Some E(Jucational Cracks in Tanzania Mainland -Primary Schools in Terms of FacUities and Instruction Materials: A Case Study of Mbeyatand lringa Regions in 1980 Utqfiti Vol. VlINo.2, 198j, JOUl1/l1lof S. T. Mahenge the Faculty of Arts and Social Scrences, Lecturer, Department of Education, University of Dar es SalqaT1/. University ~f Dar es Salaam. Introduction The educational achievement of any country depends on many factors work- . ing together systematically. At the school level, for example,such factors in- dude teaching' facilities such as buildings, various items of equipment instructional materials such as textbooks and exercise books, together with other related writing materials for both teachers and pupils. Furthermore, the quali- ty of education is determined by how much a country invests in its educatiOnal .' system, and the fi,pproach used in training the educational recipients. In a simi~ lar perspective, Coombs (1968) argues that: ' any society, however, limited its means, makes a wise invest1flent in educational . system. It invests wisely if that system is objective in judging its own performance, . if it ceaselessly examines the living testimony offered by its own for!fler.students in order to determine what it has done reasonably well, poorly, orflot at all, and if it then corrects itself in the light of that testimony. The managers of such a self-- aware system will be able to catch and deal with errors before errors harden into habits able to resist even the stoutest hammers; later used against them. Utiiversal Primary Education (UPE) has been an area of concern in many' countries in the world. As defined in developing nations (Abernethy 1969), UPE is-an effort tO,attain equali.ty by making primary education available.to all school age children. A few African countries (Tanzania, Zambia, Kenya, Sudan, Egypt . and others have realised the great need for UPE partly as a human right to educational opportunity and partly as a strategy for the achievement of social, cultural and economic development of lhe nation. Despite this great educational' expansion, each nation has been experiencing a state of crisis in trying to achieve its targets because of. shortages. of funds, teaching and .learning materials. teachers and classrooms. However, a 'country may perceive the existence of such problems but fail to understand the degree of intensity of the crisis. This study therefore aims at making an evaluation of the current situation of Primary Edu- cation in Mbe;a and Iringa regions in relationship to school facilities, teaching,. and learning materials. ' . .Since independence (1961)~ Tanzania has made many reforms in the educa- tional system ranging from primary level to the University. The Three-Year and Five-Year Development Plans have been laid as a strategy for achieving sub- stantive national develoP1Jlent. In the Three- Year Development Plan (1961-63) it was revealed that 13.8% of the'budget was spent- on Education -:..-the Minis- try which received die higheSt financial share, with the stress being mainly on higher education rather than primary education. The first Five-Year Develop- ment Plan (1964-69) similarly laid littte. stress on primary education and less than 45% of school age children went' to school," ' The year 1967 is remarkable in that major educational reforms were decalred whereby primary education received greater attention than before. For exam- ple, it consumed 55% of the Ministry of National Education's total annual budg- et. This was the period when elements of Universal Primary Education were first included in Tanzania's development plans. Primary Education gained great- er prominence in the second Five-Year Plan (1969-74) when the National Ex- ecutive Committee of the Party (then TANU) met at Musoma in November 1974 to review and discuss many aspects related to education for the whole coun- try. The meeting was called to review the philosophy of education for self reli- ance in the Tanzanian context, as stipulated in the T ANU booklet Education for Self Reliance (1967), including Universal Primary Education. Originally, the target'for UPE was to be 1989, but the NEC reconsidered the importance and target date of the programme. Hence, in November, 1974, a directive on the implementation of ",Education for Self Reliance" was formulated at the NEC meeting known as the Musoma Resolution' fIXingthe target date for UPE: "Accordingly, it is hereby resolved that within a period O'fthree yearsfrO'm nO'w, that is by November, 1977, arrangements must be cO'mpleted which will ellOble every . child o-f school age to obtain a place in a primary schO'O'I", The Ministry of National Edll'::ation, therefore, was directed to effect the UPE Programme by the end of 1977. (TANU Directive, PED. No.3, p.t.). Given this task, the Ministry of National Education explored various ways of implementing the programme as decided by the Party directive. The year 1975 was therefore a peri~ of intensive preparation for training UPE teachers. Teachers were to be trained in the Colleges of National Education as well as outside the Colleges , under the Institute of Adult Education. A target of 40,000 teachers to be trained as non-college students was stipulated (Mrutu, 1977). Every region in the country was seriously engaged in working out plans to make UPE programme a fact by 1977. , By the end of 1977 the programme had become, operational, aided by the fact that Tanzania had passed a law calling fQr compulsory UPE. In addition, the formation of new villages throuihQ~t the country -in 1975 had created a very important condition fOr achieving at least the initial stages of the UPE programme. At this juncture, two issues refarding the UPE programme should be posed. , Firstly, after achieving the initial stage of getting all school-age children into schools, what type of education sh9uld be provided and how does the nation provide that education? And secondly, sipce the UPE programme is already many years old, what is the current situation in schools? Evaluation of UPE at this stage, therefore, should be viewed ~ the beginning of the implementa- tion of the programme in order 'to lay down a base for further developmental evaluatiotrto come, not Just an evaluation of failures of the programme. Evalu- ation should aim at giving projections, direction ..speculatio11S and predictions . for the lJetterment of the programme. This is the intention of this study in con- nection with primary school facilities and instructional material'l. 1. Problem Area: " .The achievement of Universal Primary Education consists of ~ every- J>-nebetter opportunities to acquireknowledge,skills and desired attitudes ~ .:formunu.t by the national ph!losophyand the sense of value which. will enable pupits:t/Yld parents. to. lead happier and more productive Hves. This is clearly statechn Ute Party's booklets Education for self-reliance (1967), and is of great im~e, especially when primary education in Tanzania is stipulated to be terminal. In other words, it is believed that by the completion of primary edu- cation recipients will have acquired a complete, basic education and live better life than if they had not acquired such an education. The achievement of such an education would depend on the quality of 'the education given and the methods employed in its instruction. A high quality of education and methods of instruction depend on many things. If teaching resources such as teachers, instructional materials like text books and writing materials, buildings, equipment and other facilities are so thinly deployed that only very few learners adv~e, then consequently the qual- ity of the education given Will most likely be low. However, most of these short- comings in te~hing are outside the teachers' direct control, although the poor pedagogical.environment that they give rise to waste a grea,t deal of effort and spoil many lives which might otherwise have been very productive to society in general and to the individual learners themselves. The quality of primary education as intended in the policy documents is very good but the quality of learners after passing through the seven years of primary education is generally very poor. For example, it !Ias been found that some primary schoolleavers fail to acquire even the!i?~~Tcreading and writing skills as tools to help them discover the real life situatiol' (Komba 1977). Sometimes it is found. that parents who did not go to school but who have been learning environmentally or through adult classes are more literate than some of the primary schoolleavers. Some ofthese adults are better at the simple mathematics of addins; subtracting, multiplying and dividing and especially at functional mathematics, than the majority of primary schoolleavers. Such educational quality of primary sch9Qlleavers has led to a public out- cry in the newspapers, in the National Assembly and in other political and government forums. To a large extent the outcry is based on the ground that the majorityof primary schoolleavers do not become economically productive in the villages, As Komba 1977 p. 11) puts it "the end result is the dilemma of primary school products who are neither academically acceptable for fur- ther formal studies nor functionally fit in the community and in the wider world of self-r~liant adult life" ... Comparative research findings have shown that though the decline in the standards of primary school pupils seems to have started in the 1960s, the 4e- centralisation period beginning in 1972 has amplified the problem (Mwampeta 1978) leading to the current poor primary education standards .. Since even'prior to the UPE programme there was a considerable shortage of equipment, instructional materials and teachers in primary schools, it is likely that the UPEprogramme could bring about a serious educational crisis in Tan- zania if due attention is not paid to a qualitative rehabilitation. Some of the most neces~ry factors in achieving quality education are the availability of, accessibility to, and utility of facilities, the availability of sufficient instructional materials, and the presence of C8l'ilble teachers i.nterested in the profession. In other W"ords,~Jschools are provided with sub~t.andard facilities~poor. instr1,1,c- tional aids and unqualified and unmotivated teachers, it is most likely that they will turn out graduates of poor quality.' . Tanzania has been successful in getting 93070OJ schoof age children into the UPE programme, but this should not be taken as an impressive sign if the final objectives of the programme are not realised for the majority. The question on~ has to pose is whether the UPE programme is going to educate the chil- dren, or merely provide them with places in the schools for seven years. Given t~e fact that primary education ought to be terminal, and that only 2.6070of all primary seven pupils are selected for secondary school, the UPE programme, becomes an issue of great concern' in the country in order to avoid possibl~eri~ ous consequences such as universal illiteracy amongst primary school1eavers. Review of Rebated Literature 3.1 Theoretical Aspects: " .. It might be as.ked why this study focuseS on the area of school facilities, eqUIpment and basIc course materials. and the way they are distributed in primary ~hools. According to the psy.chology of teaching and learning, the use of au- diovisual aids, for example, in primary schools is of paramount importahce for giving quality education to the learners . . In the same line of the psychology of learning, Laycock and Munro (1966 p. 120) define the nature of learning as "any change of behaviour which is a r~u1t of experience, and which causes the'learner to face a later situation-differ- endy". They further point out that primary school pupils learn better if peda- I,?gical situations engage them in activities such as discussion which are linked . WIth the chance to handle the things being learned. They need an opportunity to use their hands to manipulate materials by cutting pasting, drawing, writing and experimenting. The primary classes, especially classes One to Four, need ~ore activitt-;oriented teaching involying a lot of use of teach}ng and learning w~. " . . . In "Blair et. al Educational Psychology (1962), the q'uestion of the condi- !tons for effective learning is also clearly expressed. They emphasise. that school- 109 is more efficient when the learning' is wen o~ganised and that there is a psychologically sound basis for complete and sound instr~lctionaI materials, methods and techniques. Children cannot do real thinking on the basis of. ab~ stractions or verbalisations where they are left passive to listen to the teacher. 3.2 Research Studies: . It has been pointed out eatlier that teachers in primary schools are claim- 109 that their teaching is becoming increasingly straining 'and dull. Several rea~ sons are given for this . .According to a case study by Komba (1977) in Mbinga District, the poor. quality of teaching in primary schools is due to the heavy load the teachers have, about 960{0of teachers had ranked this as the most crucial factor. The study also indicates that the high teacher-pupil ration and the lack of teaching and !earning materials, equipment and other facilities has adversely affected the qual~ tty of teaching in Mbinga district. The study carried out by Mrutu (1977) specifically focuses 'on and finds fault:" in th~ implementation of the curriculum fQr UPE teachers. The findings also include the lack and poor qualit.y of instructional mat~r.jals ..The pI:oblem becomes more severe when poorly tramed teachers are p?stea!1~pnmary schools where they lack the basic tools they need to further theIr trammg. As such, the qualitative aspect of education becomes questionable. ', In the Primary School Sub.Sector Review (Moshi and Temu, 1981), the focus was mainly on uTba~ primary schools, Thi~ study looked at enro!l~ent and attetldance, factors considered when expandmg schools. school buildings. andequipment,the staff~ of primary school~Jnstructional materials, and cur. riculum implementation. The findingS reflect the real sitUation in mos~urban 57 schools - that the expansion of primary schools in Tanzania has been far gr~ter than the supporting resources. However, the study does not deal with the situ- ation in rural primary schools. 3.3 The Purpose of this Study: .' ... ' The purpose of this study, however is to find,out the real situation regard- ing basic instructional materials and facilities in rural primary schools. Much has been said about the problems of lack of primary school facilities and in- structional materials. It is, therefore, known that there is this problem. However, though the problem is known to be there, we nevertheless need to know exactly . the degree of intensity of the problem in succeeding periods of time, thus facilitat- ing a clear picture of the trends of the education offered in the country: Specif- ically, this study looks at the capacities with which primary schools operated by 1981 interrrisof facilities and instructional materials compared to the norc mal standards. Hence, variables such as the following were categorised availa- ble items versus required items; rations betwee.n puVils. and basic instructioual materials and also other facilities .. Given that there are many serious problems in primary schools, one needs. to identify the most serious ones in order to be able to act upon them first. This is essential because post-poning solutions to the problems will.end in be~ ing too costly for the nation to solve .. ' . The distribution system of school facilities and instructional materials seems to be faulty resulting in schools being ill-equipped. Hence, without proper plan- ning of the distribution of the little the country has, the problem becomes more serious especially in remote rural areas .. , The quantitative "mushrooming" of primary schools!in the country in the context of the universalisation of primary education basically lJ.eeded a similar "mushrooming" of some of the basic facilitiefand materials such as classrooms, latrines, textbooks and exercise books. The effects of any majorimbalance would be profound on teaching and learning, hence affecting even the qualitative aspects ofeciucation. M~ybe a crisis ill primary school education cannot-be seri- ously perceh.:ed ,now, but in the years to com~~f no. I1iaj()r steps to arrest. the problem are taken as a matter of urgency, a crisis will surely arise. 3.4 Significance of the Study: "When a society decides tq transform i~seducational structure and system into one that will servethe masses, and at the Same time serve as an instru- ment for national development, it is more likely it will face many novel problems. Because of special local conditions the problems vary in form ._ and severity from one country to another. In meeting the problems there- fC?re,educational programmes will seek-help fro"! e~ery sector of domes- tiC life, help from sources 'beyond nationalbounrJanes,.Juller share of the nation's best manpower in order to raise its quality, efficiency and produc- tivity, buildings, equipment, better facilities and course materials and the like", (Coombs 1968). Coombs further comments that when children are sent to school it is h.. peeted that the experience they wm gain will make a desirable difference in their liyes. They are also moulded by their families, friends, church, and other en- vironmental forces, each in its own distinctive way. But more is also expected that the school will endow children with the means' to lead fuller more satisfy- ing lives to contribute more to society's' welfare (I!' 17). ' ,U~versal Primary Education is an extensive programme fora country like TanzanIa. ~owever,. for the programme to have its proper qualitative, impact great attentIon at thIS stage has to be focused on learning conditions. School facilities, ,equipme)lt and course materials act as part of the fulcrum for a teacheI to lever his professional skills. This 'is a substantial condition for teaching and learning. :Precisely, and bearing this in mind, research studies of this nature are of paramount importance for casting light on the type and nature' of the problems for development judgements.' , Some findings may help in arresting the potentiallyvidous cycle of educa- tional crisis most likely to crop up in the future. In other words, the studies w?uld give light and direction to the educational system - "to c~tch and deal WIth errors before errors harden into habits able to res;;t even the stoutest ham- mers later used against them", (Coombs, 1968). ' The significance of this study lies also in the fact that a future evaluatioJ;l of the UPE programme will be able to give a better focus if an analysis of its starting point has a;lreadyt been made. Possibly. in the future, one would like to compare and contrast the programme over time, to know how far the programme has succeeded qualitatively and -quantitativel}. It is also hoped that these. research findings will be of ;mportance to edu- , cators in developing countries and elsewhere and may inspire similar research o~ a much wiqer scope, Experience of one country may cQntribute to other coun- tnes in terms 'Of knowledge, skills and stra~egies relating to the implementation of Uni~ersal Primary Education . . SpeCifically, the study may give some light to the Ministry of National Edu- cation and other cooperating Ministries and :'urriculumdevelopers b Tanzania to delve seriously and more deeply into the qualitative provision of primary education in the country, thereby providing a more condu~iivcipedagogial cli- mate 'iirthe schools .. , Approach To The Study; 4.1 Sampling ana Instrumentation: The study was conducted in Mbeya ana lringa regions and looked at the availability and distribution of facilities andinstru(jt'iona.tmat'erials in primary schools, paying particular attention to rural primary schools. Documents. show- ing acquisition and distribution of facilities and instructional materials todifferem districts were obtained from the Regional Education Offi~es.' A case study was conducted.in 23 primary schools in lringa and Mbeya regions to see the actual situation prevailing in rural primary schools and w~ther there 'was a relatively fair distribution of facilities and instructional mat~als. The rationale for selecting rural primary schools as a case study was a result of having seen the critical situation in urban primary schools (where students intending to become College of National Education TutQrs are posted) duri!lg teaching practice supervisions. Fourteen, primary school.s were sele<;tedfrom Inn- ga, t~e rest coming from Mbeya. It was assumed that If urban pn!l1ary schools have such critical shortages of facilities and materials, thep rural pnmary sch~ls far from the regional aJ;ld district education offices would have an alarnung crisis needing emergency steps to arrest the problem. In each primary school all tea~hers werels~bjects of the study. pata was collected through dIscussion, interview and the (Illi~ in of questionnarres:. Two ,types of questionanaires were used. One type was a checklist used by the research- er to record the data obtained from the headteachers, although this was also used by the researcher to record things which he saw existing in the schools. The other type of questionnaire was administered to teachers to obtain infor- mation on the distribution of materials and facilities in the classes they were teaching .. In educational development, as will be pointed out, policy makers and im- plementers can function wen when information about aspects of planning and implementation is at hand. Policy makers and implementers are ofteu faced With problems of deci~ion making in order tolef~substanthu development. However, planning wmch is based solely on surface impressions without data at hand may be just like driving a car in darkness by tfial and erroJ;.most likely such driving will end up in a crisis. It is expected that studies of this kind _ especially when done on a large scale, which is not the case with this study, may be of help in'}llanning and implementing educational policies. Having col- lected the data, statistical tabulation was worked out and computed into per_ . centages and ratios for analysis and discussion. The resultant data casts some light on the current situation in rural primary schools in terms of facilities and in6tructional materials. However, the study bears' several limitations. It does not carry out an ex- tensive evaluation of all primary schools throughout the country. It is purely laken as a case study in two regions and on a few basic facilities and materials. Obviously, two regions do not give a substantial representation of all the regions in the country in order to draw wide ranging conclusions. Such limitations came ab9ut as a result of time constraints and the long distances involved in reach- ing the scattered rural primar:y schools. In the limited time available, the research- er was able to visit 23 primary sc~ools in the two regions and also spend,some days in the regional offices for regional data conection. Nevertheless. despite these limitations, case studies do provide data with which one can work -:- or even carry out -further studies in other areas •. Findbias aad Diteass1011$ 'Table l:.A vailability versus Requlret1lent of Exercise Books in 1980 in Seven Districts, Mbeya Region. MBEYA MBEYA CHUNV A ILFJE RUNGWE KVELA MOOZI RURAL URBAN Available 1881 (150/0) 3300(83'10) 0(0'10) 755 (17'10) 760 (6'!o) 1050(21"') 760 (60ft: 5137 3677 12909 12729 Needed 10646(850/0) 692(17'/0) (1000/.) (85'1.) (940/.) (94"') ~kula (SLO): Hali '}Ialisi katika shule ifa ya Mwaka ya Elimu.Mkoa wa. Mbeya, 1980. 1.8 Msingi Mkoani Mbeya. Taar. tABLE 1: AvaiJjtlUty Versus Requirements of ,Basic Classroom Facilities in Mbeya Region in 1980, ~ . - DESK CHAIRS TABLE'S CUPBOARDS SHELVES BENCH MBEYA I\-vailable 4759 (21070) 339 (40/0) 399 (7070) 141 (3oio) 165 (5%) 23 (4%) aURAL Needed 17988 (79070) 8580 (96%) 5470 (93%) 4567 (97070) 3220 (95"70) 545 (96%) r.. '.'t.1B.EYA Availa'ble' w 3722 (52%) 128 (41070) 122 (38%) 44 (7070) 16 (3%) • - (0%) :URBAN " Needed' '3408 (48070) 182 (59070) 198 (62070) 576 (93070) 604 (97070) 196 (100Cl10) " eltUNYA Available 2500 (30"10) 86 (2aro) 89 (4070) 31 (20/0) - (O%) - (0070) Needed 5780 (70IlJo) 3544 (98%) 2293 (96%) 1818 (98%) 1314(100%) 260 (100"70) ILEJE Available 5093 (60/0) 190 (6%) 231 (100/0) 290 (17870) 40 (3070) 12 (6%) ....;: 1997 (90%) 1442 (83070) 1/87 (97%) 1':'6 (94070) l\feeded 3132 (94%) 3164 (940/0) 0\ "'!'- , Available 5426 (21~0) 351, (5070) 188 (5070) 71 (1070) 55 (10/0) .:.....(0%) ',MOOZI 600 (1000/0) Needed 20840 (790/0) 6910 (95%) 6920 (950/0) 5485 (99%) 3881 (99%) RUNOWE Available'" 12378 (45%) 219 (2%) 2363'0/, 217 (4llTo) 51 (l%) 30 (40/0) rt eeded,' 15245 (551179) " 11320 (98070) 7333 (9707q) 5733 (96%) , 4206 (990/0) 754 (969fo) ;:KYELA , Available 2620 (18%) 132 (3%) 159, (6870) 119 '~%) 23 (1070) 1(0%) ';'i:','~ Needed .11581 (82%) 3990 (97%) 2501(94%) 2367 (950/0) 1849 (99070) 315 (100%) T()ta1'jtvailabi.lity . .in % 31.8070 3.7% 5.70/0 3,9o/~ 2.1% 2.3070 TotalNeedCd in", -.;::; % {\\, 6P%'- ~,30/0 94.3% 96.10/0 97.9% 97.7% ",./ "i.,"'; :.-'~'. ,,- ",'".' ' ...... '-,' ", - , .. " .. ' . SolUce: A. A.(;';baula" Taarifaya 1980:, Hali halisi katika Shule za Msingi mkoa wa Mbeya (Statistic& lUlE Primary one to three (1980) come up to primary seven and ~hen the old primarY, four to seven have gone out. On the other hand primary seven is, usually consi.c dered as an "examination class" for "secondary entry" and hence is favoured in many things, such as in prOviding desks and other writing materials. ,On the other ,hand, primary ?tie to three are very unfortunate. A desk ex- pected t{)seat a-,maximumof,four pupils.,wl:1s found to be occupied by eight to nine pupil~cramped together oJ;1the one desk, Th~.majority would sit down to listen to the 'lecture's':' given hy their teachers. However~ tho~gh such, a crisis prevails in rural primary schoQls the situation is slightly. better than in some of the .urban primary schools visited during teaching practice supervision, espe~ially in Dar es Salaam, where you would certainly find. schools having no desks arid chairs at all from class one to five and pupils having no exercise books or reading materials at all. Pupils would be seen running away from classrooms to play football and other games - especi~ly when they realise that.a new teacher for pract1ceiscoming in. Even a veteran:: teacher who IS known to be humble and carefree would avoid classroomroijtin,es which "actas'concentra~ tion' camps for them'>, . It is clear that textbookSjlre basic instr~ctional materialsfor bothteacJt~ and the learner j .A. schOQIwithout these ~ssent~al resources :anll?t re&llYbe c, . a school ,for progress. Itis even .hore distl!rblll~ to see a sItllatI?n where.a C3Il~ is sent to school for change ad progress but IS at the s.ame fIme depu,:e, 0 . the opportunity to use the materials that,would make hIm worthy. of bem.g at . the school for change and progress ... ' . In the schools which were visited, teachers were asked to fill In t~e ques~ tionnairecovering textbooks distribution to pupils in the classes or SU~Jcts .th?, were teaching. Each' single teacher in' a parti'cular subject represents a smg e schooL Since there are 23 prilllary schools inthe case study, the survey looked at how each single school distributed textbooks for each subject to classes five to seven. , ,,; . th t'udy'was'basedon 'The rationale for having classes fIve t<>, seven lll,._. e-s .. , '~nof the assumption thatthese wer~ classeS notlllYolved in the tmlV en . fOUnd primaYy ed~Qnintlle actual ~~, andth.ereYore.these classes woulQ~ ,'.'',.,.,' to have f8Jl"ly.recommendable ,te.xtbook. distnbntlon .. ' .' ' ,,' .. "•• ', .:..;1.;: Reading frmn table 5, onetrn'cls very few"sehoC,l.s whicho~[l1te.tt~r the reconunended ratio obex! ' ' 1distribution of two pupils sharing one book. In most cases, it is not unc > ,~hto see one book being shared by three to " four pupils. Class seven in scim~bfthl;: subjects is seen to be below this for- tunate tatio. One wonders h6w'oJ1ebook cali be shared by,8-10 pupils, 11-12 pupils and even 12 and'abo~~',AA:pils.Such a feature is seen in nearly all sub- jects - hence the ratios do:tll:}t"~uggest that pupils have accessibility to text- books in many schools es:p,&i~ in history, political education and science. The textbookS' were found~tol,')ern the hands of reachers only. TA:aLE 5: Textbook distribution~topupils in Classrooms by suoject teachers in Class V - VII (Textbo~k~"pupils Ratio), Number of Books, 1 ", J ' 1 No of pupils per book' ..' '1~2 " 3;4 5-j 8-10 11-12, 'above 12 " Subjects & Classes Schools Schools Schools Schools Schools Mathfv 6 41 I 5 IV I to' "2, 3 4 3 VII ,8 , 3 I' 6 3 2 History V 3 4 5 6 4 VI -' 6 9 14 VII 6 17 Geog. V 4 5 4 3 VI 4 4 IS 2 VII 11 12 Pol Ed V -' 23 VI 23 VII 23 English V 1 4 6 6 2 4 VI 3 '5' 3 4 4 4 VII 4 6 S' 2 4 ,2 Kiswa, V J , 6, 8 4 3 ,VI 2' 6 12 3 VII, 4 12 6 1 c- Science V 22 VI ' 23 VII - 23 . 'Again, judging from the table it seems that the production and ,distribu- tion of language and mathematics textbooks is fairly encouraging when com- pared with other subjects. It may be that there is a need to investigate hoV"the production and distribution of these books is done so that similar,procedures ca;'l \;Ie adopted in oth(:r sub~ects. It seems in many schools thatpupils have faIrly easy access to mathematics, and languages textbooks whereas some schools stilI operate under critiea1situations in this regar'd. Even then, it is omy the, teachers whoha~e the .t!t:X"tbooks,even for mathematics and languages . On the whole such af~ref1ectsan unequal distribUtiQP,of1extbooks result- ing in some schoo}sc~aying.:~er.(fsbQrta.ges of them; <" TABLE 6: Various school Facilities and Materials~ ITEM Schools not Number of h!iving the schools Remarks , mentioned having facilities. facilities " .. Schools Libraries ' (17) 74% , 6 (260/0), ; , School typewriters (20) 87% 3 (13%) Quplicating machines ' , :.(20) 87%: 3 (13%) .. Scbool clocks (4)' 17,0,10 19(83%) Stationary storeS (10) 43% 13 (57%) , ", - Teachers Offices (1) 4% 22 (96%) Headteachers offices (2) 8% 21 (92%) Manilla card (8) 35% (8) 35% 15 (65%) Magic markers (19) 83% 4 (170/0) '. School latrines (1) 4% ,22 (96%) ~ , Day me!il/breakfast (18) 780/1> 5 (22%) the 9% get Playgrounds ' (1) 4% 22 (96%) about 3 times "- Footballs (1) 4% 22 (%%) a year ' .. ' ' 'National news paper, (21) 910/6 2 (90/1», .. , Table 6 shows facilities and materials in the 23 caSe Sluqy schools. Only 260711 primary schools were found to have "school libraries". Nearly all the libraries observed have very few books, which are mainly old and which pupils- .seldom use: S0ll!e schools had libraries, but due to the shortage of classrooms; they use these as classrooms, the books having been shelved in the headteachers' offices. On the whole, then, there are no lioraries in primary schools .. Some schools in uJ;ban centres are close to the publi~ librarJes on~anized by the Tanzania Library Service where one can raid primary school pupils scram- bling for books. Rural primary schools are very unfortunate because it is not easy for the public library servke to serve rural areas at the moment. Possibly, in future development. well organized villages would be served by the public library service. Furthermore, rural.areas are severely disadvantaged in terms of getting the national newspapers such as '~Uhuru" and the "Daily News. Only' two schools recorded they were getting the newspapers, and then only about three times a year. Given that the majority .of schools do not have radio sets (Mahenge 1978), accessibility to current affairs is questionable. Even pupils whose homes Can receive radio programs cannot listell to them as, unlike, in tbe urban primary scbools, nearly the Whole day is spent at scbool. After their morning classroom work, they are engaged in school ~gricultural d:.!ties and other extra-curricular activities during the afternoons. In the late evening the pupils have to walk long distances to their homes .. Possibly some of tbe problemS found in primary schools could be solved by the schools themselves instead of waiting for everything to be solved by th~. government. at large. Some of these problems result from a lack of dynamic and creative leadership within the schools themselves. In fact, the few scho~ls tbat were seen to have very good organization, involving the' parents as well as tbe school leadership on various committees, were noted as haying problems which are beyond their control. Some of the school faciliti~s andtnaterials are obtained through self-help schemes •.. _ .. ' . Facilities like radio sets, typewriters, scbool clocks., playgrounds, footballs and matl;:rials like newspapers, manilla cards, flannel materials, magic markets and ,.the like could be obtained by purchasing out of scbool funds. Almost all of the rural primary schools visited (960711) were found to have various econom- ic activities for raising school tunds. The ahnualf!verage income per scb~l as recorded in Table 7 is Shs. 2,800/-. TABLE 7: School funds raised on self-help activities sucb as agriculture and ~aI husb~dry~. ... ' .. ' J. Number of schools having projects jor raising school fundS: 2i 2: Number of schools having no projects for raising school funds: 1 3. Total amount oj money in records raised as schobl funds per year: . ............ , : : 61,600/- 4. AlUlual average of school funds pe(, schfX!' (of 22 schools): T. 'Shs. 2.800/- . '. ------------_-....-.-------------- Among oth!:lr issues in the questionnaire used by th~ researcher as a check- li&t Was an item designed to find the position of rlllal priinary schools in raising schooIJuf1.ds.The majority of rural pri~aty'schools are very keen and well organized in various activities geared towards fund raising. There are large farms of various crops, and some also have animal husbandry. Unlike urban primary schools, rural primary schools have the advantage of having plenty of land and agriculturally inclined teachers and pupils. Such golden facilities stand out as very advantageous in an agricultural society such as Tanzania. If - one was to consider education for self-reliance in terms of economic inputs and outputs, then primary schools in rural areas are attempting to implement the national policy of Education for Self-Reliance and this needs encouragement and. guidance in order to produce more. income so as to solve some of the problems pertaining to primary schools such as purchasing some of the basic facilities and materials .. . Howev~r, the a~erage 'money raised by one pupil, per year i~ not suostan- tial enough for schools to 'purchase items for individual pupils like exercise books. The average money raised by one pupil in a y!ear was found to be T. Sh.s. 7/-. Sucb an average is very insignificant when compared to his total ex- peliditure~but very much worthy of comPliment whencomparedto his counter- part in urban primary scboolswho always spend most or outside classroOm activities playing football and netbalL There is. clearly a need therefore,. for educational planners to differentiate strongly and psychologically between the 'urban and the rural pupils. A careful study would be needed to look into en- vIronmental-factors existing during pre-school and during schooling' life and even life after scho~ling and hoW the child is conditioned and how his aspira- tions develop' within the sociological framework: An urban child is more urban child is more urban oriented and therefore his labour and attitudes are more urban-inclined, not of his accord or will, but. because circumstances' have shaped him in that way. Educating a child in ur- bah:ar~s where throughout his youth he is deprived of agriculturallandby ur- banization and expecting him to live a rural agrarian life after schooling sounds- very utopian. However, the urban pupil can be very productive as wen to yield . income for animating part of the school life such as provision of some of the school facillties and materials ifhe can be guided and moulded within the con- . text of "urbanizing" economic activities. IUs possible that industrial and com- mercial activities. of a micr()-nature could be more appealing and practical as. they used to be in the middle schools in the .1950s/6Os .. Since currently the eco- .nomic climate is very' unfa.vourable for establishing real and meaningful work- shops for industrial activities in Urban primary schools, small scale l}1eaningful handcrafts and business coul<;lbe more practicable than, for example, develop- . ing large scale agricultural land in the ','Ruvu Basin" for Dar es Salaam city pupils to go by bus to farm. As these micro-industrial business and commercial activities, grow they woulOneed very careful planning, in terms of finam:ial reSOufj;es, admiQilltr.atiye structures, and security systenis"so that they could con- tinue to exist prod':JctiveIY;and not be "anguished.bythe urban calamity of banditry": Maybe teachers ir:t urban primary schools t9gether with parents and administrative officials and educationa.l pl::mne~s can !lit together to discuss the possibility of starting such schemes in schools,SucbprograIWlles would really -tesult in rn.eaningful education arid not a mOCkery.of the Education for Self- Relian.Ge~hilosophy •. ," ... TABLE 8: Teacher Pupil Ratio in Rural Primary School. Number of Teachers in the Study: 152 (a) Female Teachers 61 (b) Male Teachers 91 Teachers pupil ration: 1:56 Among very crucial factors for the animation of school life is human resources. This study alsolooked at the capacity and quality of human resour. cess in addition to material resources and the number of teachers, their quality and the teacher-pupil ratio were observed. Table 8 shows the total number of t~chers and their sex in the 23 case study primary schools, whereas Table 9 snows teachers' qualities. The teacher-pupil Fatio then was 1:56. Though this ratio looks very high, the situation is even worse in some of the urban primary schools where it was found to be 1:78 or more (Mahenge 1978). Th~re are more male teachers than female teachers in rural'primary schools. The difference is llot significantly great and hence the pupils, unlike in the ur- banprimary schools (Moshi and Temu 1981)~bave the advantage of experienc. ing both rtlasculine and feminine in 'locoparentis' care. Such a balance is not strongly featured in urban prim~ schools where both b9Ys and girls are ex- posed almost exclusively t9 female teachers resulting in a one-sided experience of onIYfemininelocoparentis', implying that boys would be at a disadvantage. Even pupils, for sociological and psychological reasons, would need a balanced school environment where both fatherly and motherly 'locoparentis' was ex- perienced: Table 9: Quality of Teachers jn Primary School. • '~ .... ,. _ . '.... " ..... f GRADES 'AND NUMBER OF TEACHERS I lID IlIA IlIB mc HID ""OTAL Status of Teachers in Pri- 7 11 8 59 17 102 mary schools 6.7010 10.7070 7.8% 57.8070 16.6010 100 o teachers did not indicate their grade . The status of teachers.in terms of grading keeps changing and possibly the grades recorded in Table 9 have by now changed. However, the recorded grades are those at which the teachers knew they were at the time this suryey was be- ing .conducted. Some teachers (SO of them) did not indicate their grades in the queStionnaire. Grade.1ID teachers are those who have been promoted onmerit from grade lIIAanaBXadelIIA are ex-twelve teachers who had undergone a teacher train- ingJ?tO~e ..... ,'- - ina~. ,',-', .... -,-." Some ..... ..•... _ of them may have been promoted from grade 69 IIIB. Grade IIIB are either those who did no~ I?a~swell at ~he standard twelve/ examination but who underwent teacher trammg courses III so~e colleg~, or those who have been promoted from grade IIlC. Grade IIlC ~re,eIther ex-eIgh!s (old programme) or priID;aty seven leayers ~hohad been tramed as teachers m , teacher training colleges. Grade HID are pnmary seven leavers who, under the. Universalisation. of Primary Education Programme; had to 'undergo distant teacher training programmes conducted through correspondence, radio broad- cast and induction instruction plus a few months in a teachers' college to refine their experience ... , . -This being the case, the majority of prima~y school teachers are ex-e~ghts and primary seven leavers (74:4610),but may bethis percentage would look ~Iffer- ent if the 50 teachers who did not indicate their grades had done so. It ~s not yet known what the impact of. the MTUU has been - 'a progr&mme desIgned by UNESCO and UNICEF in liaison with Tanzania government to upgrade the quality of primary school teachers. Th~re is a need .for more contmuous in-service teacher training programmes catermg for all pnmary school teachers with some incentives sm:h as promotion for candidates who, sQccessfully pass a given package .of a course. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS rhe purpose of this study was basically to find out, the actual situation of primary schools in termsofSacilities and instructional resources. A case study was conducted in Iringa and Mbeya re~ions. A spectrum of what exists and what is needed In schools was found out in statistical tabulation. Such data, though at a niicro-Ievel, highlights the nature of the problem more dearly than , would have been tbe case in just knowing that there are such problems in primary' schools with no substantive ~vidence of the'intensity of the problem. However, what has been achieved by the country since independence in primary education reform iS,really great when compared with the time that has eUapsed since indipe!ldc;:nce. This reflects how the'(}overnriIent and Party ar.e dy- namically' attentive to society at large. Some of the education reforms have been, so enormous that in the procesS of implementing them some major cracks have developed which are enlarging year after year to the extent that it is now a crisis. Since independence, the government has enacted several educational re- forms which include (a) the decision to have a primary education of seven years ~d to abolish the standard 4 and 6 examinations, and this implied more govern- ment expenditure to primary. education because more students would have ac- cess to primary seven, (b) change of form of paying school fees from direct. payment by parents to direct payment by the govermuent. Though this is an indirect payment of every individual in the state, it nevertheless means a gigan- tic expenditure on education by the government. The notion of free education is a pure misconception if the state has to pay for it. Such gigantic expenditure has been aggravated by (c) the abolition of d~nominational schools and (d) the abolition of a segregated educational system for Africans, Europeans and Asi- a~s and the introduction of national education by starting Education for Self- Reliance (1967)., , This enormous educational change is what is referred to as the "Musoma Resolution", the 1974 Party Meeting at Musoma, where it was enthusiastically .agreed to universalise primary education. For such an enormous educational programme to be taken by a developing country like Tanzania was n.o joke. More serious still, the decision was made at the time (l974) when a serious 000- nomic depression w~s just starting in Tanzania. At this juncture, it is conceiva- ble that some of the current primary education problems have historical roots, - "starting as very minor problems then stemming out into a major problem". Many educationists are becoming more concerned to see that such problems are solved. Where" some major cracks start1emerging,immediate small scale and , large scale studies are conducted to learn"Mout the cause and the nature of the cracks to have substantive information at hand for the state to take action possibly immediately, lest the "house collapses". It is less costly to arrest th~ cracks than to construct a new house on the ruins. This study is carried out in the same spirit, although at a micro-scale. ' . However, this paper is a report of a survey conducted in two regions on' the availability of primary schools facilities and instructional materials. The findings reveal that there is a very critical situation h: which primary schools are operating. The average level of provision of exelcise books, for example, is just 15.7OJo.Such a figure is so small that it would threaten a state which is ambitious in seeing its peoply get at least enough facilities and materials that would enabk them to acquire qualitatively good education. Worse still, there is unequal distribution of these few exercise books to districts from the region- al centres. , ' A number of schools have some classes without desks and chairs at all. In those with desks, one would find more than 8 pupils-scrambling for a desk for about 4 p,upils. Such straining conditions are mostly seen in'classes one to four. A similar feature is seen in classrooms which were originally constructed t,b accommodate a maximum number of:45 pupils, but which now accommo- date more than 70 pupils. What a teacher does under such conditions, as found in the field, is to squ~eze himself or herself in front of.the classroom near the black board to give a "preaching style" teaching iri foundation classes such as primary,HII, Pupils ir: hot classrooms due to the. congested atmosphere, either listen to the teacher in fear of punishment, without any writing, or ex- hibit some notorious behaviour such as,hiding behind other pupils. Primary one and two give a teacher more hard times thqn do thl.' upper classes. On the other hand,. upper claSS\;$(and especially primary seven) are con- ceived of as examination classes and consequently they are, tended comfortably in many, aspects, and in sOqIe schools these classes are even exempted from agri.:ultural a.:tivities and any other extracurricular activities in order to con- centrate on academics. The rationale for such an exemption is clearly known to all. teachers and the community at large induding pupils themselves. , . Some of the buildings which were formally v~ry beautiful, in terms of deco- ration, glass windows, ceilings and cemented walls and floors, no longer ha':e such a good appearance. There' are no ceilings,,no; glass windows, and floors are rugged. The fact that the buildings, and other facilities w~re very good in the past and now appear to be ruins should be an issue of great concern. It seems as if there is a high rate of carelessness in handling and maintaining pub- lic prQperty among school comml.lnit~es. ,. There are also considerabledifferences in the availability of school faCili- ties such as classrooms offices and the like in different districts implying that the distrlbutionof reso~rces is faulty. Many schools (29.7%) do not have even latrines .. The distribution of textbook.s to pupils is generally in a state of crisis. This state is found in all subjects, although the intensity of the crisis differs from one subject to another. Some subjects do not have textoooks at aa fOf subj~tsl such as political education, history, and science. Only teachers may have one or two copies. Subjects seen baving textbooks for pupils with rations ranging from 1:3 to 1:2 are very few and a considerable number range from 1:8 and above-with the exception of Kiswahili language. This means that where there are textbooks, one book would be shared by eight pupils and above. The qualita- tive aspect of pupils as products of the educa,on system is very much a func- tion of the availability and use of textbooks and teachers. Critical shortage of one. of these or both should constitute a threat to parents and pupils as well as to the nation at large . . This featrn-e is further aggravated by the fact that there are almost no school lib~aries in primary schools (741J,1o ).In earlier years, most of the denomination- al as well as government Q1iddleschools used to have well equipped school and classroom libraries. Since the takeover, however, very few of these have main- tained school libraries, .and, where they do, the libraries are almost empty, (26OJo). Also, there are almost no typewriters (87IJ,1o) and no duplicating ma chines (871J!o) both of which could be used by teachers to produce handouts for pupils to al- leviate the critical shortage pf textbooks. The idea of using school funds for purchasing such \lital facilities for the school in general and for e"ery pupil would be very impressive but it is impracticable at the moment considering that the annual economic production of a rural primary scpool is T. Shs. 2,800/-, which means that the average production of one pupils per year is T. Shs. 7/-. However, this does not ruleout a school purchasIng cheaper items for common use such as footballs, clocks and radio sets .. Whatever miracles a college of National Education can achieve in training teachers so that they become effective when they go into the field, it is difficult for such teachers to do themselves justice in teaching under such straining and frustrating conditions. All teachers, especially grade III C and HID and those in prbnary one to four would need intensive use of teaching facUities under normal conditions.However, it would seem ~nogical to bb~me teachers for not .being. effective in their teaching, or colleges of National Education for not preparing their students well,if after their training they come to. face such frustrating conditionsln sum,mary, then, the study reflects the acute shortages of almost everything except pupil~. In conclusion, therefore, the teaching as well as learning conditions inside the primary school classrooms are so critical that there is a need to call for a national emergency programme to alleviate the situation. In the light of this, the following recommendations .could be looke(lat by :the Government apd the Party (CCM) to consider the possibility of dealing Witlh the primary school cri- sis, in it~ earliest stages: 1. There is a need to organize a national campaign. for a specified period o( years for "Primary &;hooI Rehabilitation" in which every individual in the coun- try,every sector, all industries whether private or public, bars, hotels and other businesses and aU denominations should. be mobilised to contribute resources for primary sch901 rehabilitation. international organisations and other for- eign countries genuinely interested in the country's primary education could be invited for the same purpose .. There are occasions where individuals, patastatalorganizations,industries., government sectors, denominations, business parties and many otliers have 90- nated res~u:ces for constructing national and regional prestig~us stadia Party bUIldings, health service buildings and the like. It is quite conceivable that a campaign for a pumary education revolution would fetch very favoura- blecontributi~ns both nationally and internationally. Careful planning on bow. to handle the lSsue would be needed lest some of the resources flow intO' cor- rupt hands .. i' . '2. The que~ti~:mof importing ~ number of commodities into the country should be re-scruUntzcd so that foreign currency needed for such items is shifted to purchasing ~ore ~ducational facilities and materials which the country cannot produce. Thmgs lIke slates, well censored books and other instructional facili- ties could be imported instead, until the country is in a position to start up its own production of such materials. ' 3. SE£?U - an Institution wlJich has been established recently for the produc- tlon ()I school equipment and other instructional materials should be strength- erred w an industrial status so that it is able to design and construct school equipment and other materials. As it is nqw, SEDU is a mere symbol of what a couutr} would like to have, Tanzania ElirtlU Supplies (TES) could also be strengthened so as to have a strong industrial wing for the production of school ratiliti.~'~ Other industries could be strdied to see to what extent they could producc ~d!l)o! c\.luipmcnt dnd materials. 4. The unequal distribution of facilities and materials in primary schools should be scrutinized carefully to establish a relatively fair distribution and so achieve equal opportunity in education .. 5. The production of textbooks which would suit primary education in this coun- try is very low. Writers have not yet managed to solve this serious problem in spite of the fact that the country has its own manpower and institutions of higher learning. At most, the Swahili novelists are emerging on their own individual initiative to appear in bookshops and hence in schools. There is a need for both government and the Party to re-examine the whole issue of book producti@n in the country. Institutions of higher learning in the country could take one ye~lr off classroom work for field study and for writing books for different lev- els. Both lecturers and students, including curriculum developers, could con- centrate on this. Such a move would concentrate on the ~:.Ibjectswhich students are taking so as to give them more practical learning .. 6.Since the country is;establishing its own1paper and printing industries,the production of textbooks should not suffer unduly. Tanzania Elimu Supplies and other printers should be given full swing in the production of such materi- als. 7. Suppose each Regional Education office establishes a strong "U fundi Unit" resPQnsible for the construction and maintenance of school buildings and other facilities! Such Units would have various sections such as: (a) Carpentry Section: responsible for carpentry work in school buildings and ."making desks and other related school facilities to supplement and coordinate locally employed labourers. (b) Building Sections: responsible for building ho~ses and other school build- ings to supplement the local use of temporarily employed builders. (c) Technical Service Section: to repair school equipment such as radio sets, . ,clocks, typewriters duplicating machines, projectors and the like. This sec- tioll would cater for secondary. schools and colleges of National Education within, .the same region ... 8. It seems teacher's and pupils' awareness of maintaining public property in gMd order is extremely low which is why many buildings and other facilities have been virtually destroyed. I am not sure whether the notion of "free ed~- cation" in TaIlUlnia has negative implications among pupils. Nevert~eless If the state pays for 'education and mainten~ce of pupils througho~t thClr school life, in telJIls of school buildings, instructional and writing~aten~s, teachers' salaries in order to teach the pnpils, and m~y ()t~ers~ logically It seems ,that the direct burden wbich tbe parents had to bear ill terms of sd'1oo1fees has shifted to '73 'exercised with school property. There is a need to sen~i~ize pupils .on ext~a- carefulness with school and public,_property. Among polItIcal educatIOn tOpICS to be taught in primary school, good care of public property ought to carry more weight. The concept of "free education" should be hand!cd ca~efu!IY and ~he pupils made to uqderstand clearly who pays the sCho.ol tees. Curnculum develol?ers can a,lso do better.in this area: It; m~ybe !1le~!l~nglessand cos~ly to the nahon to reVIVeor rehabIlItate school bJ.:lldmgs, facIIItle~ and mstructIonal materialr t.o entrust fo the people if in a short period they are carelessly des- troyed. 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