. They merely insist that the difficulties make
   the change over a question of when and how, not whether. In some contrast
   with .these other funct.ions" the JISe of pnglish in its internationaljunction      is
  certainly enhanced by present CIrcusmtances rather that diminished. For it is
   seen, 'not merely as a iaiiguage for fonnal international relations, but as "a iobJ
 ,for communication with the outside world ....•      i.e. for acquiring ,knowledge from
  ~e outside world as wen as (or educating the outside \voda.on Tanzanian-pqi
 .C1es", Hf~!sh~           the socialist expenence, and for personal development" .<10)
  Here the mternational' merges with the 'educational' functions 'each reinforc-'
   ing the other, and this tiiost clearly in the teacning, at 'aU p6st-p'nmary levels,
   of African literature in English originating from all parts. of contipent.
         One occasionally hears the position of' English in Tanzania compared to
   that of French now and perhaps Portuguese and other internationally used lan-
   guages in the future. This is to view English in Tanzania as a 'foreign' rather
   than a 'second' language. English, of course, shares with these other languages
   the characteristjc.of being non-indigenous to the speech community, but it is
   clear that it continues to fulfil a set of functions within that community !1l0re
   extensive than that implied by. the teqn 'foreign language'. Th~ :settings' are
   reducing, but gradually, and it might reasonably be ~xpected that, If the process'
   of transition, at least in the domain of educaiion, is to be an orderly one, a
   will also be a fairly protracted one.'
    2.4. 'Aims'
         .In the light ~f the foregoing it is not surprising that one of.the dominant
   themes: of the Colloquium was the question of what the aims of teaching En~
  .gUsh in the primary school sliould be. There were a number of participants who
   felt that this was'not in fa~'1an issue and that the Colloquium should concern
   itself more with the essential business of considering how the teaching of En-
   glish in-Tanzania' could be improved. There seemed t~ many, how~ver, to be
                                               J3


 :'an important link between these two, that is between knowing the reasons tor'
   teaching English and knowing how best to teach it. If there was to be clear think-
   ing on methods and materials there must first be clear thinking on aims and
   objectives. The Colloquium was thus, on more than one occasion, brought back
   to the questiol1:.Why are w~ teaching English in the primarv schoop -:- nosed
  not as rhetorical device.to imply that we should not really be teaching It at all
   but rather as a procedural challenge to the participants; once we know 'why'
  .ih~n we can start to consid~r "how better" .
  ..      There must clearly be a cQnnection betwf;l(tnthe aims for teaching a lan-
   guage and the functions fulfilled by that -language within the national speech
   community. The relationship is not a simple one of exact correspondence,
   however ,in which functions determine aims. Account must also be taken of
   two distinct sets of factors:                                        .
           (i) who, in social terms, the learners are, and the likely future roles they
                will fulfil in which a knowledge of the language will be needed by them;
          (ii) what is educationally feasible, in terms of availability of time, materi-
              'aJs, teachers, and the will to learn ..
          It is possible to obtain some partial clarification on the question of learn-
    ers and their needs by constructing a matrix in which the principal functions
    fulfilled by English in Tanzania intersect with the four main language activi-
    ties. Each cell may then be marked. with a + to indicate a definite need, a -
    to indicate a definite lack of need, and a ? to indicate a possible need. The figure
    below represents the outcome of such. an. exercise.
                                 Internal       Official     Commerce      Education
                                 Communication  Language
    CONVERSATION                                             ?             ?
    LISTENING                   ?                                          ?
    READING                                     ?            +              +
    WRITING
                                                                           +
  Th~ yalues in the 'Cells are inserted tentatively, on the basis of comments and
  opmiOns ~xpr~ssed ~y part~cipa~ts at the colloquium as well as by others I have
  spoken WIth, mcludmg uUlversity students in seminars. They are intended to
  represent the plausible or possible needs, in relations to English, of the primary
  school leaver who .does.not have the oppottunit,y of proceeding to formal secon-
  dary education. (11) Since Tanzania's policy of Education for Self-Reliance takes
  as oneot its fui:idani~ntal principles that education for the'primary'school child
  should be self-contamed .and should not be conceived of merely as the basis
  for the se~ondary education th~t most children will not proceed to, a particular
  problem. IS P?sed for the, teachmg of English at primary level. It might be ex-
. pressed m thIS way: If the needs of secondary education were entirely left out
  of account, what would be the reasons for teaching English in the primary
  school; In summary:
                                               . 14


   Engli5h for international commun ica~ion                   ....                       '
  The opportunities for personal inte rnatIonal commumcatlon are o~YlOuslysli~t
   ~        st riInan.Jeaven      There are bS!W~ver, some opportumtles for US!og
  th: ~ePtfve skills, in listemng, tij English language broadcasts and readlll$
   overseas English language oublications.
   Englisb as     aD  ofnclallang~a,e    .        '     ..         ~     •_       .'
   It is difficult to imagine realistic CI' Cllmstances 10 whlchpnmlll) leavers 10 Tan-
   zania wouJd,positively require to Iise English for any 'official' purpo~e. Some
   forms are still in English, ~ertain iob opportunitie~ may require appl!c~n~s ~o
   have a knowledge of Enghsh, one of the two natlonal newspaperf IS In En-
   glish, as well as the external broadcasting service. The possibilities are few.
    English in commerce and indushy
   The principal needs that can real istically be included in this category appear
    to be: the reading of commercial ,naterial such at. advertisements, instructions
   'and workshop manuals, and some conversational English in, e.g., the tourist
   :industry.
   Englisb in education.
  ~t is here that the strongest claim j or the teaching of English in primary school
  can be made, and the claim is scarcely weakened by leaving out of considera-
  tion the needs of those who will proceed to full-titne secondary education. It
  !\Vasstated at the Colloquium thal lO.pproximately 70,000 students were at. that
  time engaged in private study thr, ugh the correspondence Courses of the insti-
  tute of Adult Education. Even outside this number, it seems certain that En-
  glish provides access to further learning, and to a widening of horizons and
  capacities, for the primary leaver who does not regard his education as com-
 pleted with the completion of his formal schooling. Within this function, it seems
 clear that the principal need is for the skills relating to the written medium,
 and in particular for skill in reading. It is certainly arguable t4at, in terf!ls both
 of language .pedago~ and .also pfrhaps of future need, the conversational skill
 is ausefui, even Indispensable, vjhcorrutaftt of these. But there canoe little
 doubt that the 'essential educational requirement at this level is for facility in
 reading. In note-taking, essay-writing, discussion, the student may, if neces-
 sary or if he prefers,. turn to SVlahili for communication with himself, his
 teachers, or his peers. But a coursebook or a volume from the public library
 will not translate itself. Skill in reading is thus the irreduceable necessity in what
might perhaps be called 'English for self-reliance in further education'.
        Such an analysis is in fact implicit in the aims for teaching English in nti-
zanian primary schools stated in the official teacher education syllabus. These
are:
    . (a) To give primary school klVers a permanent reading knowledge of En-
            glish so that they can have access to ideas and information available
            in English and useful to Tanznaia, or so that they can continue with
            their education through the use of English as a medium of learning.
       (b) To develop, through learning English language skills, the pupils' edu-
           -cation for self-reliance, politically, technically, socially and cul-
            turally.(I:l}.                       .                   "               _..
We mavnote the emphasis Qfll!e educatIOnal value of EnglIsh to ~~e pnmary
schooll<~aver, and the identification of reading as the essential skIll that the
pupils need to acquire.
                                              15


 .th~ Dnport~ce of developingthe reading sldil, and the need to produce suita-
    ble materials so as to enable the teacher to do this more effectively, were two
   'prominent themes in the discussionsof the Colloquium. Within this broad state-
 .ment of aim, however, a more precise statement of objectives, desirable and
    realistic, is very much needed. Careful consideration still needs to be given to
;"such questions as the type and level of reading awunment sought, the scope
 ..Dr. the recognition vocabulary and syntax, the tyPes of text most appropriate
    for comprehension materials at different levels, the nature of the comprehen-
    si(jn skills.to be aimedJor, .and.the apuropriate types of exercise alld test fof.
   fostering and monitoring the development of such skills. The same type of
    re~ew~c!att~tlonJ9 JQe 4etailed soeci~c.ation of obiectives. at.a time oftran-
    sitlon m English language use and teaching, would also undoubtedly be of value
  .in' relation to the other main skills - conversation, listening and writing.
    \,. Realisticaims, it goes without saYing,.area.ms whiCh match with the avail-
    able resources. The resources in question 'are both material and human. The
  :former include classrooms arid coursebooks~ the latter include the professional
    competence,5fithe:teactiersas well as.enthusiasmfor the'task on the part of both
    teachers and pupils. It seemsreasonable to suPPosethat some limitation or~,
    a more precise specification of aims, would be beneficial in two ways at least.
     On the one hand, narrower m.ms, in the absence of large numbers. of specialist
     teachers, r'rpresent a more achievable target, and, though the written language
     makes mOI;edemands in terms of published 'material , it propably makes fewer
     demands in terms of teacher skill. On the other hand, more specific.aims, and
     aims which can be seen to be socially desirable and educationally feasible, may
     resJ.1lfinmore positive attitudes to the learning of En$lish on the part of all .
     concerned,.pupil&\andparents, as well as teachers. In thiS context, less may ~me-
     an.better. B~ter should mean nlore useful to those acquiring the skill.
 . 2.5 1'hemeJm of instruction.
     " .There'~re no secondary. school teachers of English at the Colloquium.
     Had ther.e bleen, the question of English language competence of Form I en
  '4:tants, aiid:the relation of this to primary curriculum, might have been a majOl
     topiC()~~ussion. In fact the question was scarcely touch~on:fReference was
     1liade~the need for inte~ive teaching of English in the early months of secon-
     dary ~~cation, to the need for a secondary English course for Tanzanian ,
     sch~lS, to the fact that English \Vasnot taught        as a subject in Form V and
     VI, but, since the focus of discussion was the primary curriculum, these issues
     were' n()t dwelt..on. Nevertheless, the present role -c- the UNcertainrole - of
    .English as a medium of instruction in secondary schools, and the fact that this
    ,role issuStained bythe teaching of English that is done in the primary schools,
     means:~pr.n.nait           En~h and secondary Englis):lcannot for long be consi-
      dered III IsolatIon from one another •.
      .'      So far as the role .of English as amedium in secondary education is con-.
      cerned~the present situation is chai-acterised by a small     numtrerof  influential
      doubts '~d certainties. The}l.may.be summarised as follows:
      Certainties: .
          (i) English isihe official medium of instruction for all subjects except Swahili
              and po\itics.
         (il) E.h'     is the language 9f the '0' level examinations, with the same ex- '
             ceptIons.


   .lack of specialist English teachers at primal:, level;
   • generally low qualifications of many.pri:nary school teachers. a probkm in-
      evitably aggravated by the move toward .. universal primary education;
   .lack of commitment to the teaching of English in the schools, so that the
      subject does not always receive it~ due share of time and attention in school
      curricula;                                                                    .
   • shortcomings of the existing cOllfseb0oks at primary level, a lack of any
      coursebook at secondary level and a general shortage of good supplemen-
      tary materials such as leaders.                            '              .
   • uncertainty on the part of parents as to the benefits to be gained by their
      childre!l froJlllhe efforts oJ I~~rning English;
   • anab~ence of-effective motivation in school pupils to learn the language
  'well.)
   2.2. 'Attitudes'
        Tanzania, in the pre-Independence period, was linguistically 'tri-focal' (in
  Whiteley's term), using a non-African world language, an African lingua fran-
  ca, and a large number of localised African language~ "in specific well-defined.
  social settings which would over time invest these languages with'
 .particular values, themselves capable of exploitation for various
  purposes".6 Tanzania, Whiteley noted, has remained linguistically
  trifocal, "but with some re-allocation of settings", At the time that
  he was writing, Whiteley could report that English was still the
 language associated with upward social mobility. He described the policy
 of adopting Swahili as the national' language as "an ideological imperative in-
 ducing a state of mind towards the language as one of the behavioural corol-
 lari~s of the national ethos". In 1978, on the evidence of what was said atthe
 colloquium, the process of re-allocation of settings, though no doubt obvious
 and striking to anyone with experienceof the situation ten or twenty years previ-
 ously, seemed less significant than the concomitant re-alloation of valUes.The
 positive values attached to English as "the language associated witli upward
 social mobility", of access to higher education and the world of international
 culture, had been largely Idst, and had been replaced with negative values, As
 the lan~!;l~age of forIl}e~.colonial domination, as a language to be spoken out
of nece~slty(for ~ome)rather than out of choice. In the process of change of
values and exploitatiOnof values, the rise of Swahili, it appeared, had to a small
extent.r~sult~d frop. am! to a large ext~nt resultecj.in, th~ d~lin~_of EogJis.h
 both In Its symbolic and its instrumen~l aspects. To use English unnecessarily
was felt (some.said) to be "kasumba'-indicative of a non-Tanzanian mentali-
ty. How are these two realities to be reconciled? So far as the teaching of En-
glish is concerned, it is presumably part of the teacher's role to foster positive,
attitudes to what he teaches, but su~h an answer clearly does not get to the root
of the problem if, amongst teachers themselves, there is an element of uncer-
taint~, an am~ivalence in their dealings wit!1the langu~ge (7)
  2.3 'Functions'
       Rc-aUocationof settings, as mentioned above, appears not to have been
.~ ~~;:cl)sive.nor t? havt ~ad 'so decisive a~_impact on the language learning
8!Ul.l..~Vi!.as the ,shlft.in att1tu~es !!ld. v~ues.l here are now, as previously, four
lmr.clpal funnctlons that English serves In tanzania. It is a language of interna-
dorlAI commijnication, a language of commerce, ar. official administrative lan-
                                                12


 .2.6. 'The start of learning15     '              ...
         At what stage in the primary school (:urriculum sho'uld English teaching
   begin? Since so much in the pattern of larguage teaching depends upon what
   decision is made on this issue - in connection, for instance, with the training
  of teachers and.the provision, revision and supply of textbooks - the last af-
   ternoon of the Colloquium, when-it happened that the subject came up, was
   scarcely the ideal time for discussing it. Bm once it was rai$ed it was not easily
   let go: getting to grips with this particule.r ,ssue seemed, all of a sudden, to be
   a prerequisite for the resolution of many other problems, Briefly, since the Col-
   loquium was near its end, there was som7.lively debate.
         The question -ofwhen language learning should start is one in which a num-
   ber of assumptions are firmly entrenched. fWD are particularly powerful. One
   of these is that there is a correlation bet" cen length of time spent learning a
   language and levelof achievement, .'and 1 his may be summarised as Longer
   means better. The other is that there is a ,ritical pC'lOd for language lean'iing
   in the development of the individual and, !hough no-one is quite sure what thh .
   is, it seems likely that Earlier means better. In fact, neither. of these assump-
  tions is based on very much more than myth. In relations to the first, we may ".
   agree' that, once the fundamentals of a language have been grasped, then con-~
; tinued exposure to and use of the language, and continued effort in actively
   learning it, are likely to result in steadily in::reasing competence. But, if we put
   the question as follows: Given a definediet of objectives for'language learn-
   ing, what is the optimum period in whid they should be pursued? - then it
   is easy to see: taking account (}f inevitable limitations chi resources both hu-
  .man and material, that to answer with9U1qualification 'the longer the better'
   might be at best misleading.
         In glVlngconsICletatlOnto what mIght be the most suitable period of learn-
   ing, it is clear that account must be taken not only ,of the extent of a course
   but also of its intensity. At present, English in the p'rimary school is taught over
   a period of 20 terms (from the second tern of Primary 1to the end of Primary
  7). If we assume an average of four periods a week over that time, we.may
   estimate that each chifd attends about 1,000 lessons.i.e. receives 6-700 hours
   of formal instruction in English. This is quivalent to 100 days devoted exclu-
   sjvely to the learning of English. Are tht.e '100 days' well spent? If we may
  judge'oy widespread comments 5)ndeclintrg standards, they repr~sent at present
   a less than SatIsfactoryinvestment. This heing so, it is probably at least worth
   considering whether a reduced but more selective investment -.:..for example
   a reduction in the extent of the period of learning from 20 terms to 12, thus
   beginning instruciion in the first term of Primary 4, partially compensated for
   by a slight increase in intensity - might not result in an actual improvement
   in performance. 1am not aware of any research which is addressed to this specific
   issue (no doubt there is some) but it is certainly tempting to suppose that long
   and perhaps, as viewed by the pupils, sometimes desultory language courses
   might, after a period of years, begin to prove, if not counter-productive, at
  .least ~ot convincingly producti're ...
         But at this point the second assumption that I have referred to appears
  to argue against the desirability of change. If learning wer~ to begin later, th?
  learners would be older, and would not their facility in language learning be
  reduced? It is perhaps worth reiterating here, what has been said often else-
  v: here, thatthe evidence in support of this view is very far from being conclu-
 'Slve.Ingram (1975)sums it up as follows: "There is a popular notion that young


   children are .somehow mme taiented at learning second ianguages, even' In fOr.
  'mal settings; than older children and young adult.s. Occasionally this is lhik.ed
   to the notion of criticaJ periods, if the learning hasnpt taken. place within 'a
   given periog., it is suppose.dnot to come about at all, or only with great fillfflculty. '
   As far as I,am aware there is no objective support for this supposition, in fad:
   such findings. as there are go it?-the opposite direction{ ..... ) The~e.remains tl;1e
   notion that what children may be better at.is discrimination.:andpronupcia-
   tion. This idea is .on tb« whole more.reasonable but even Iil;)rethere is.no very.
   compelling eVIdenceJ r~') Furthermore~ whatever the persuasiveness of          any  ex-
   perimental evidence, there may be practical considerations which, in particular.
   circumstances, as pointcdout by Rubin (1971), carry more conviction. "It might
   be true, for example, that children learn a second language best petween the
   ages of six and twelve. Still; the establisring'of the I!iost appropriate time to
   begin.a language within.this Deriod .in a Darticular country will depend pn avaii~
    able resosurces and on the goals 'that language teaching is atlemp11ng to satis.
    fy."(17) Such particu~fl! considerations within the Tanzanian context might
  include the following~" ...                                              '   .
  (i) A later start for English language teaching would enable English to be taught
  by the more skilled of the pre~ent English teachers, particularly those with some
   degree of specialist training. '               ..
   (ii) It would reduce the problems faced by the colleges of national education'
  in training for English teaclling large numbers of students whose own command
  of the language is often fat from satisfactory.
  (iii) It wouW:'permit a concentration of materials development and supply on
  a narrower front; with a possible resultant increase in both quality and relative
  quantity .
. (iv) It would allow children in their early primary years to devot~ all their lan-
  guag~ 1earning capacity to the essential tasK of mastering Swahili ~nd to the
  equally vital task of acquiring literacy in that language.
         In evaluating such consideratipns we are brought back, as is suggested above
  in m,*,s~cond Quotation. to.th~ gQ~ls fOJ::Ifmguage:.tea~l;1ing. It i~ ll9t easy. to
   generallse about the Colloquium dISCUSSIonof the start-of-Iearmng issue, for
 .thougb'vigorous       it. waS short and' necessarily' inconcluslvSl:. What. w.as cle~r,
 however, was that the considerable thought that haQ been given to the proper
  goals for English teaching'In the primary school had stimulated'an impressive
  enthusiasm for re-evaluating strategies. The start of learning is a strategic issue
  par excellence, and (oner that is bound to'be brought in question asa result
  of the changing role o(English in Tanzania. What did .::lmergefrom the discus-
  sion-was the existence.of a very general awareness of this fact, coupled with
  some concern that,.in the proper place and time, this particular area oJIan-
  guage teaching strategy should be given the renewed attention it now perhaps
  deserves ..                                ,
  2.7 'Acceptability' •.
                                ..                       '               .
        An impOrtant aspect of any consideration ofthe proper go~ for En~is~
 language'teaching is the question of'what ~nglish shoul~ be taught -t~at                IS .
  to say, not merely how much, nor what regIsters of. EnglIsh,. ~~t what sort or
  quality of. English SHould be, if not t~e target. at least tb~antIcIpat~       and ac-
  cepted outcome of teaching in the pnmary schools.. Th~ ISSuewas raIsed by. a
 number of participants, who expressed concern about the prevalence of cert~n
  n!,n-standard forms in the English ~f their stpdents, th~ <Uffl..culty,    of eradicat~


  ing these, and the consequent likelihood       of their continued dissemination in
  the primary schools ...                                                    '.
         The presupposition that all such variants of the standard language are III
  need of eradication is not, in fact, self-evidently true. (1 do not, of course, have
  in mind here the errors of individuall~arner,5,. ~be making of which is no.rJI\al,
  and indeed productive, part of the language learning process). The arguments
  have been well rehearsed. (18) On the one hand it is argued that, since regional
   separation is invariably ac,:ompariied by lang.uage variati~n,. in~ since i~is in-
  dispufable fhat areas or natIvely spoken English show vanatIon III relation to
  one another, it follows that there is no reason to suppose that areas of second
  language English either can in practice, or ought in principle, to maintain strict
  adherence to some external standard. Furthermore, there may be positive ar-
  gumepts in favour of the growth of local norms, since fhesemay appear to make
  the language less foreign and therefore more easy for the second language learn-
  ;ers to acc~pt, to identify with, and perhaps to learp. ,(though s!}ch an ar,g~-
 mtfnt to some extent presupposes that the' learner ,is aware that local usage IS
  different). P'rovided intelligibility, international or local, is nor at risk, there
  is no reason to adopt a puristic attitude to English where it is used as a second
  language.
         On the other hand, it is argued, the case of second language varieties and
  that of first language varieties are not comparable. There is generally no for-
  mal codification of second language varieties and it is mistaken to imagine that
  they constitute coherent homogeneous linguistic systems. Intelligibility is not
  a reliable criterion for acceptability and, furthermore, it is by no means certain
  that those rt..ostnersonally involved, the language learners, wilJ l?e saLisfic;;.dwith
  what they might regard as no more than second best. It may be that interna-
 .tional standard English is unattainable inpractice, but if the target aimed at is
, anything other than the standard language then the results obtained will be even
  more divergent than they are anyway.                                        '   '.
         In surveying the situation of English in Tanzania in the light of such argu-
  ments (and if the reade.r wishes to give them their due he is recommended to
  consult the Originals) we may note the following points: (i) English in Tanzania
  has in the past functioned and to a considerable extent continues to function
  as a se~ond rather than a foreign language, in that it is used within the speech
  community for a number of essential-communicativeroles.          To use a language
  is to change it. English in Tanzania has changed, slightly but perceptibly, through
   use. Examples ~ould be cited at all levels nf language, notably in relation to -
   pronunciation (for example the pronunciation of the vowel in baf as either a
   low central vowel as in but or, perhaps in compensation, as a mid front vowel
  as in bet and in relation to idiomatic expression (it is really a wonder and this
  food is somehow tasteless were among examples cited at the Colloquium). These
  .variants, though uncodified in any formal sense, are not random eccentricities
   of individuals who have not mastered the language properly but, rather, are
   consistent characieristics shared by people who have mastered the language
   properly, if by 'the language' we mean the language as it is commonly used
   in Tanzania.
   (ii) The available models for language learners at the primary level are all Tan-
   zanians (though there are at present a number of native English speakers teaching
   English in secondary schools and colleges of national education). It is in pronun-
   ciation, panicularlyin the mastery ofthe systems of stress and intonation, that
   a saiisfacto~y moti:eUs most necessary.The problem of a model. dOes not of .


 ,course arise in connection with the rcading skill (but it clearly docs, in the form
  of a necessary sensitivity to errors on the part of the teacher, in the acquistion
  of competence in writing), .
  ~iii) few primary leavers \vill have any opportunity to use their English skills
  lJ1 communication     with English native speakers ..
  (iv) Since a number of the variants in question are well-established, and si.lce
  it is certain that in manV.CJses they are re-inforced by first language interfer-
  ence, the eff9ft involved in 'drilling them out' - as anyone who has attempt-
  ed this task will confirm - is very. considerable .•The chances of the standard
  form sticking, in any circumstances other than those of the most careful atten-
  tion to speech, are extremely remote.
        In terms ofetTectiveuse of resources (of time, skill, energy, "enthusiasm,
  etc.) it seems better to judge that many of the more widespread local usages
  are either not worth atrempting to eradicate, on the grounds that the work in-
  volved outweighs any possible gain in intelligibility or social acceptance, or else
  are positively desirable from a cultural dive~sity point of view, or both, and
  that the time saved might better be devoted to teaching the more essential points
  (whatever it may be agreed these are) of English lexis, grammar and transmis-
  sion. This is not to suggest that local variants should be taught - it is fairly
  obvious that they are in no need of further reinforcement - but merely that
  they should not be deliberately-un-taught.     They should simply be accepted.
        The object of s,uch a policy would not be to lower standards, in the reali-
  sation that present standards are unobtainable. Rather, it would be to raise stan-
  dards, through the realisation that present goals are not necessarily realistic or
  d~sirable,_ !iPd through the consequent diversion cif resources to areas of great-
   er need. (19) .
 8. Courses of Action
        Though the main aims of the Colloquium was discussion rather than mak-
 ing recommendations or arriving at decisions, a number of suggestions for im-
 proving the teaching of English.in Tanzania were made:
 (i) .Clear aims should be established for the teaching of English, especially in
 the primary schools, anq clear guidelines ,should be provided for schools and
  colleges on the role of English in Tanzania's development and in particular on
 its value in educ'ation,                    ..
 (ii) The met.hQds used in teach.ing~nglish and thecoursebqoks and materials.
  provided should be suited to the aims ;set forth. An emphasis on the written
  medium and in particular on reading, at least calls in question "the primacy
  of tHe spoken language' and the appropriateness of some features of the audio-
'lingual method,'
 (iii) New materials are needed - a course book for secondary schools, sup- '
 plementary readers for the primary schools.
 (iv) The much needed secondary English coursebook should, as was done wi.th
 English/or Tanzanian Schools •.be developed within Tanzania according to the
 Tanzanian philosophy of education.
 (v) Teachers and tutors should be relea,sed from their duties for the purpose
 of work~nQ on the needed materials, Account should be taken of the useful work
 dbne by'some coUege students inprQducing reading materials, and procedures
 should bede\ ised for encouraging this work and for editing and producing it.
 t.vi) Certain ml)blems faced bv tutors in the colleges of national educatior. such
 as the brevity of courses and unpredictable interruptions to the normal routine,
                                           21


     should be tackled so as to enable the colleges to fulfil their functions more
     efficiently. Study, it was said; is also work.
   , (vii) Renewed consideration should be given to the level at which English is in-
    'traduced in the primary, schools.                                   "             ,
  , (viii) (onsiderati!>n. also should be given to the possibility of training specialist
     English language teaChers who would concentrate on'English language teach-
     ing in the schools ..                  ,                  ",               ..              ,
     (ixlSince the Pre.sent Gr.ade 'A' English syllabus is unrealistically full in .rela:-
   ' 't.ion to the time available'to teach It, an ahemPt: should be made to identify i~ .
     mOre and its less essential components. Alternatively, the syllabus should be
     re-written ..                   ,            ' .              \       .
     (X) Opportunities for the use of English by learners should be created through,
     fQr ins~ance, th.e production pUPecialised radio programmes or pethaps an EL T
  . column in the Daily News320):                                                               ..
       , In addition, there is an obvious need for research. The followii\g questions,
" exPlicit or hnplicit in the Colloquium discussions, give some indication of what
  , miaht l1iefuIIy be Undertaken.                           "
  , ,-What functions lU'e fulfilled at pres~nt by English in Tanzania and hOw do
         r  they apPear to be changinlf? Who uses English in these                 various functions,
           .and what educ:tionallevel have they reached? Does their competence in the
            language match the demands tlia~ aT.emade ~upo>nit?                          "'          .
     -What are the impliciltions for language planning and language pedagogy of
           the, shift away from English as the sole ni.edium to the use of English as a'
           subsidiary medium of education po~t-primary?
      -How showa the readini and writing skills reqUired by primary leaversbe more
          'precisely specified?          .                '-.                  '.
    ,-What generally are the needs 'of language .learners at different educational
           levels? What languaae functi.am must they be competent in,' what concepts
           must they be able to express? What lexis and grammar should be taught as
    , apprli>priate realisations of these functional and; semantic categorieS:'
      -What,English            is 'acceptable' in Tanzania? Is there.a TanzatUan 1:inglish?
     -What model of English are language learners exposed to? i.e. what English
       . do tht teachers have? What i$ the im.pact of this model on the language learn-
        , ing behaviour of pupils?                                           '                          .
 . ~Wh.t is the nature and effect of first llUllUage interforence in the learning
           of Bn&llsh? To what ext~t are learners' errors th~ consequence of other fa~-
           tors such as over-generll'lisation?                  .
      -What Inetbods are best suited, at the primary level, to a situation in which
           the main need is for skill in the written medium? What is. the role of the
           SJlOkm,tlap.g age in achievi;Da facility_.in reading ~d writ~g?,
                          14.                                                                     ..
    --How, m shun, as one oontri"ator put It, do TarWUiIan cIlikIrt!n.1eam a for-
           eign language?              .      ,
                                 .t
              Any reader of tbia list will be .bleto extend it on the basis of his own ex':
    ~~.~f~                      ~at we need to know J;llQ~ about. 'l'bou.,gh soJ1!e~ already
    be f~;tlllllllr With r~ch            that has been lmdertaken within the Institute ofEdu-
    :ation, tIle:JJepartment           of Education     and the Department of FOrdan ~
    ~         ~es,            it          be t~ one immed.iat1dy tHeful aid would be a bib-
    liojrapby of all rocent work in tanzan,ia in this area, is & a synoPsiS of ~r-
     .~t ~J21»)                   Some ~t                'buiB'fot: CO-~on          bttWeenall those
    .............  1Jl rCHillroh' r.n.ipt '.
                                                ,
                                                    'be ~de.n4.'
                                                     "
                                                                                                      '
                                                                                            \,
                                                                                              \


9. Conclusion
       .. ~erhap~ a more gene~al pointm.ay b~ ~~dein conclusion. In language plan-
     mng In relat!on to education,. w~ere what is 10 question is the general approach
     to the teachmg of some n<iln-mdigenous language, two broadly different types
 • of policy may be distinguished. The first; which may be called the minimalist
     policy, proceeds from the identification ofthe essential, irreducible, functil;ms' ..
     that cannot be fulfi}led without recours~ to the language in question. The na-
     ture of the competence called for, and the categories of people who need it .
     are established, and a programme is devised for the teaching of this precise com:
    petence to these precise people in the most efficient and economical manner.
    The recent qlpid develoPJD.C!ltsjn the theory and practice of "ESP' (English
     for specific purposes) aran part,~ response to language learning requirements
    O-f. tIlls sQrt.. The. seconq tme. of pOli~y, which may be called maXiinalist, is based
     on t~e ~llmption~ first, .~hat the!e is no Dlember o~ the na~i.o!1alSJ>eech.~om-
    mumty for whom some knowledge of the language w1l1b~ entirely useless, and;
    second, that the more extensively it is taught in the schools, the higher the overall
    level of competence in the language will be. Those few who need the ~anguage
    at a high academic or scientific or commerdallevel will acquire the skills they
    need gradually,and effectively through the normal.processes of the educational
    system. Such a policy thus naturally aims at the teaching of the language to
    all school-pupils, starting at whatever is thought, bearing in mind the availabi1~
    ity of resources and the establishment of realistic goals, to be the most effec-
    tive age or educational level.
            In evaluating these different approaches, we might argue, on the one hand,
    that a minimalist policy will only be acceptable where the language in question
    fulfils. no essential communicative functions, political, educational, adminis-
    tratiye, etc. within the life of the commnity, Le. where it functions as a foreign
    ratQer than a second language. Where the language doe~ fulfil such functions,
    then denying the language to any category of learners (such as primary leavers)
   is bound to be socially divisive, setting 'those who know'.- and therefore can
    - apart.from 'those who know not' - and therefore cannot ...
           We might also argue, on the other hand, that a mlciimalist policy will only
    be effective where the language in question is, or will become, a necessary tool
   of communication to all learners, i.e. is truly a potentfal secpnd language to
   all members of tha national speech community. (The'difficulties encountered
  .in the universal teaching of French in Britain and Irishin Ireland, where neither
   language fuifils any internal communicative function for the vast majority of
   the population, provi~e instructive examples in this connection.)
           It is clear that a difficult situation may arise where a language functions
   as a second language within the national speech community but not through-
   out it. In that case a language plan mUstbalan~e the fprce of the first of the
   arguments above against that of the second. It may be that. some of the uncer-
   tainties in die teaching of English in Tanzania spring trom the possibility that
   :fanzania itself is on the edge of this dilemma. The discussion of the functions
   of English in Tanzania given above leads to the conclusion ~hat, in secondary
   and higher'education at least, English has at present a relatiVely clear cut role
   to play-throughout t~espeech C?mmunity. But in i.ts other fu~cti(;ms the .value
   of universal En,gIish 18 less certlillll. And the educational function itself wIll be~
   come lei$.certam as the spread and development ~f Swahili proceed~. Against


   .this' there are signs, of which the COlloquiumiiself was undoubtedly cine, of
     a renewed de~ennination to make a maximalist policy work. The Ministry of
     National Education has called for a gr~ater commitment to !he teachiDll: Qf En- .
      gfish, the. pnJilary course books-are.i!l !he process of be1Il8rewnlten •..bL1
      expertsfrom Britain are at present ~lstt~              ~v~ral of the co~~     of national
      educatiolh.and th~Institute of Education 18lU~ngthe               dete~       effot1s.
     throu$h the revision of syllabuses and the wntmg of matenals, to make tq,
     worle of the teachers more effectlve ..
             It IS ot course hnportam that all such effort should not just be, but be
     seen to be, well directed, i.e. directed towards the achievement of a set of goals
     generally. accepted as being both realistic and worthwhile. For example, uncer-
    tainties about-the continuing role of English as the medium of instruction (be-
   .yond the primary school) obscure the fact that English is likely to remain a
     medium at certain levels and for certain educational functions for the foreseea-
     ble future .. Thereis a: wealth of educational, technical, legal, literary, historical
    .and other material in English in Tanzania, there are many highly or adequately
     fluent speakers of English for whom their knowledge of the language is an im-
     .portant factor in their professional activities, and there is long experience of
     English teaching. Clearly, English is stilI a valuable mitional 'resource'. As a
     non-incligenoussecond language, however, it is a resource that can only be
     managed - indeed can only be saved from total extinction - by effective teach-
     ing:,by skilled and dedicated work in the classroom, supported by the best that
     can be achieved in syllabus, mat~rials and evaluation design and in teacher train-
  . ing, with these activities in turn being guided by a national language plan that
     is, as far as possible. (and there are many factors that make this not as far ~~
     one might otherwise be inclined to expect), coherem, consistent and convincing.
             Efforts to make improvements in language teaching (in this broad sense)
     well directed will, it is perhaps in conclusIon worth emphasising, be ineffective
     to the extent that the information on which they are based is incorrect or in-
     complete .or inadequately grasped or understood. Some (by no means aU)o!
     the problems of English language teaching in Tanzania are traceable to this ob-
     vious fact'; For those that are,the solution is research: not just more of it, but
     better appreciation or what has already been done ..
                          FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES
, 1. For a~ official reporto~ the Colloqu.ium see Institute of Education (1978)
   . EnglIsh lan¥uage teachln.g: Co!loqulUmreport                   and recommendations.
    2. The Report ~n t~e teachm~ of the English language and its use as a medi-
  . um ~ educatIOn In Tanzama' was produced in August 1984 by C. Criper
         and .. A. Dodd on behalf of ~h~ British Overseas Development Adminis-
        t~atIOn at t~e ~equest of the Mlllistry, of Education~ It gives a comprehen-
         slveand       ms~ghtful survey of the present situation, together with
         recommendatIons for a progr.amme of remedial action ..
                               ,
 3. A. typical expression of this view is to be found in an article'which appeared
         ~~1:ye~~J;l~ahYNhews    ?f 26th re. 1978 by S. Kimaryo and others, entitled
         ..•        ng IS   as ta ....en a Nose<.tive . Tire. depth of the dive is made dear
         m.a Ktsc\1;t~tked patx;r O;l1th~~ediu.m of in~tructionissUe: 'lfaja ya kutu~
       .nua.        w,      ufundtshiakatlkaehmuya J,uu' bYP.O.MIamaand M.
         L Mattern. pubItshed byBAtOTA if). the saJ;lleyear; .....


   4. This assertion, true in 1978, is now contradicted by the existence of the Dodd-
.          Criper Report (see footnote 2) whioh pt~se1,1tsdata derived from proficien-
          cy tests administered to a large nUlnber'of sdbjects at      all levels of the educa-
          tional system; and indeed by several earlier (but less comprehensi~e) studies.'
     5. Mostofthese points remain valid. However, tue third should now be quali-
          fied because of the 1983 annourt<:ement by the Minister of Education that
          English WOll1dcontinue !lsmedium of instruction in secondary and higher
       edu<:ation, the fifth by the introductiOn several yeilfS ago of Grade 'A"
          (primary) teacher trainIng programmes at Marangu and Korogwe Colleges
          of National Education which give special emphasis to English, and the eighth
          by the recent ~qmpleti9n of a new series of English coursebooks for primary
        sch?ols: Primary English for. Tanzania (produced by the Institute of Edu-
         catton) .....
    6.. W. H. Whiteley (1971) "Some factors influencing language policies. in
          Eastern Africa" in J. Rubin et al. (eds.) Can language be planned?
    7. Thereh..as been l~ttle systematic research on attitudes to language in educa-
       ti?n in Tanzania, but the fOllowing may be noted:           a. AnderSson (1967) Mult-
      .lmgualism and attitudes (Institute of Education, University of UpPsala) .
      .which is briefly described in E. Polome and C. HIll (eds.).(1980) Languqg;
        in Tanzania" O.U.P/International            African Institute (page 121). and A.F.'
         Bhaiji (1976) "The medium of instruction in our secondary schools". in
         Papers iit EducatiQl) an.d Development 3...
   8. On language in law, see D. Kavugh~ ~~ D. Bobb (1980) :'The use.of lan-
       guage in the law courts in Tanzania               III Polome and H1l1 (op. Clt). For
         a general account oflanguage functions in Tanzania see E. Polome, "Taqol'
         zania: a socialinguistic perspective" in the same volume .•
             .
   .9, In 1980 a seminar      was
                                            .               ,   "            .
                                   held jlt the University on "The impact on 'the.Univer-
      sity of.the expected cha)lge in tIle medium of instruction in the ~condary
         schools". The ~eminar papers are collected in' H. R. Trappe~-Lo;nW" R.
      M. Besha and Y.y.,Mc~a ieds.) (1982) "Changing ~an~uage MedIa " At
      the time of re-editing this paper many would regard faIrly ne!ll"future as
      very optimistic.
  10.. Atteacher       educatioll handbook: Syllabi, p. 134, Secondary school language
         syllabi"                       ..                                       '
 'II. A somewhat different set of values isproposedJn c.P. HilI (1980~: 3734)
         in Polome and Hill (op. eit), in which th~ original version of thiS J1aper
         is discussed.                  '.'                                 .,
  12..4 teacher edu~ation English Hal1dbook: Sy//abi,p. 8 Ministry of National'
         Education; 1'976. "
  13.,There is,.,a. consJ4~ple       I:ityrature on ~he medium,?!, instruot!<5n issue,. for
  > .\.  exatllP1e:Ml~'~dMat.teru              (op. clt); A.r.B,        (1?I61'The     m,.edium
•';"'"'of j,nstruetioni3 PUf~ll~Y               schools: A study.      }t' mPttpers In Ei!.u-
        calion and1>evelqp't'e1l:t,3; C.P. HiIll96$)',                 ropleffiS;ofthechan-


          seover from   .. English to Swahili as the medium of instructian'     in_um
          /!l1I8UtII, tlllleldng , 20, 1; D. J. Mkude (1980) 'Aspects 'Ofthe use a~Kiswa.
          hili'in hi~her education', University of Dar.es Sala~m l~~ Anmver~ary
           paper; M.A. Mohamed(1975) The introduj;t1on of K~swahtl~ as a m~dlU~
          of instruction ib Tanzanian secondary schools, MA dlssertatI?n, UmverSI-
          ty of Dar es Salaam. Thirty or farty other titles could be CIted.
    14. Nevetheless, ~iflc~.1978 the Institute of Educ~tion has prod'!ced, a~d the
   .       Ministry of National Education approve~, revIsed syll.a,buses 10 EnglIsh     tor
           P .         S condary and Teacher educatIon, and has IOtroduced an entlr~-
           l/::~n~ish          syllabus for Form V and ~I in which there is an appraxI-
           mately equal emphasis on language and IIter~ture.
   15. Since t.his section was written,the'startof       learnmg' has been change'!. from
          term 2 of Primary 1 to term 1 of Primary 3. It seemed to I.De:o.f same. POSSI'
           ble interest for the future (when it will be possible to judge the results 'Of
          the change) to leave the argument in its original form.
   16. E. Ingram (l975) "Psychology and l~ngua,ge leflr~in!(' in J.P.B.':Allen         and
          S.P. Corder (eds.) Papers in Applied LmgulStlcs, U.U.P.
  17. J. Rubin (l971) "Evaluation in language planning" in J. Rubin (et al.) (eds.) .
         op. cit.
  18. Notablvin M.A.K. Hallidayet al. (l964) :ThJinlulsHe.IC~tmd_-
        gull" tlJtlChln~ 'and in C. Prator (1%8) "The British heresy in teaching En-
         glish as a second language" in J. A. Fishman (ed.) The ljlnguage problems
         of developing nations ..
  19. On English as it is spoken and written in Tanzania, see, for example, J.
        B. Maghway (1979) Spoken English in Tanzania: Spelling and the pronun-
        ciation of vowels, MA dissertation, University of Qar es Salaam, R. An-
        !1er$en (1976)''' An error analysis of the 'writing of'Tanzania        university
        students" Occasional Paper No.2. Department ()f Foreign Language and
        Linguistics ..•
 20. Have these courses of action been pursued7. Th~re are new sYllab\lses (foot-
       note 14 above), a new series of books, Primary Ens/ish for Tanzania, is
       in preparation (some already in use), there have been Institute of Educa-
       tion Workshops to prepare new Primary materials and material&lorForm
       V and Vl, tne levellJ,t which English is started has been chilT1Qed~there is
     a new Diploma in English programme in operation at Marangu,Dar es Salaam
     and Morogoro colleges.of. National Education. There is, however, nothing
     new, yet, for the secondary schools (Form I-IV). It is doubtful
      if there has been, or realistically can be, any increase in opportunities for
      using I?ngIish, but there has bee.n a notable emphasis from the Ministry
      of National Education on the importance of maintaining adequate stan-
      dards of competence in English (see, for example, the report in the Daily
      News of 11 Nov. 1982 'Schools told to stress English') ..
21. A biblioiraphy. has now been_completed: H. R. Trappers-Lomax (1982) Tan~
     ZOfd3 A DpJI,d Linguistic Bibliography 1960-1980. The classified section ot
.     !l-j~,gives some indication of what the main areas of research and analysis
      ;'rt th' past few years have been ..