24      UTAR11 (New SedesJ Vol. 1 No 2, 1994
           ... Human Resources Development for
          Managing SAPs and Integrating Environmental
                            Concerns in Tanzania
                        J.E. Katabaro' and A. V. Y. Mbeaez
1. Introduction
1.1 Background: Sustainability of SAPs
Developments in the World Economy in the 1980s, and certainly the 1990s as
well, have witnessed polarity of development experiences between developed and
developing countries. The disappointing performance of the economies of the
latter countries, especially the issue of poverty, led to debates centering around
policies that will bailout these economies.
    Among the regions that have been a subject of much research and policy
prescriptions is Sub-Saharan Africa, with the 1980s and 1990s being basically
a period of structural adjustment programmes designed to improve
macroeconomic performance. After almost a decade of implementing SAPs in
most Sub-Saharan African countries, the debate is now even more heated-on
whether adjustment does or does not work. The World Bank, the architect of
SAPs, is on the defensive pointing out that SAPs can work given certain
conditions (Husain, 1994).
    The designing of the reform programmes has undergone certain qualitative
changes. While in the early phase the emphasis was on macroeconomic
aggregates, the second phase attempted to address the social services sector and
poverty. More recent, especially in the 1990s, environmental issues have been
        lLecturer, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Dar
        es Salaam
        2Senior Lecturer,  Department of Economics,   University of Dar es
        Salaam.


       Human Resource Development, SAPs and the Environment                    25
incorporated to the extent of being explicitly attached as a conditionality for
lending.
    The central question that will continue to be controversial for many years to
come is the sustainability of reform programmes, and the impact of these on
poverty alleviation.      It is absolutely undesirable to talk of aggregate
improvements when poverty is on the increase. Unfortunately this is the case.
    A recent World Bank study (1994) revealed a large and growing proportion
of the population in Sub-Saharan Africa living in poverty (xi). It is estimated
that between 1985 (pre-reform period) and 1992 (reform period) poverty
increased by 1.5 percent ("stubborn poverty").         The study estimates that a
minimum of 4.7 percent GDP growth is needed to achieve poverty reduction
(44).
    As pointed out earlier, the question of tbe reforms working is still
controversial. A number of questions arise. Is it a problem of the designer-
e.g. failing to incorporate country-specific political and social realities? Have
the majority of the implementing countries failed to react to the medicine?
    Following the paper by Husain (1994) which identifies eight variables for the
success and sustainability of reforms, this paper examines the issues of capacity
in a broader sense. It specifically addresses institutional requirements for
managing SAPs, and the ability to incorporate sustainable development and
environmental issues in Tanzania.
    Our approach will involve examination and analysis of comparative data
from existing data bases as well as complementing with generated data.
    The paper is organized into four sections, including the introductory part.
The evolution, as well as the current status of human resources development in
Tanzania is revisited in section two. Section three carries out an assessment,
drawing comparative experiences from other countries. The final section is
devoted to concluding remarks.
1.2 SAPs, Sustainable      Development and the Environment
Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) are a household name to almost all
the actors in the economy. The interpretation of SAP policies differs from one
group to the other, depending on the interest of such a group. Let us look
briefly at the definition of these ternlS before looking at the link between the
three.


  26     J.K. Katabaro and A. \l.y. Mb6lJe
      In general SAPs are economic programmes designed to stimulate the
  transformation of the economy. SAPs nave far reaching impacts to the entire
  economy and even to political dimensions.
      In Tanzania the first serious attempt at addressing economic problems was
  made in 1982 when the first programme was drawn. The main hallmark of this
 programme which lasted up to 1985 was the 1984/85 budget in which modest
 efforts were made at improving economic performance. In 1986 the Economic
 Recovery Programme was adopted with explicit and serious government actions
 in the areas of liberalization of internal. and external trade, exchange rate
 adjustment, and fiscal and monetary restraint. ERP I, as this programme is
 known, was followed by subsequent programmes along ERP I lines.
      The term sustainable development is also becoming a household term to
 researchers and policy makers, though th~ full dimensions may not be known
 to many. The term, it should be emphasize<l, is not neutral but depends on the
 economic, social and political setting. Thus sustainable development must be
 viewed differently from the perspectives of developed and developing countries.
 Perhaps the best defmition is provided by the World Resource Institute (1992),
 which integrates poverty and environmental conditions:
            In poor countries sustainable development. .. means economic development
            to provide jobs and alleviate poverty; investment in human development to
            stabilize populations and enable people to improve their well-being and their
            livelihood; protection for natural resources, in large party by providing poor
            and landless people with alternatives to the over- exploitation of marginal
            lands; and support for iruproved practices and technologies that are
            appropriate and efficient in local contexts (30)
    ,As one may notice, the defmition is much more broader than conventionally
used. What it sums up to is material improvements in the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (see
Sterner 1994, p. 193).
     Environmental policies relate to policy instruments that are designed to
protect the ecosystem. Such policies may be of the "command and control"
type (Le. rules and regulations) or economic/market-based such as taxation.
     From the brief definitions provided above, it should be noted that SAPs and
environmental policies are means towards sustainable development.
     The interpretation of sustainable development has undergone some


        Human Resource OtNBIoptnen~            SAh ~       the Enllil'onment      21
refinements. While in the 1950s and 1960s growth/development and economic
efficiency were the key issues. in the 1970s equitable growth (social or poverty
redress)     became the ll'.ain agenda item.               After the 19805 the
environmental/natural resources have taken prominence.
    Viewing sustainable development in its broader sense then. all the main
agenda items have to be incorporated.              SAPs contribute to sustainable
development through encouraging growth and efficiency while environmental
policies are designed to ensure optimal use of the ecosystem.
2. Human Resources Development in TJI"-tQa~ Evolution and CurreDt
      Status
2.1 Background
At the time of independence in 1961. Tanzania faced acute local manpower
shortage. During the many years of colonial rule only a handful of Tatl7Jl11i-
(by then Tanganyikans) had the prerequisite training.
    The newly independent government then set out to institute drastic      ~nr
in the education system recognizing that edueation is a "major tool for cbaDge
and development"         (lshumi. 1918; Galabawa. 1994).
    These changes 'include:
     1.      The .aboIition of the tripartite education system ,where the three
             groups of Whites. Asians and Africans were receiving education on
             a discriminatory basis in terms of content and financial allocation
             regardless oftbeir demographic proportions. For example. in 1960.
             30 pen:en1 of the education budget went to less than 1 percent of the
             population constituted by Europeans and Asians. The remaining 10
             percent went to 99 pcn:ent of the entire population. mainly Africans
             (Ishumi 197.~J;43). The abolition was aimed at ensuring equitable
             distribution of resources to the Dll\iority of Tanganyikans. and
             provision of necessary skills for them to take up tecbnical and
             administrative pasitioos in the system. "However there were other
             non-gov~al           organizations which offered education. again to a
             selected few' j mainly along religious liDes. The 1.christian missions
             offered education in, thoee ~      where tIieybad sirongly established
             theJnsdves (IsbupU" Maliyamkono 1980:210).            The Missionary
             $Cbools had JlO alXC$S to government subsidies.


  28     J.K. Katabaro and A. V. Y. Mbelle
      2.     The abolition of school fees in 1964 was yet another move to provide
             education for all. It was conceived that school fees acted as a main
             barrier to the majority of Tanzanian school-going pupils, given the
             fact that the majority of Tanzanians were in one low income bracket.
     3.      In 1974, Universal Primary Education (UPE) was adopted, another
             move to ensure accessibility to education for all children, by the year
             1977.
     4.      In addition to these formal training institutions, adult education was
             introduced in 1970 in order to increase the literacy rate.
 2.2 Current Status: Manpower Training and the Output of Graduates in
     Tanzania
 There are several and various levels of manpower training in Tanzania. Two
 broad categories of training approaches can be identified: formal, and informal.
 The formal category encompasses programmes offered at different levels from
 post-primary education institution to polytechnic and other professional
 institutions at tertiary level. Primary education is less focused to provide the
basic requisites for high levels. Diversified programmes are offered at each
level to see to it that graduates serve various aspects of the economy of the
country on the one hand, and provision of employment opportunities to these
graduates on the other hand. It is for this reason that such training programmes
are very specific and have sometimes been accused of being narrow to the
realities of life. For example, it has been observed by Schneider (1992:50) that
formal methods are limited to small section of the population, namely those who
are in formal institutions, and that for in-service training, it is difficult to reach
the rural working population. Nyerere (1970) accused formal education for
limiting access of the entire population, including adults, to education.
     Apprenticeship has been the main training approach in the informal category
of training. This has been seen to be more focused and relevant to the
beneficiary despite the fact that it is limited in terms of the number of trainees
given not only the type of skills but also the absorption capacity of the economy.
     The training programmes in Tanzania are not well documented and lack
proper coordination. This makes it difficult to establish the actual capacity and
the type of programmes offered by each training institution. A study by
ESAURP (1994) sheds light on various aspects of Tanzania's training capacities,


       Human Resource Development,' SAPs and the Environment                               29
and the type of programmes offered by different institutions. It is evident from
the study that Tanzania still lags behind in the region in terms of the number of
pupils benefiting from the education activity. The rate of drop-out also appears
to be on the increase. ESAURP (ibid) identifies about 142 training institutions
with an intake capacity of about 19000 entrants. The actual intake for non-
degree programmes is around 14000 per annum, with about 5000 places
unutilized. There is an average output of 11300 graduates. For some reasons
the drop-out rate stands at around 20 percent. There are over 240 programmes
offered in these institutions. In addition, there are 3 full-fledged .Universities
and one constituent college with an intake capacity of 4500 (Ishumi 1994:317).
Table 1 provides a summary of the intake and output of tertiary capacities. by
award per year. It should, however be noted that one of the three universities
took off in 1994 and its first batch of graduates may not be, realized before
 1997.
                        Table 1: TertilU'YInstitutions Training
                 Average Capacity per Annum by Intake and Output
                          Average Intake                   Average Output
    Award           ,
                          Male . "
                                      Female    Total      Male        Female     Total
    Certificate           5081        3104      8185       4273        2411       6684
    Diploma               3194        1248      4442      ~502         1042       3544
    A/Diploma             949       ,257        1206       728         207        935
    Postgraduate          111         26        137        96          24         120
    1st Degree            884         159       1043       850         150        1000
    MA/MSc Degree         100         100     ,200         140         25         165*
    Doctoral              1-3         1         2-4        1-3         1          2-4*
    Total/Average         10322       4895      15217      8592        3860       12452
    Source: ESAURP 1994: 192; UDSM Admission Office
       *     Varies from year to,year depending on Applicants qualifications and sponsorship,


  30      J.M. Katabara and A. V. Y.
      \\ is clear from Table 1 that females are under-represented in tertiary
  institutions, and this has been documented elsewhere suggesting a quick reversal
  of the trend given the almost 1:1 ratio at primary school education in 1993
  (BEST 1994:1-16).
      There is also a trend of students enroled for some programmes to drop-out
  before their graduation. This can be explained by many factors, but the
 common ones include discontinuation after failing to fulfil the requirements for
 promotion to the next level. For example, at the University of Dar es Salaam
 and its continued college—Muhimbili University of Health Sciences—there is a
 significant number of students who are discontinued after their first year of study
 because of poor academic performance. Another reason for drop-out is that
 students drop out to join other programmes within and or outside the country
 considered to be better in terms of future gains upon employment. Pregnancies
 among female students is another common cause of drop-out from institutions.
     In addition to the number of students who drop-out from the programmes,
 some of the institutions have not been able to utilise their installed capacity to
 the maximum. ESAURP (1994) points out a difference of 5,000 places in non-
 degree programmes. There are plausible indicators of underutilization of
 capacity the universities in Tanzania given the time the rooms remain vacant
 during the day and may be the night hours. It is true, however, that other
 factors, such as residence, impair the enrolment in these universities in the
 absence of private affordable hostels around the campuses.
2.3 Relationship of Current Programmes with SAPls
     and Environmental Issues
One of the main facets for preserving the environment has been identified to be
education. Both formal and non-formal education have been associated with
good understanding of environmental education among the local people
(Galabawa 1994:292; Schneider, 1993:50). However, another prerequisite for
proper understanding of the environment and its related problems is the
proportion of medium and high level "graduates". The prudence to revisit the
existing programmes is only credible if these programmes in Tanzania's
institutions are focused to address some of the issues on environment.
     Both degree and non-degree programmes have been scrutinised with an
intention of assessing suitability to man and integrate SAPs and environmental


        Human Resource Qovw/opmont, SAP* and me Environment                       31
  policies for the development of the economy. The analysis of the degree
  programmes offered by the three universities, found out that most of the
  programmes are general with no considerable component on environmental
  issues. There are however, few programmes with courses on environment
  issues. These are found in the departments of Civil Engineering, Botany,
 Zoology, Geology, Economics and Geography at the University of Dar es
 Salaam. At Sokoine University of Agriculture, the programmes include courses
 in agriculture, forestry and agriculture engineering. The theoretical orientation
 in these courses, however, deny the graduates some practical elements in that
 they have some problems in addressing day-to-day life environmental problems.
      Another aspect meriting attention on the inadequacy of the current
 programmes is the actual number of students studying in these programmes.
 For example, at the University of Dar es Salaam the number of students taking
 geography courses ranges from 10 to SO per year, and in most cases it is the
 same people who study Botany and or Zoology courses. The number of those
 studying civil engineering is also limited, as is for agriculture and veterinary at
 Sokoine University of Agriculture. Thus, with 1000 graduates per annum from
 the universities, less than 200 graduates with doses on environment is quite
 negligible to bring about any noticeable change on environmental issues.
     Similarly, programmes in non-degree offering institutions are also limited in
 focusing at environmental issues and other related problems. Programmes
related to environment are offered at all Ministry of Agriculture Training
Institutes (MATI) (offering both certificates and Diplomas), Ardhi Institutes -
Tabora, Morogoro and Dar es Salaam (offering certificates, diplomas and
advanced diplomas). There are also postgraduateprogrammes at Ardhi Institute
- Dar es Salaam). Other institutions include Rwegarulila Water Resources
Institute, Institute of Rural Development Planning, Mpwapwa Health Officers
Training College and College of African Wildlife. Again, these programmes
cater for just a small number of students. For example, the Dar es Salaam
Ardhi Institute enrols 25 students per year in all environment related courses.
In other institutions the number in each course does not exceed 50 students per
year. The limited number of graduates in this field, together with the generality
of these programmes make it difficult to have not only a significant change in
environmental issues, but also changing attitudes and peoples' perceptions about
environmental issues.


 32      J.K. Katabaroand A.v.:Y. Mbelle
 2.4 SAPs and Environment Relationship with Programmes
 Accepting the limited capacity 'of training at tertiary levels prompts some
 questions on the validity of some SAPs on training, and funding these t~ning
 programmes. While the thrust is-to reverse the trend of massive expenditure for
 example on education in order to reduce government expenditure, there is a
 possibility of continued decline in the number of graduates at tertiary levels for
 lack of funds to pay' for their. education.           Equally true. the relevance of
education may not be quite clear in the face of the majority if employment is not
guaranteed especially for students from low income backgrounds ..
      Similarly, limited iesou~        allocated to education will for sure lead to
 inadequate training for those enrolled in such programmes. Lack of adequate
 supply of teaching-learning materials. and the lack of practical training in the
 field during their training greatly limit training. For example, the Ministry of
 Education and Culture bas abandoned teaching practice for certificate and
 diploma trainees in training colleges. At the University of Dar es Salaam
practical ,training in the field is offered only to Engineering, Geology and
Education students.          Those in the general degrees with environmental
components have no opportunity to be in the field. Needless to say, they are
denied the opportunity to link the theory and practice for effective learning.
     Galabawa (1994:292) noted that:
             the ultimate success of SAPs and other similar macro-economic measures or
             policy reforms efforts. is very much contingent upon the presence df a
             number of ~rs,      not the least of which is the availability of a productive.
             flexible and responsible stilled labour force ....
This position presupposes training and broad based training in relevant fields.
     In this regard, it would seem that while the adoption of SAPs is generally a
welcome move, environmental issues still pose a challenge to accommodate such
measures if they have to be adequately addressed. A few examples can be cited
to exemplify the situation. Community support in funding the social services is
a pre-maturely introduced measure given the fmanciaI po~ition of the people.
What is likely to happen is that the people might refrain from getting such
services which on the other hand could be harzadous.                   There are already
indicators in the urban places where streets have become dumping places to
dispose of waste.


        Human Resource Development, SAPs and the Environment                       33
     Our discussion on the current training, especially at the tertiary level, has
therefore revealed inadequacies in terms of both numbers and specialties. This
casts doubt on whether given the magnitude of economic and environmental
problems, the capacity is there to manage SAPs. and be able to incorporate in
them environmental issues.
     It should be borne in mind that policy discussions usually take place with
highly competent technocrats from the IMF. the World Bank. and bilateral
donors.      Tanzania needs adequate competence to be able to participate
effectively in the discussions. Otherwise the Tanzanian delegation may be
reduced to mere listeners or be forced to rely on expatriate expertise.
3. Assessment of the Capacity for Managing SAPs and Integrating
     Sustainable Development and Environmental Policies in T9n-ma
3.1 Capacity for Managing         SAPs: Some Comparisons
 It is of paramount importance to look at Tanzania in relation to others in the
region. This comparison will help us to identify the successes and difficult areas
that Tanzania has faced as a common problem. and/or as a unique feature in
adopting SAPs and trying to integrate some social policies for development.
      With almost similar demographic features and other economic aspects as
 some other countries in Africa-South of the Sahara-for         example Kenya and
 Uganda-there     are sharp contrasts in what has been spent on education in
 Tanzania. For example. while Kenya and Uganda allocated 18.1 and 27.0, 11.3
 and 22.5 respectively, for education in their budget in 1980 and 1989, Tanzania
 allocated only 14.3 and 14.0 as percentage of their total government expenditure
 (ESAURP 1994:vii, Galabawa 1994:295).
      Tanzania also lags behind in terms of primary level gross enrolment ratio
 and secondary level gross enrolment ratio (SGER). For example, while SGER
 for Kenya. Uganda, Zambia, Botswana, Ghana and the Sub-Saharan average
 ratios are 23, 5, 16,21,42,      and 17, the ratio for Tanzania is just 3 which is
 only close to Uganda that has 5. In other countries ..the ratios are more than five
 times. The situation of enrolment in tertiary education is appalling. As already
 indicated above, tertiary institution training capacity stands at 18000 students per
 year. This figure is below half the university students population in Kenya, of
 40,000 per annum. The student population in Tanzania has just increased to
 4500 in the academic year 1993/94 after the Open University admissions.


34     J.K. Katabaro and A. V. Y. MbeUe
ESAURP's (1994) comparison of the proportions of college goes out of 100,000
sheds more light on this. For example, Tanzania has 25 out of every 100,000
while Kenya, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Burundi and Rwanda have 121, 333, 396,
65 and 35, respectively. It is interesting to note that even the smallest countries
in terms of both demographic and physical size have higher proportions. More
figures are given in Table 2.
         Table 2: Tertiary Educational Attainment in Low Income
                  Selected Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa
                                  No. of       Students enroled by % of
                                  Students     total population
                                  per
                                  100,000      in           Natural sciences
                                  inhabitants  general      Maths, computers
                                               science      & Engineering
           1.    Benin            179          0.04         0.03
          2.     Burkina Faso    57            0.014        0.005
          3.     Burundi         59            0.102        0.007
          4.     CAR              103          0.01         0.004
          5.     Ethiopia        63            0.025        0.013
          6.     Ghana            125          0.048       0.030
          7.     Kenya            106          0.06        0.022
          8.     Lesotho          158          0.014       0.013
          9.     Madagascar      383           0.17        0.115
          10.    Malawi          59            0.013       0.006
          11.   Mali             81           0.03         0.01
          12.   Mauritania       248          n.a          n.a
          13.   Mozambique       10           0.008        0.004             j
          14.   Niger            48           0.01         0,007


      Human Resource Development, SAPs and the Environment                     35
           15.    Rwanda               33                 0.012   0'<)07
           16.    Sierra Leone         55                 B.a     B.a
           17.    Somalia              72                 0.084   0.038
           18.    Senegal              209                0.08    0.03
           19.    Sudan                173                 0.04   0.017
           20.    Tanzania             26                  0.008  0.004
           21.    Togo                 156                 0.04   0.025
           22.    Uganda               65                  0.021  0'<J07
           23.    Zaire                137                 0.05   0.009
           24.    Zambia               128                 0.026  0.018
                  -siiiiiCe: I>rewaIt, 1'. d.aJ •• l!l' '2:     -
    It is clear from Table 2 that Tanzania lags behind all the low income
countries except Mozambique which has 10 out of 100.000 inhabitants. Other
countries in this income bracket have relative higher figures compared to
Tanzania.      On the tertiary level Tanzania also records relatively low
performance of students in technical fields. compared to others. It ranks
second with Mozambique from the bottom in the general sciences with 0.008,
and again with Mozambique with 0.004 in the natural science, mathematics,
computer and engineering.            The middle income countries in Africa have
recorded higher performance across with an average ranging from 0.02 to 0.09.
Other countries with performance in bracket like S. Korea (3606. 1.46 and
0.76), Hong Kong (1410, 1.06 and 076) Brazil (1140, 0.4 and 0.24) and
Thailand (1998, 0.7), have made big achievement iq educating their people not
only in general sciences but also in the natural scienCes and mathematics related
fields.
    The above observations are not meant to disqualify the achievements
Tanzania has made since independence, but to show how stagnant it has
remained for the three decades, and the absence of comparative advantage to use
education as its tool for development. It has already been indicated that there
is a strong relationship between development and education levels.


 36       J.K. Kat6JMto   Mtd A. V. Y. MIHJIItJ
     On the nature of the programmes that are related to environment, Tanzania
 bas a disadvantage of not having developed environmental focused programmes
 to sensitize its population on this sensitive area. There are limited course
 programmes with limited admissions. A survey by Schneider (1993) has
 indicated greater achievement in terms of the programmes that have been
 developed in Kenya, India, Sudan, Pakistan, and Nepal which have a greater
 focus on environmental issues. In these countries there are established centres
 offering environmental programme to a Iarge number of students.
     For example, Kenya bas a one year full course to offer a wide coverage in
 schools on environmental issues.         Schneider also commends community
 participation in the form of environmental clubs where members not only
 enhance their awareness on the environment but also educate the rest and the
young generation. In Tanzania, community participation in environmental issues
 is stiIllacking direction. Going by the practice, it is convincing to assume that
the majority are anti-environment. Some projects on environment have not
proved much success compared to what is reported elsewhere in the region.
Impending problems in Tanzania include mismatch between the planners and
decision makers on environmental issues and the general public (Kilrula
 1994:354). Also Kikula (ibid) identifies a problem of poor coordination even
among the already existing structures such as units at ministerial levels.
     The recent establishment of the National Environmental Management Council
might help to clear some of these issues. However proper strategies might be
necessary as the structures are not firm enough to grant assurance of its
operations. For example, the council is centered with minimal representation
at lower levels. There are also liquidity problems not only to do research and
out-reach programmes, but also to handle some administrative issues at the
headquarters.
4. CondudiogRemarks
4.1 MtuMging SAPs and IIJCDIpOratiRgSustainable JJevelopment and
     Environmental Policies: a Hunuzn Resources /Jepelopment Issue
Any programme that has to be implemented in a country has three main
components: design, implementation, and evaluation or assessment. It is a
prerequisite that there must be institutions able to carry out the three functions -
separately. The institutional requirements have to include:


       Human Resource Development, SAPs and the Environment                     37
4.1.1 Training Institutions
These are the basic institutions which a country must have or has access to in
other countries. They basically deal with the preparation of future technocrats
in this case in the areas of economic management (to design, implement and
monitor SAPs) and in environmental expertise (formulate policies based on
environmental impact assessment). Tertiary training institutions play a greater
role in this.
    Training institutions are the core in each country as they provide expertise
in many complementary fields (law, engineering, natural sciences etc.) which
may be of assistance in order for SAPs and environmental policy instruments to
work. Improvements in human education play a critical role in achieving
economic development and protecting the environment. (World Resources
Institute, (1992: 31.)
4.1.2 Policy-making Institutions
Policy making is a delicate exercise in the absence of information. In order for
policy makers to be able to incorporate environmental concerns into economic
decision making the information system should be near perfect. The rules and
regulations have to be known. Policy institutions must be manned with staff
able to understand, formulate, implement and monitor programmes. The staff
must be well equipped with knowledge that enables them to choose the correct
policy instruments (type and magnitude). Thus in SAPs this involves complex
models while in environmental issues this demands, in addition to models an
interdisciplinary approach.
    Policy institutions in Tanzania include the Planning Commission, the Sectoral
Ministries, the Bank of Tanzania etc. What is most required of these institutions
is the ability to actively participate in any negotiations with the Betton Woods
institutions and bilateral donors.
4.1.3 Legal Institutions
These are important in helping design and interpret the rules and regulations that
surround the implementation of SAPs and environmental policies. In addition,
or perhaps most important they help in guarding the rules and regulations set
(e.g. command and control rules protecting the environment).


  38     J.K. Katabaro and A. V. V. Mbette
  4.1.4 Human Resource Development as a Key to the Success of the Institutions
        Managing SAPs
  It goes without saying that for the institutions described in (a) above to function,
  optimally knowledgeable staff is a prerequisite—able to master (not just
  understand) issues of SAPs, sustainable development, and environmental
  concerns.
      This calls for adequate investment in education, especially tertiary education
  and a staff structure that is more dynamic, flexible and trainable. The discipline
  of economics is changing very fast.
  4.2 What Next for Tanzania?
  From the literature that is available it would seem that Tanzania has already
 done much to the extent that its duty now is to consolidate these achievements.
  True, this is what SAPs would strive to safeguard. However, genuine answers
 to many questions might suggest the opposite: that Tanzania needs to rethink her
 strategies. There are common terms such as training, enhancing public
 awareness, coordination of environmental issues, to mention only a few. The
 practice and the way environmental problems are, Tanzania will need to do a
 number of things including reviewing environmental policies, school curricula,
 methods and approaches of intervention programmes, content and methods of
 in-service and out of school education, and the whole question of priority.
      On environmental concerns it might be prudent to review policies so that
 they are practical and congruent with the local conditions such that they do not
conflict with the interest of the people. A gradual transformation and
sensitization is needed. In other words, policies should be friendly and sensible
to the people. They may delay the national goals for some time but will
certainly ensure success with time. Schneider (1993:50) summarises it by
saying:
             ... it is virtually impossible to successfully protect any area
             without the support of the local people. Environmental education
             should therefore be aimed at building support for conservation of
             these areas.
     On the school curricula, efforts should be made to incorporate environmental
issues into the school curricula at all levels and ensure there are proper teacher


       Human RltSourr.S! lhwe/opment, SAPs MJd tIHI EnvironmtJIIt                  39
training programmes to handle the new curriculum. An levels of education-be
it formal. non-fonnal and informal -should specifically address the
environmental problems. In-service trawing may be necessary, and should be
encouraged for those who have left school.
    Furthennore, the COlllenl, methods and approaches of intervention
programmes should be in line wllh the cultural values, with a goal to
transfonning the community gradually.            To be able 10 underscore these
strategies, the government should make it clear as to where the question of
environment is in its priorities. Ad hoc campaigns have failed to work despite
massive expenditures that have gone into cnvlronmenw! concerns, and NGOs.
4.3 Policy Implications
The role played by education in any economy is great. Countries like Japan
which invested in human resources development are now reaping the fruits of
their investment. Education by its very nature is a long term investment. Short
term perceptions should therefore not be used to gauge the costs and benefits of
education. The world is changing very fast. A country catches up with a
knowledgeable population and hOw its technocrats are close to the frontiers of
knowledge in the relevant fields.
    The skills required to manage SAPs and integrate sustainable development
and environmental policies in Tanzania are inadequate. Even the country's
Environmental Action Plan does not suggest radical steps towards achieving this.
    In view of the above then we recommend that:
    (a)     the government should rethink its role in the education process and
            revisit its priorities. Education is a long term investment and it is the
            government that should have the long term vision of not
            compromising on human capital development even in the craof
            SAPs. Many countries <!fC implementing SAPs with appreciable
            investments in education.
    (b)     there is need to revisit the school curricular and programmes at all
            levels to be able to incorporate environmental issues, SAPs and
            sustainable development issues.
    (c)     A multi-disciplinary approach to environmental issues be adopted by
            all interested panies especially researchers.


40      J.K. Katabaro and A.V.Y. Mbelle
It is through actions like these that Tanzania can build, enhance and sustain the
capacity (human and institutional) of being able to manage SAPs and integrate
aspects of environmental policy and sustainable development.
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