Towards a Comprehensive Model For Staff Development in African Universities H.J. Mosh. Utajiti Vol VIII No.2, 1986, Journal Assoctat~ Pro/~ssor of the Faculty of Arts and Social Clntvnslty oj Dar ~s Salaam Sciences, University of Oar es Salaam. Introduction Staff development attracted a lot of attention and stimulated interest among those responsible for university education in the developed world during the 19608 and 1970s. Attention and interest in staff development has increased be- cause of the continuing concern that universities address problems caused by t~e technological changes that have aifected the political and socio-economic order in contemporary society. Failure to cope effectively with such changes has led to general disenchantment among students, parents, legislators, the client system and the ~eneral populace about the quality and relevance of university education today. Hence, all these groups have demanded, greater accou_ntabil- ity: e[(ecleney in the economic sense in th~ way universities deliver their programmes, as well 'as effectiveness in an educational sense.2 On the African continent the hay days of individually tailoring staff de- velopment programmes are almost over. The concerns that faced universities of the developed world in the 1960s and 1970s are upon us at the same time as the additional challenges posed by science and technology the world over. Worse still, unique and nerve-touching problems remain unresolved. Yet soci- etyexpects African universities to suggest ways to solve such problems. A wave of interest in improving uniyersity teaching and learning has broken upon concerned educators who recognize the need for systematic and organise:d programmes for staff development in African universities. As the ftie for change has been ignited in several African uniyersiti~3, interest is fueling the dry savan- nah grass across the whole continent. Conceptualisation of the major parameters of a comprehensive model of staff development remains, however, inadequate. The existing models of staff development in African Universities towards im- provement of Teaching and Learning are insufficient, for they do not adequately reflect either the aspirations of uItive~ityeducation and the roles of university staff and students, or the complexity of their work environment. This concern is shared by Ramaiah who maintains that "the review of literature on faculty development clearly indicates that despite their large, munh!;:L diversity and com- plexities of models, no comprehensive model has \been.:endorsed'" ~ Unfor- tunat~ly, Ramaiah did not make any attempt to tackle this problem. The purpose of this paper, therefore, Is'to attempt to synthesize the body of literature on the subject; to inject some colleagues' contributions during past Improvement of Teaching and Learning in African Universities (ITLAU) work- shops;and~meetings of the Continental Coordinating Committee (CCC); and help to develop a comprehensive model of staff development for African Universi- ties. It is anticipated that the model so derived will provide missing links in ex- isting models and map out the major areas that require attention in studies of staff development. A comprehensive model of staff development has to take into account the University lecturer's or professor's roles as a subject specialist, teaching and learning facilitator, researcher and publisher, consultant and guidance coun- sellor. These attributes are summarized in Figure 1. Each attribute is developed' in greater detail in ensuing sections of the paper. Interlinkages among the five role areas are discussed in the process of deriving the comprehensive model of staff development. S.bject Specialist University dons all over the world are expected to be properly trained in their subject area specialities so that they can accomplish one of the greatest tasks of university education: to prepare young men and women "for clear think- ing, for independent thinking, for analysis and for problem solving at the highest leveLs Once trained, university lecturers and professors need to be kept abreast of new developments in their field in order to be able to cope with the rapid obsolescence of knowledge. Kamba notes that 90 per cent of all scientists who ever lived are alive today. He adds that technical information doubles every ten years; that there are over 100,000 technical journals available now; and that the number doubles every fifteen years. Hence, he cautions that the idea that my one person could have a grasp of an entire field of knowledge is absurd.6 Toffler argues that awareness about rapid obsolescence of knowledge has prompted the establishment of in-service programmes for teachers, particular- ly at lower levels, to keep them abreast of new developments in their subject area specializations. At institutions of higher education, colleges and universi- ties, the traditional approach common at lower levels (primary and secondary), is practised in a slightly different form.7 Stordahl maintains that the form of staff development practised in most campuses involves matters of orientation of new faculty, sabbaticals, visiting professorships, and sometimes reduction in teachingloads.8 SucIi programmes embrace the career stages suggested by Toombs which include pre-service train- ing, followed by the development of the new inexperienced, new experienced, and, eventually, old staff.~ The purpose of the pre-service training is to iden- tify, select, train, and certify candidates who are capable and indigenous to ob- tain advanced or higher academic qualifications. The training of the new inexperienced and new experienced staff involves induction programmes to make lecturers and other employees \ve~come and secure in the classroom and places of work; to help them become members of the team; to inspire them towards excellence in performance; to.help themrofessiQns;in gathering more knowledge, skills, ability and experience in the field so that one may handle teaching and research responsibilities effec- tively. The professors need to be given opportunities of keeping abreast and up--to-date with developments in their areas of specialization through sabbatical leaves, attendance at conferences and workshops, or through challenges posed in solving real-life problems. Ramaiah has" succinctly summ- nzed the components of this attribute as he gives account of the practice at a university in a developing coumry: - the pral.;tlceconsIsts of training schemes to obtaIn mgher degrees, sabbati- calleaves, travel grants to professional conferences, involvement with professional orpnizations ..... and practice in industries, clinics, and other such institutions, so as to be better equipped to serve society. II 2 In order for such knowledge to be acquired and used, proper teaching is necessary. Teaching and Learning Facilitator Mosha and Biswalo's position is that the history of university teaching shows that what is taught in the lecture theatre, seminar rooms or the laboratories is considered more important than'how it is taught. They add that very little attention, is given either to the methods of teaching or to the process of learningj2 . Diverse writers; the Commonwealth'Secretariat, Pendadi,"Matheson, Mansfield et a4. Hardin,g, ~ba and Ngeno have expressed concern over this inadequacy, esPecially in today's universities.13 In fact, a similar cry was made by Johnson who stated that "it is a devastating and tragic weakness of many so- called intellectuals that they are long on mow 'what and short on know how" .1-4Universities cry out for change, and change has begun. Consequent- ly, interest is growing in improving teaching and learning skills. Bergquist and Phillips, Centra, Freedman and O'Banion have added that the increasing diversity of student attitudes, abilities and backgrounds; the in- creased complexity of instructional technology; the academic staff's own re- evaluation of their role in the classroom; and the decrease in.fmancial resources all call for increased efficiency and effectiveness in the provision and delivery- .of university education. IS •. Furthermore, increased enrolment in African Universities;st94~t ~vism, student demand for quality of teaching, and society's demand for teacher and institutional accountability all point out the need for improved performance in teaching by university lecturers and professors.16 Ramaiah notes that "there has also emerged of late a growing concern about the effectivenes~ of academic staff in carrying out their teaching reSponsibilities.17 Kamba and Ngeno have added that most universities seem to assume that lecturers and professors are born teachers and examiners.18 It has always been taken for granted that sim- ply acquiring a master's or a doctoral degree and some competence in research, equips anyone forthe effective transmission of knowledge; teaching without further ado. This assumption has led to university academics being the only practitioners who did not feel, unlike their counterparts, the primary ana secon- dary school teachers, that they needed any training to qualify them in the profes- sion, even though they might never have heard of anything called teaching methods, course outlines, lecture plans and the like. Yet, in fact, no other profes- sion permits its members to engage in activities or profession without some form of formal preparation and guidance. Ngeno further observes that, once recruited, university lecturers and profes- sors walk into the classroom, read their lecturer' notes or lengthy pieces from books, and the students copy down as much as they can. i9 The assumption is that the more information the teacher emits by wJ1atever method, the more the students learn. This unsatisfactory situation poses a serious challenge to African universities in their present way of teaching. Kamba notes that "too often teachers have their lecture notes - an affair . of scissors and paste. These notes last them all their life" .'}f.) Okatcha observes that some lecturers have the habit of using the same notes for several years without major modifications sO'''the paper on which lectures were prepared five or ten years ago looks brownish or yellowish, hence the lecture materials be- come "brown or yellow notes.21• 3 Kamba cautions that the dangers of using such materials is that the lecture notes pass' from the notebook of the teacher to th~ noteboQk, of the ~tudent without passing through the mind of either.22 Stich a proc!ess defeats the' primary purpose of a university education, that .. facilitating TeamIng to -free. , curiosity; to permit own interest; to o~n everything to questioning and expro..' , ration; to recognise that everything is in the process of change. OUt of such' a context would arise true students; real learners, creative scientists and scho- lars and practitioners, the kind of individuals who can live in a delicate but ever-changing balance between what is presently known and the flowina, Itlov- ing, altering problems and facts of the future .. As Toffler would suggest, by teaching the student to learn, unlearn and relearn, a powerful skill will have been added to the educational' system.23 , , Rogers had earlier on declared that the only man who is educated is the man I who has learned how, to ~elU"n; the JIlan who has.r~ th~t rio,kllow.~.-8e:, gives abasis for seCurity. Continuous change, reliancelori]process rather tlian upon static knowledge, is tlie only thing that makes any sense a as goal for ~u- cation in the modern world. Dewey succinctly stated that "growth leads to more growth".26 In the mechanistic model man has to be taught and trlilned.'The organismic model allows the learner' to take what Thelen calls "captaincy of self", Le., personal responsibility for one's own learning to ensure maximum growth for the individual.26. Knowledge and skill in teaching is also becoming an important asset fOl university le«ture~s and prQfessors so that they can kno~ h9w to motivate ~tu- dents to learn. As Chikering has clearly stated, students may not be m()tiva~ to learn because they lack either intrinsic or extrinsic drive that could have. been ignited by a good teacher. 27 Mayhew adds that one explanation of stu- dents not being motivated to learn may be that instruction is not fitting their needs. 28, • Morstain and Gaff's survey of instructional preferences of students rev-' ealed. that: The highest ranked prefe'rences were for teachers (1) to stimulate interets of stu- dents in the subject matter; (2) to convey more enthusiasm for their courses; (3) to encourage more vigorous discussions in class; and (4) to relate the subject mat- ler more to the interests and concerns of the student!i.29 ,- An affective University lecturer or professor also needs to be a competent evalu- ator. The focus of evaluation is mainly on the learner lYldl~g, l~prina , and lecturers, the course content~ change in elusive ~l;1avio~s.such as values and attitudes 'as well as administrative and support staff and the teaching learDiiig environment. Data from all these sources provide useful information on fac- tors which facilitate or inhibit learning. A detailed account of each of these attributes is provided in Mosha and Bukhala.30• Clearly, then~, sound pedagogical preparation of a university lecturer or ,professor is necessa(y in order to be able to overcome these teaching and learn- ing problems as well as to meet the needs of the client hence, although certain eleltlents common to all teachers should be known by all of them, distinction ofthe calibre of the teacher one wants to develop has not yet been made. There are different categories of teacherS: teachers for children (of varying abilities, aptitudes" interests and handicaps); teachers of teens, teachers of illiterate and semi-illiterat.- adults; tqtors of teachers (lecturers and professors in education faculties); the other university teachers (for intelligent adults); trainers or resource IX:rsons who lp"~ to teach, the university teache~s; and the superior teachers who 4 are to teach the resource persons. Each category requires an entirely different set of skills in order to handle its clients well. Furthermore, the issue of whether university lect~rers and professors who prepare students in a variety of fields should be trained in similar methods in pe9aigogy/~and1'agogy needs to be -resolved. If not, an explanation is needed for the existence of varying methods for preparing teachers in $pecifiq,ubjectl areas for th~ lower levels. Oth~r questions ~ght include: Have the methods for preparing teachers for all subjects at universities been thought of? Should the methods of teaching the subject matter, practical work, research, consultancy guidance and counselling or preparing people who might in turn become train- ing agents in all fields covered in university education be the saine or different and why? Where does the demarcation line lie? Considering the plethora of models and techniques for staff development in the area of pedagogy/andragogy, it is undoubtedly essential and timely that those engaged in promoting improvement of teaching and learning strategies I in African universities reflect seriously upon the above questions and find ob- jective answers. In order to solve some of these problems, research work must be initiated. Researcher and Pu~lisher Research and publication are fundamental for survival at all universities. The significance of research and publication is clearly reflected ~in the dictum. "publish or perish". Seldom is it "tea<;:h or quit". Close study of the process of preparing university lecturers and professors shows, however, that a num- ber of universities provide individuals with skills adequate only to complete a graduate dissertation or thesis. Research programmes in institutions are so diverse that some are rigorous while others are very soft. The result is that facul-. ties comprise individuals trained in various universities individuals that Miles 1 has termed as "hard and soft data sociologi~ts" . 3 The Commonwealth Secretariat has, however,maiqtained that universitie8"must have a special in- -stitutional commitment to scholarship and research. They need to live up to this expectation. Individuals need to be well-trained in research. Further analysis has revealed that most attention in universities is devoted. to equipping individuals with knowledge of plannirig and executing research in their narrow specialities. Little training is provided in planning, directing,- supervising and co-ordinating pure research that cuts across various disciplines .. Little training is given in action research aimed at exploring the causes and ef- fects of the major problems inhibiting effective classroom teaching" and learn- ing eithe .. in institutions of higher learning or in other institutions. That is to say nOihin.8 about other s{lCietaIproblems that need to be researched, that need Ylays atld mea.TJ.S of solution. In the process ofunderta1dng some research, univer- I>itiesare also being enco1uagea to involve strategic implementers in their de- sign and implementation so that they ('an develop their own internal research capacity to make objective analysis and evaluatiop of ~lementary problems without uIidue need for referral to explrts. Such co-operation is also necessary in soliciting the support required in carrying out research, and in implementing the study recommendations. Of late, demand has increa,sed for skill in reseaIr:h on research or counter rese:uch, and research for planning, due to a number cf reasons. Research on T~search is normaHy initiated in order to countercheck resea!\:h f'mdings. It can - .\) be ,~sed to check on the ~oundness of t~:' aesign, methods and procedures 5 used to collect and analyse data. Research on research can also be'initiated as a means of counteracting deliberately biased findings arising from either fudg- ing data, using dubious techniques or portraying a bleak picture about reality due to biases arising from value differences. When, for example, the bias is held that socialism has nothing good to offer ,'rightist ideologists like lqng would argue that such programmes are bound to fail. 32,. ' Research for planning, on the other hand, is intended to generate infor- mation or data to provide orientation, establish priorities, condj.tions for produc- tion and diffusion of education innovations so as to attain optimum results. It seeks to evaluate, diagnose and forecast the course of educational systems so as to determine which design, plans and educational programmes ought to be implemented. -It also defines the roles to be assumed by various people as well as the strategies to be followed by the implementers. 33. The expect- ed outcomes for initiating and using such research data are to design educa- tional programmes that are more responsive and relevant to the demands of current and future generations. Knowledge and skill in these areas are being demanded of university lecturers and professors due to the costs of innovations in education as well as the consequences of misleading findings. Evaluation r~earch is basically applied research with a particular purpose which is to understand and explain the manner of success or failure of an inno- vation with a view to improve, continue or terminate the innovation at policy, instruction, or other educational practices. Today, evaluation research is an in- tegral part of all educational innovations. It is inbuilt, consciously or uncons- ciously, from needs assessment, design, implementation to monitoring the outcomes and imPact of the programme on the clientele or national development. As publishers, uriiverslty lecturers andoprofessors must erisure that what they write is suitable to the needs and level of the reader. They must also con-' tribute to extension of knowledge in the subject matter and enhnace critical thinking. The content of published materials must not only be relevant to the needs of learners but also those of society in which the learners live or are to serve. The content also ought to be up-to-date and must be balanced in terms of breadth and depth. :; The content needs to be organized in such a way as to provide tools for inquiry, basic starting points and practice grounds. It should also be'of some utility (llsefulness in brjnging about desired ends) and practical (provide op- portunities for attacking real-life problems).-Oiven the acute shortage of pub- lished materials for use"in African Universities, all effort should'bCriIade'by lecturers and professors to reproduce quality materials in any form. Although models of research and publication provide systematic, coher- ent, and replicable steps for designing and implementing research studies, very feY' such m~els deal either with stages of disseminating research fmdings34 or With the development of research capacities among the clientele. This explains whYJIlostresearch reports are just left to collect dust on shelves. Effective dissemination of research findings has to take into account problems of organisation and lab:our. Under organisation, there is need to en- sure that the right infrastructure, dis~!ninatipn_ capacity ~d c~e hav~'~n 'created. Adequately skilled and committed leaders must be available to under .. take such tasks. Formal and informal networks need to be eeiabk4,~'d.' -Research fmdingsshould not only be policy relevant but should al"l " prise a quality that determines a favourable climate for h..'0,jJtion 1:' 6 liOn mAking process. Mowat mliintains that dissemination of research f'mdings ;an be enhaneed, by applying two basic principles - of involvement 'and rein- forcement.35 The principle of involvement requires deliberate attempts to be made to allow policy makers, technical and professional staff, to seek advice from a variety of people placed in many positionS within and outlide ~ ment; and as much participation from the local level as is ~. Under reinforcement, study reports need to be distributed U II pol- ;sible in a language that all who were involved can .decipber.FoDow~up semi- nars, visits and evaluation teams need to be incorporated inw-plannbqrand- implementation stages. A University lecturer or professor, therefore, needs to . .be well informed on how to ensure succesful dissemination of research f'md- ings and overcome bottlenecks .. From the publication's point.-o(-view, printed-materials:can be more easi ... ly disseminated if factors such as cost, range of given materials, .uitability to the needs of a given programme, durability~~ of uie by. teIdaen. arid stu- dents, attractiveness to the reader, adequacy of guide to users, ease of acquisi- tion and use, quantities a vailableland overall quali~ are taken llito account. If universities are to retain their status as institutions committed to scholar- ship and research as cherished by thecOmmonweaIth ~~, then they need to encourage the development in each lecturer and professor of research skills in all research and publication areas discussed in the preceding section. Research and publication skills would not only help implemeni better research studies, and evaluate the soundness of programmes, but would also facilitate more objective evaluation of contributions in various areas as decisions are made about the quality of work. Research and publication demands should also en- courage the cultivation of competence among lecturers and professors in plan- ning, organisation,' co-ordinating, directing, supervising, and managing co-operative research projects and disseminating research fmdings So that they may always be ready to handle research tasks assigned to them in any of the areas related to their day-to-day work. Closely related to research undertakings in universities are consultancy tasks. Consultancy Consultancy is fundamentally a process of giving p~o!essional help to a per- son, institution or system t~t needs assistance in a voluntary, temporary rela- tionship which is mutually advantageous.Consultancy mvolves two partles:the giver of help (consultant) and receiver of help (the client), operating in a mutu- ally advantageous relationship. At the individual level, consultancy services are normally referred to as guidance and counselling, whereaS at the institutional. level it is normally referred to as activity or management consultancy. Consultancy is gaining a lot of attention at the institutional and systems level due. to continual changes in every human undertaking. Indeed, Kamba nuUiitains that "social scientists tell us that the only constant variable in the modem world i!l CHANGE" .37JHence, expert -advice is required in order to l»e able to cope with new changes as well as tackle problems arising from such chan~ •. ' . th' In most African universities, expert advice is also needed to ascertain e quality of programmes ..staff, as well as ?ther activities. The p~actice of emp~oy- ing external consultants as external exammers, programme revIew teams, revIew- ers of staff publications for promotion or termination of services, or as resource persons in all forms of training is acceptable to faculty members for the pur- • 7 pOICI of comparison and objectivity, or due to the respect they command and ability they have in handling the problem better than insiderJ •. Of late, however, debate and impetUs have been growinJ towards develop. ing on internal consultancy capacity, for a number of problems could indeed be ,solved by a strong internal consultancy team which could curtail the over- dependence on external assistance, which is sometimes expensive, artificial, and eut-off fro~ reality due to political, social, cultural or ecological differeJlces. Indeed, pressure has been mounting on government bureaucrats in most Afri- can countries that questions employing external consultants when there are intellectually-able lecturers and professors who should be given an opportunity to practise what they preach. Increased interest in consultancy among university lecturers and profes- sorshas also been prompted by mountirig pressure from politicians who think university lecturers and professors constitute a powerful force of the most in- tellectually able and highly trained individuals in their respective countries38• 'rhey need to serve as useful models of successful experimentation through their teaching and actions; they can use their knowledge to solve real-life problems in institutions of higher learning, industry and society at large. Nyerere main- tains that universjty dons should be able to use their expertise to revolutionise the conditions in which their people live (hunger, disease and poverty) so that the majority are assured of the basic necessities of life andare _able to live in decency and dignity. 39. Benveniste also sees growing reliance of politicians on consultants as an attempt to ensure that the right expertise is at hand so that declared policies can be put into action. <4(1 Since such ap~intment8- lare often from respectable depaitments within universities, more members of staff are becoming aware of the need to acquire basic knowledge and skill in consultancy so that they can better accomplish. their assignments. It is obvious that consultancy work is highly paid and is accompanied by high status and trust when the work is well done. In order to overcome the risks that are often associated with incompetence in undertaking such tasks, the de- mand for better knowledge and improved skill in consultancy seems to be mount- ing amongst university lecturers and professors. Hence, each consultant should at least be well informed about the five principal stages in consultation namely entry (e), diagnosis (d), response (r), disengagement (ds), and closure (c), which seem to be common to all forms. Entry; Entry normally represents a stage where some pain or disequilibri- um is experienced by the client and/or client system and a consultant is called into the scene. Once the consultant is in, problems are jointly explored, per- ceived needs and symptoms are discussed, relationllhips are clarified, goals and roles are defined, resource parameters identified, methodology clarified, and ultimately a contract negotiated. Throughont the entry phase, both parties do some scouting to ascertain the degree: to which the consultation will be a poten- tially advantageous relationship. Diagnosis: Diagnosis, according to Bell andN~ler,41 is a process of de- termining by examination the cause and nature of the problem. It begins with the understanding of the problem as perceived by the client, and is followed by an appreciation of the client's goals, knowing the amount of resources avail- able and the client system's culture, values, norms and beliefs. Response: Bell and Nadler maintain that the response or action phase in- cludes the selection ofa course of action, redefinition of consultative goals,. 8 and identification of appropriate objectives, strategies and roles.42 It also in- cludes the planning and engagement of structured activities or interventions em- ployed to correct a problem or improve the situation which is spelled out in the contract. Disengagement. In this phase, results are evaluated to determine not only if the response has been successful and is progressing as planned, but also whether there is a need for response, revision or additional resources. Based on the evalution, planning for continuous process maintenance is conducted to ensure permanent integration and lasting change. Effort is also made to decrease the client's dependence on the consultant and to develop within the client system the ability to use self-generated data by involving the client system in monitoring progress and in evalu~tin~ results, for change can only be sustained if the client system attains sufficient growth during the consultation. Closure. Closure involves termination of the working relationship, having ensured continuity and internal support during the disengagement stage. Ter- mination may also mean leaving the client system or ceasing one effort and start- ing another. The challenge of the helpers, therefore, is to bring the party being. helped to a point at which the helper is no longer necessary. Although the distinctive models on consultancy vary in terms of the detailed stage involved in fulfilling roles in each area., most of these stages can be slot- ted into the five general phases of consultancy. One can easily demonstrate this point by using the abbreviations (e), (d), (r), (ds) and (c) against every cor- responding stage of a few models on consultancy. A detailed account of each model will not be made due to limitation of space. Accounts, however, can be found in the rele.vant references. From the management consultancy point of view, Benveniste 43 suggests the following stages: building a relationship (e), uncovering uncertainties (d); legitimisation (r). analysis of political climate, knowing the institutions to be in- volved (d);acquisition of power (r); bargaining for time and quality staff (ds & r); coalition formation, strategy mapping (r); and the place of experts in a democratic system (d). Writers on OD,44 change agent roles4s, and action research46 conceive consultancy roles in terms of stages of awareness: persua- sion stage (e); decision stage (d); implementation stage" (r); confirmation stage (ds); and communication plus feedback stage (c); Havelock has also approached consultancy in these areas in terms of stage.s: building relationship (e); diagno- sis (d); acquisition of information and reso,urces (d &r); chvosing (r); accep- ct tance (r) and self-renewal (ds & 7• Nash and Culbertson have approached consultancy (rom change agent's roles of a provocateur (e); process helper (r); programme facilitator, information linker, product peddler, technical assisfer, action researcher (r); data feedbacker and educator (dJ; capacity builder (ds & r). The five stages will, therefore, be adopted for the purposes of this paper, while taking into account the fact that detailed steps may differ, depending on the consultancy activity being. considered. University lecturers and professors have yet another vital role to play, guidance and counselling students. Guidance Counsellor Guidance and counselling 8.ssistance is now needed i'l universities more than ever before due to mounting anxieties and conflicts caused by socio-economic :Ji~locations inherent in present-day society. At the individual level, anxieties -;aused by f~ of tutors or 0.;". students pos<; critic.al probl~ms that could in- 9 hibit learning. Students with study difficulties and associated problems (the fear that they are not capable of accomplishing as much as their colleagues Or that they are unable to meet tutors' expectations) cause anxieties which can be ,resolved through guidance and counselling. - As guidance counsellors, University lecturers and professors ought to as- sist students to make right decisions on what and how to study; and what career and voqwon t~prepare for .In addition, they need to understand students' needs; their. scholastic and personal growth and adjustment so that they can tailor their instruction accordingly. ,They also need to identify students with special abilities so that they may be referred to specialists and may have the opportunity,to attend special class- es. Students must also be helped to recognise and understand their wekanesses ,and strengths to determine measures, not only to exploit the strong points but convert the knowledge of their weaknesses and disabilities into a strength. Apart from academic anxieties, UTMU has identified other specific anxi- eties and stresses arising from students' social and emotional life (Imancial hard- ships, marital life, lov~ life) or any other stress situation48 Such anxieties, when not well handled, argue Enns and Housego, could ]"".adto serious moral and ethical problems such as smoking marijuana, committing sexual crimes, van- dalism, and maleficent, arbitrary and deceptive behaviour.49Although univer- sity lecturers and professors may not have the personality, understanding or patience to help students resolve problems in this area, UTMU suggests that some basic knowledge about theories of personality and psychopathol~ might help them in acting as agents for screening and referral to experts. The at- tempt to improve students social and learning positions will establish closer ties 'between staff and students and make instruction more effective. Guidance counsellors also need to motivate learners so that they may learn effectively. Koontz and O'Donnel conceptualize motivation as a force embracing mo- tives and an inner state that energises, activates or moves, directs or channels behaviour towards ,a goal. 51 It was stated elsewhere that the primary goal of university education is to promote teaching and learning Qf the highest level. Hence, the lecturers and professors are obliged to motivate students to realise such an ?bjective. The pniversity administration, other support staff and the - commUDlty at large are also supposed to provide leadership, services and sup- port to teachers and students so that they can implement their tasks well. Close scrutiny,however, of the literature on staff development shows but a mention !It passing, without analytic disCussion, of the essence of motivation of students ~ staff development programmes.' Since its importance is being recognised, more ' attention to motivation is justified .. =tJmuh and'l'umer and-McKeachiemaintain-tlunincentives,maspirations" - ~ons and satisfaction need to be considered when thinking of student ,motivation. 51 Kn~p foundjob.satisfaction to be related to goal attainm~l1t~3" Jackson ha(h:arlier found that the leadeismp exetcisedUiUiiiVet8itieswas im- portant. to students, lecturers and professors, for the administration sets the. tooc?,~nal~, ~ organilllltional c~ and gene.raIIy ~ a ~influenceover the work environment of~, lecturers ,~~~. ~oop adds that, when the work climate is favourable" stu- I , , -....~ ~ professors intetact freely, borrow!deas, and ~do\'" .....-. ,~~fional pII1iOIQpby. Co-workers can also llSlom students, le." 10 'professors by providing the services required to improve teaching and 'learn- ing. Knoop's findings show that motivation'pf"students comes through co- operation among themselves as well as with academic staff, tqr administration, categorised staff, the client system and the general sOciety. A mini-survey conducted by Bukhala and Mosha revCaled that, whereas lecturers and professors, administrators and parents talk about lazy, dull, inat- tentive, slopp~ students, very little effort has been undertaken to determine why they were so. Likewi8C1students, administrators and informed members of the:' community refer to active, bogus, cocktail, dead and earthen lecturers and professors who are uncommitted and whose hearts are not in university teach- ing and learning, but in non-academic commitments. Okatcha argues that some lecturers and pr9fessors are not necessarily inept bu~ they are not motivated to teach.57lTLAtI,Mosha and Edwards and Kiwia have also cited several in- stances of university administration that is lax, passive and sometimes totally paralysed ..58 Yet little has been done either to establish why such situations prevailed or to try to find lasting solutions to the problems. Furthermore, a close study of prevailing conditions in most African univer- sities shows that the work environments in which.studeilts, lecturers and profes- sors toil are sometimes very hostile and the necessary support is not forthcoming. Basic materials and equipment required to implement one's tasks effectively such as books, periodicals and chemicals 'are not readily available. SuppOrt services are poor, and working conditions are not that attractive either, when compared to other institutions that offer a good house, fringe benefits, travel and status to their employees. Sometimes universities are accused of harbouring radicals who sow' seeds of discord among societal members. Worse still, the war is still waged against intellectuals. Intellectuals are rich in theory but dehydrated in practice; intellectuals cannot translate what they preach in classrooms into real- ity. Such comments may demoralise students, lecturers and professors who strug- gle under difficult conditions to fulm their tasks. It would be naive, therefore, to expect students, university lecturers and professors to do good work if they are not motivated. Porter and Steers have flatly declared that if students, lecturers and professors are not motivated to remain at the university and contribute to the university goals, the issue of their being effective become~ academic. 59 Motivation models concerning learners, also focus on the process where- by motivation influences learning and memory. The prevailing model is the ex- pectancy model, which is normally established prior to the process of learning itself an~ sets the sta2e fOJ;:feedback and reinforcement. Giroux et al. stipulate that this model consists basically of seven stages: attention or selective percep- tion; rehearsal; coding, search and retrival; generalisation or transfer of learn- ing; response generation; feedback and reinforcement. Attention refers to an array of stimulations that reaches the learner through her/his sensory register and is acted upon selectively so that salient features are attended to a,nd perceived. At the rehearsal stage, further processing takes place in the form of actively relating new information to that already acquired. Un- der coding, the newly-learned item is related to larger bodies of information and translated into an image. During search. and retrieval, materials stored in memory become accessible; selected portions can be retrieved and recorded by short-term memory and can be used in further learning or as inputs in response generation. The generalisation stage involves transfer of knowledge to new sit- uations, depending on how the knowledge was stored and upon the kind of 11 cues available for recovering it in the new situation. Transferability of knowledge and skill are a matter of great importance to the design and conduct of instruc- tIon. Response generation involves an apPeal to the long-term memory/informa- tion to recover the working memory and to transform the performances of the learner so as to enable an external observer to verify that learning has actually taken place. Feedback is a process of informing the learner that his perfor- mance has met certain expectations. Those events that provide positive feed- back are therefore identified as reinforcement. Hence, under this model Giroux et al saw the need to prepare students for learning during the process of jnstructioI:1 by activating students' interests.60 The teacher's communication would relate these interests to an expectancy of what the student.. will be able to do once she/he has learned: Indeed, this model calls for a clear reflection upon factors within the schoo(andat home that moii--- . vate students to learn. For an excellent account of such factors, refer to Broofen- berner, Kilnowski and Sloane, and Madaus et al.61. Summary and Conclusion The fundamental variables that have emerged from the preceding presen- tation and discussions are the ones that need to be considered when mapping out comprehensive staff development programmes. These attributes are sum- marised in Figure 1. The selected attributes constitute the core of the factors that need to be considered. The framework surrounding them is subject to refme- ment and enrichment. Furthermore, depending on the area one wants to emphasize at any given point in time, the attributes in certain areas could be amplified while other areas could be diminished. From a global perspective, however, staff development activities should reflect all the attributes. Each attribute contributes tQ the llttainment of excedel- lence, to the achievement of the purposes for which umversitles were establish " Current teaching and learning improvement progfammes on the African continent have mainly concentrated on the lecturing role, al~jt scratching the surface. The other roles of University lecturers and professors are yet to be given equal weight. An effective on-campus staff development programme is, therefore, one that will systmatically develop modular contents in each of these roles, systematically present and deal a la carte with each module-until I the curiosity is fulfIlled. One can also see that improvement of teaching and learning in universities is not only a function of lecturers and professors who are versatile in the execu- tion of their teaching and other roles alluded td in ,preceding paragraphs but is as much a function of: students who know how to learn and make best use of the University resources; permissive administrative and support staff who are not only sensitive to needs of lecturers and students, but excell in the appli- cation of managLment techniques and principles i.n doing th.eir job; technical support staff - .laboratory audiovisual aids technicians and 'librarians who I are well trained in their fields; and secretariat ~ repographi staff, and drivers, janitors, cooks and all others that University employ-:-all working together; like the system's components, to facilitate Univecsities' fulfIlment of their mis- sion role in the five principal areas discussed elsewhere. Each of the occupations mentioned in the preceding paragraph has a hand in facilitating the execution of the lecturer's or professor's teaching and learn- ing in one attribute - teaching and learning among the academic staff. An ef- 12 d£&ftcSmprehensivS 3S33siH=E£ staff development programme nee4 not, therefore, be overstated. References 1. Group for Human Development in Higher Education. " Faculty Development in a Time of Retrenchment." A Change Publication, 1974. Gaff, S.S., Festo, C , and J.G. Gaff. "Professional Development: A Guide to Resource". New Rochelle, New York: Change Magazine, 1978. 2. Miller, R.I. Developing Programs for FacultyEvaluationSan Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1974. 3. Itlau. Improvement of Teaching and learning in African Universities Newsletter Vol. 1 No. 1, 1984. 4. Romaiah, A. "A study of the Perceived Need for Instructional Development at the University of Malaya". Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Educa- tional Administration: University of Alberta, 1984. 5. Nyerere J.K. Speech on the Inauguration of theUniversity of bar es Salaam.Dai es Salaam: Government Printer. 1970. 6. Kamba, W. Keynot Address at the Training Course on "Improving Teaching and Learning", Roma: University of Lesotho, 1983. 7. Toffler, A. Learning for Tomorrow: The Role of the Future in Education. New York: Random House, 1974. 8. Stordahl, B. "Faculty Development: A Survey of the Literature of the '70s". Research Currents, AAHE Bulletin, (March), 1981. 9. Toombs, W. "A Three-Dimensional View of Faculty Development". Journal of Higher Education, 46 (6): )01-7. 1975. 10. Rebore, R.W. Personnel Administration in Education. Englewood CLiffs, N.J.: Pren- tice Hall. 1982. 11. Remaiah, 1984, op. cit. 12. Mosha, H. J. and P. Biswalo. "Improvement of University Teaching and Learning: A Regonal Perspective." A paper presented at the Department of Education Staff/Students Seminars (mimeo). 1982. Improving University Teaching. London: Methuen, 1978. 13 13. Harding, A.G., S.K.E. Roe and J.R. Stevens, State of the Art and the Artists. Unit. ed Kingdom: Bradford Kamba, 1983, op. cU. 1981. Mansified, B.E. et al. Report of the A VCC Working Party on Staff Development. North Ryde: Maquarie University. 1981. Matheson, C.C. "Staff Development in the United Kingdom: Current Trends and Future Prospects" in Improving University Proceedings of the Fifth Internation- al Conference. London: The City University. 1979. Ngeno, J .K. "Speech by the Minister Of Education at the Official Opening of the Regional Workshop on Improving University Teaching and Learning at the Kenya Institute of Education on 10th JUly, 1984. Pendaeli, J. Teachingand Learning Improvement at the University of Dor es Salaam. Oar es Salaam: Oar es Salaam University Press. 1980. 14. Johnson, W. People in Quandaries. New York: Harper and Row. 1946. 15. Bergquist, w.h. and S.R. Phillips. Handbookfor Faculty Development, Vol. 2. ERIC Document Reproduction No EO 148 204. Centra, J .A. "Faculty Development in Higher Education" Teachers" CollegeRecord, 60: 188-201. 1978. Centra, J .A. "Pluses and Minuses for Faculty Development" , Change, 9:48-8. 1977. Centra, J.A. Faculty DevelopmentP.r:ar:tic~lI Il.S.Co/lege and Universities, Prince- ton, N.J.: Educational." 'Testing service. 1976. Freedman, M. and N. Sanford. "The Faculty Member Yesterday and Today". Facilitating Faculty Development. New Directions for Higher Education. 1:16. 1973. Gaff, H.G. Toward Faculty Renewal. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss. 1975. Gaff et ai, op. cit. O.Banion, T. Teachers for Tomorrow,: Staff DEVELOPMENT IN THE CommunitY-Junior Col/ege. National Advisory Council on ~EdJlcationaLJ::imLts$IP~ Development Report. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. 1973. O'Banion, T. "Staff Development: Priorities for the Seventies". Community and Junior Col/ege Journal. 43(2):10-11. 1973. 16. Matheson, 1979, op. cit. 17. Mansfied et ai, 1981, op. clt. Massey, M.B. The People Puzzle Understanding Yourself and Others • .Reston. Reston Publishing Company. 1979. Ramaiah, 1984, op. clt• .t t .~. is. Kamba, 1983, op. clt. '14 Ngeno, 1984. op. dt. 19. Ngeno, 1984, ibid. 20. Kamba, 1983, op. dt 21. Okatcha, F.M. "Promotion of Effective University Teaching", working paper for workshop on Strategies for Improving University Teaching and Learning in Afri. ca, Nairobi, Kenya, September, 1 3-21, 1982. 22. Kamba, 1983, op. dt. 23. Toffler, 1974, op. cit. 24. Rogers. A.K. The Socratic Problem. New York: Russel & :Russel. 1971. 25. Dewey, J. Knowing and the Known: Useful Proceduris of Knowing.-.BaI:ringtor . Mass.: Behaviour Research Council. 1973. ------------Dewey an Education New York: Bureau of Publi- cations. 26. Thelen, H.A. The CLassroom Society: The Construction of Educational Expense. London: Crom Helm. 1981. . 27. Chickering A.W. Education and Identity, San Francisco: Jos$ey-Bass. 1969. 29. Morstain, B.R. And J.G. Gaff. 'Student Viewsof Teaching Improvements". Educa- tional Record, 58 (3): 299-308. 30. Mosha, H.J. and J. Bukhala. "Problems in Teaching Learning Situations" An in- ventory of Ideas from the Nairobi and Zimbabwe Workshops (mimeo). 1984. 31. Miles, M.B. "QuaItitative Data as Unattractive Nuisance: The Problem of Analy- sis". "Administrative Science Quarterly, 24.590-601. 1979. 32. King, K. "The End of Education for Self-Reliance" Sessional Paper No.1: Depart- ment of African Studies: University of Edinburgh. 33. Schaeffer, S.F. "Increasing National Capacity for Education Research" Prospects, Vol. XI No. 3:326-342. 1981. 34. Schaeffer, 1981, ibid. 35. Mowat, S. "The Diffusion of Research, Four Examples from Asia. Prospects, Vol. XI No. 3:310-367. 1981. . 36. Commonwealth Secretatiat, 1978, op. cit. 37. Kamba, 1983, op. cit. 38. Nyerere, J .K. University of Dar es Salaam 10th Anniversary Celebrati0'!8:Add"'8e8S0 by the Chancellor of the University. Dar es Salaam: Government Pnnter. 19 . 39. Nyerere, 1979 op. cit. 15 40. Benveniste, G. (2nd ed). The Politics of Expertise. San Francisco: Boyd & Raser/Glendessary. 1977 .. 41. Bell, C. and L. Nadler (Eds). The Client Consultant Handbook: London: Gulf Pub- lishing Company. 1979. 42. Bell and Nadler, 1977 ibid. 43. Benveniste, 19770p. dt. 44. Ingram E.J. "A General Concept of Research and Development in Education", A paper presented to the Alberta Human Resources Research Council (rnimeo). 1968. 45. Rogers, E. (3rd ed). Diffusion of Innovation. New York: The Free Press. 1983. 46. Nosh, N. and J. Culbertson (Eds.) Linking Processes in Educational Improvement: Concepts & Applications: Columbus, Ohio: University Council for Education Ad- ministration, 1977. 47. Havelock. R.G. The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications. 1973. Nash and Culbertson, 1977, op. dt. 48. UTMU. Improving Teaching in Higher Education. London: Institute of Educa- tion. 1976. "Some Ethical-Moral Concerns in Administration". The Canadian Administrator, Vol. XX No. 8: 1-8. 1981. 49. Housego. I.E. "The Professor as Teacher: An Ethical Analysis," The Canadian Administrator, Vol. Xx. No. 5:1-5. 1982 ;)0. UTMU, 19766 op. dt. 51. Koontz, H. and C. O'Donne!. Management: A Systems and Contingency Analysis of Managerial Functions. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Koga Kusha. 1978. 52 McKeachie, W.J. "Perspectives From Psychology: Financial Incentives are Ineffec- tive for Faculty". In D.R. Lewis, and W,E, Becker, Jr. (eds). Academic Rewards in Higher Education. Cambridge Mass.: Balling~r. 1979. Unruh, A., and H.E. Turner Supervisionfor Change and Innovation. Boston: Hough- ton Mifflin. 1970. 53. Knoop. R. "Job Satisfaction of Teachers and Attainment of School Goals. The Cana- dian A.dministrator, Vol. XXI No.1 1-5. 1981. 54. Jackson, G.B. "Executive Professional Leadership and Organizational Health". Canadian Administrator, Vol. XXI No. 5:23-27. 1974. 55. Knoop, 1981. op. cit. 56. Mosha and Bukhala, 1984, op. dt. 16. J7. J. arid K. Edwards Policy and Reality in Socialist Transformfltion: Lessons from A Unillersity Study. Edmonton: University of Alberto ~Press.. 1985. 58. Kiwio. S.F.N. "The Effectiveness of the University of Dar es Salaam. Administra- tion in ~ Provision of Services" Unpublished M.A. Dissertation; Depart- ment of Education: University of Dar es Salaam. 59. Portet', L.W. and R.M. Steers. "Organizational, Work, and Personal Factors in employee Tiiinover and Absenteeism". Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 80 NO.2: lSl-176. 1973. 60. Giroux, H. A., A.N Penna and W. F. Pinar. Curriculum and Instruction: Alterna- tives in Education. Berkeley, California. McCutchan. 1981. .61. Brofenbrenner, U. "Is Early Intervention Effective'!" In H. J. Leichter (Ed.) The Family as an Indicator. New York: Teacher's College Press. 1974. Kilnowski, L.A. and K.D. Sloane "The Home Environment and School Achieve- ment" Studies in Educational Evaluation", Vol. 7 No. 1:85-96. Madaus, G.F., P.W. Airasian and T. Kelleghan School Effectiveness: A Reas- sessment of the Evidence. New York: McGraw-Hill 1980. 17 Help students to overcome: stress related to: academic anxieties, conflicts and •What and how to study. • What career and vocation to prepare for • needs and aspirations, scholastic and personal growth • special abilities • weaknesses and strengths Social and emotional anxieties and stresses & • financial IS • marital • love — Act as agents of screening and referral to experts d Motivate students to learn effectively: 3 • Provide leadership & support services, • Use incentives toephance student learning • Know aspirations, expectations and satisfaction ••Find out causes for iniKsiciu .wiiVhesses and the effect of unfavourable climate on student learning — Know the processes of learning: •Attention or selective perception • rehearsal • codiffg • search and retrival • generalization or transfer of learning • response generation • feedback and reinforcement. — Help systems cope with new changes —Ascertain quality of programmes, staff and other activities. — Serve as external examiner/resources person — Practice' what he/she preaches i — —Experiment on new methods and application of raw knowledge — Use knowledge and skill to solve real life problems In industry, institutions and society at large •-use expertise to revolutionize conditions in whichpeople live. —Avail right expertise to implement declared policies. —Do independent research -~Plan, direct, supervise, coordinate and execute pure and applied < research as well as quantitative and qualitative research —Manage cooperative research projects — Prepare study reports to suit variety of consumers ^Ensure publications are: • suitable to the need and level of readers • contribute to extension o f knowledge • enhance critical thinking • provide multisensory stimulation • have transfer value • content is relevant, balanced, up-to-date and of utility to readers — Disseminate research findings to consumers • sensitive to problems of organization, manpower, quality, E involvement and reinforcement. o o 18 FIG.1 Cont... Be able to use a variety of teaching methods . 5 Aware of diversities of students attitudes,. abilities and backgrounds Aware of complexities of instructional technology 'Handle classes of different size j. '19 Responsive to students' and society's demands Effective teacher Prepare and use course outlines and lecture plans Vary L'?achingstrategies in order to: • fr.ee curiosity and 'Slimulate. students interest • encourage questioning, discussion and exploration • inspire excellence in performance • Evaluate teaching and learning process • Learner and learning • Lecturing and lecturer • Course consent •• Elusive behaviours aster subject matter (authority in the area) Demonstrate clear and independent thought .Analyse and solve problems at the highest level Team up with colleagues in advancement of knowledge Involved in professional activities and organizations 'Use knowledge to-solve problems in real life situations "Strive t6 advance theoretical and practical knowledge; 19