UTAFITI (New Serif?s) Vol. 3 No.1,          1996: 111-128
                      Effects of Drug Abuse on Cognitive
         and Social Behaviours: A Potential Problem Among
                                   Youth In Tanzania
                                            M.K. Poss;'
         Abstract
         This article provides definilions of drud and drug abuse. II also provides
         sources of drugs in global and local conleXls. II further discusses the eXlem
         of drug trafficking in Tanzania. Theoretical issues underlying drug abuse
         are discussed in detail. The paper indicates thaI the youth gels involved in
         drugs due to peer pressure, curiosity, wanting to be different, rioting from
         the system and also due to escape behaviour, i.e., running away from
         problems. Characteristics of drug abusers are provided. Most drug abusers
         are said to have glue with them, possess large paper bags, handkerchiefs,
         and hypodermic syringes. The effects In terms of problems and/or dangers
         of drug abuse are highlighted as brain damage, behavioural disorders,
         inability 10 reason, low academic performance, etc. To conclude, the paper
         offers a summary and oullines recommendations         for action against drug
         abuse. It also recommends that attempts be made through the Ministry of
         Education and Culture, and the Ministry of Labour and Youth to see 10 it
         that ways and means of alleviating the drug abuse problems are soughl ouI.
         Parents and the community        at large should be involved in anti-drug
         programmes.
Introduction: Drug Use and Abuse
Drug use has a long history. The Chinese knew about cannabis sativa in 2700
B. C. (Kariuki, 1989). Drug use is becoming a major issue all over the world,
following the introduction of heroin and related substances. Almost every day
one can hardly miss news or information on drug abuse, drug trafficking, or
people caught in some kind of drug business, both at national and international
levels (Malima, 1995; Daily News, 1995; Muncie Evening Press 1990 & Phi
Delta Kappa,I990) .
• Faculty of Education, University of Oar es Salaam


112      M.K. Pass;
     A drug is defmed as a substance (and often an illegal substance) that causes
addiction, habituation on a marked range in consciousness (Merriam-Webster
Collegiate Dictionary, 1993). The defmition includes drugs such as heroin,
cocaine, baxuco (a cocaine product), opium, cannabis and psycho-tropic
substances as described in Mbatia (1994). Drugs can further be defined as
simply chemicals that can change something in the body's chemistry or internal
makeup. We use drugs in foods like vitamins. But these are both necessary and
beneficial. We use drugs as prescribed by doctors. Drugs are harmful or even
fatal if they are used for purposes not intended, or in the wrong way (Van,
Cleave, Byrd, & Revell, 1987).
     Many people use the terms 'drug use' 'substance abuse' and 'drug abuse'
interchangeably.      However,    the term 'drug'     is mainly used to refer to
'medicine', while substance abuse may include chemicals other than drugs, i.e.,
gasoline, cleaning fluids, glue, and other chemicals (Hendrikz, 1986).
     There is a common misconception that drug abuse has to do primarily with
illegal drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, and heroin; or with illicit use of
prescriptions and medication. There are many types of drugs that may be
abused. For example, chloroquine and aspirin are drugs which are commonly
abused and they may be fatal. Chloroquine is at times used by girls for abortion.
Some people are said to combine aspirin and alcohol for a stronger drink. Also
youths abuse substances such as gasoline, cleaning fluids, glue and other
chemicals. Therefore not all abused chemicals are drugs.
     Drug abuse is defined as the use of a mood-altering drug to change the way
one feels. Drugs may be abused by inhaling, sniffing, swallowing, or injecting
into oneself. The drug may be legal or illegal, all the same it may be used for
legitimate or medical reasons (Van, Cleve, Byrd, & Revell, 1978).
     A drug or substance is considered abused if it is deliberately used to induce
physiological or psychological effects (or both), and for a purpose other than for
therapeutic purposes. The drug used should contribute to health risks, disruption
of psychological        functioning,   adverse   social  consequences,  or some
combinations of these (Kauffaman, 1989).
     In this article, a drug is defined as any chemical which, when inhaled or
taken in the body through injection or by mouth, may adversely affect ones
ability to think and make valid judgemems, and adversely affect one's scx:ial
behaviour. It is also defined as any substance other than food that is pllrposely
introduced into the body to alter normal functions. Such substances include
cocaine in all its forms, opium in all its forms, bhang and marijuana.


                  Effects of Drug Abuse                               on Cognitive              and Social Behaviors      113
Drug abuse and trafficking in Tanzania
Drug abuse has become a national concern in Tanzania. Newspaper reports
indicate drug abuse among youths. It is feared that in some primary and
secondary schools in the country, up to 5 % of the youth are said to have used
bhang (Kilonzo and Maselle, 1986). Also, problems like the use of hard drugs
such as cocaine and heroin are increasingly surfacing among youths. There are
several cases associated with drug trafficking which may imply drug abuse.
Table 1 presents some cases associated with drugs as published in Daily News
and Uhuru newspapers from 1998 -1995.
                   Table 1: Some reported drug related cases in Tanzania
            'r'''~-''.~'''''''''~ "r-,.."",\~~-""t""'"   ""'<!-"'" - "" - -,,~- .... -~". _-"T'   ' . .,- •• - .-.",-., ~
            ~ 111Qir~l/'t'~!I"                    Sll.:'P('(t'.~ StaJlI.~                         Type uf {)rll.g . ~
                10/1986                           NA(abandoned)                                   Mandrax
                 9/1992                           Street Vendors                                  Heroin
                 4/1993                           Business man                                    Cocaine
                 4/1993                           Youths                                          Cocaine
                 4/1993                          "Peddlers                                        Heroin
                 4/1993                           Youths                                          Heroin
                 2/1994                           Business man (Kenyan)                           Mandrax
                 4/1994                           Youths                                          Cocaine
                 4/1994                           Abandoned                                       Mandrax
                 1/1995                           Seaman (34 years)                               Cocaine
                 1/1995                           Youth                                           Cocaine
                   Source: Local newspapers as cited in Msambichaka,
                                Mjerna & Ndanshau (1994) and author's collection from
                                Local Newspapers in 1995
    From Table 1 it can be observed that, out of the 11 drug trafficking cases
five involved Tanzanian youths, one a Kenyan, while one involved an
unidentified person who abandoned the drugs. Consequently, it can be concluded
from the table that most people involved in the drug trafficking business from
 1985-1995 were youths. It can also be contended that the majority of people who
participated in drug business, trafficking and abuse were males.
    The drug trafficking situation in Tanzania is also causing concern. Drug
trafficking is reported to be on the rise, with 482 Tanzanians being held in 27
countries in connection with illicit drugs. A survey by the Anti-drug Unit in the
Ministry of Home Affairs in Tanzania shows that those held were found to have


 114    M.K. Possi
in their possession mandrax, cannabis, cocaine, heroin, and various other drugs
nonnally considered illicit (Dismas, 1995). Mbatia (1994) also reports that a
total of 35 Tanzania nationals were arrested during 1986 for trafficking in heroin
and cocaine, in contrast to 4 in 1981. He further reports that from 1981-1991 a
total of 10,000 persons were' arrested in matters connected with drug abuse and
trafficking in Tanzania, of whom the mlY0rity were youths between 15 and 30
years old.
    The number of Tanzanians arrested abroad is steadily increasing. It has
increased from 85 people in 1989 to 482 in 1995. Italy is believed to have
arrested the biggest number of Tanzanians involved in the drug business (139),
followed by Pakistan (98), and Greece (64). It has also been documented that
between 1986 and 1994 there were 25,459 people in Tanzania arrested in
connection with possessing 265 tons of cannabis (Dismas, 1995).
    Drug trafficking in Tanzania has been reported to be at the pick during
1994/1995 (Daily News 7/2/1995, 6/2/1995; Uhuru February 7, 1995; Mbatia,
1994; Chachage, 1994; Msambichaka, Mjema & Ndanshau, 1994). This
situation may have adverse effects on non-schooling youths and students.
Schools are likely to witness increasing numbers of dropouts, failures, behaviour
disorders, and mental illnesses among students.
    The Tanzanian situation is not unique. Other countries have been facing
similar problems. Santrock (1984) has showed that in 1984 the US was facing
drug problems, and indicated that overall, more males than females were
involved in the drug business. Youths involved in the drug business are mainly
those vulnerable to persuasive dealers who, on wanting to get rich fast, would
connnission the youth to sell the drugs for them. In Tanzania, the slang name
used for drug dealers is 'wazungu wa unga'. Such people usually bait youths .or
youngsters into drug abuse.
Sources and Availability of Drugs in Global Context
Available information about people caught in drug trafficking and drug use has
led to a general consensus that the main sources of drugs are: The Middle East,
Central, South-East and South-West Asia, and Latin America. In the Middle
East region, countries like Turkey and Afghanistan are famous for producing
hashish, a resinous material used as hallucinogen. In Lebanon, illicit opium
poppy cultivation and heroin production continues (Mbatia, 1994).
    Opium grows in temperate subtropical climate like that of South-East Asia.
Mbatia (1994) points out that opium, which can be converted into morphine,
codeine, and heroin, is mainly grown in South-East and South-West Asia


                Effects of Drug Abuse on Cognitive and Social Behaviors       115
(Golden Triangle and Golden Crescent) .. Such countries have metaphorical
names, i.e., 'sha!nba' in Kiswahili, meaning 'farm'. Other 'shambas' or
countries which have been associated with some Tanzanian youths dealing with
drugs are India, and Pakistan. The triangle, located at the junction of the
boarders of Myanmar, Thailand and Lao People's Democratic Republic, is the
worlds foremost sources of opium and heroin. These countries appear to be
popular and 'resourceful' in drug trafficking also. Countries like Burma and
Thailand are also producing raw opium and marijuana (Mbatia, 1994). Central
Asia produces marijuana which is currently grown in most parts of the world.
     In the Latin American region, natives in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru are
known to grow 'coca' (cocaine comes from coca), and use its leaves the same
way other people use tea leaves. The natives of these countries believe that coca
leaves are energy-giving (Msambichaka, Mjema, and Ndanshau, 1994). The
literature has also shown that, in general, Peruvians and Bolivians chew the
plants to increase their stamina.
Sources and Availability or Drugs in TaDmnia.
Although the magnitude of the drug problem in Tanzania has not yet been well
estimated by a comprehensive scientific study, it is clear that there is a
significant number of Tanzanian youths who use drugs, and are being used as
couriers in the international drug traffic (Mbatia, 1994). There is a puzzle,
however, over the availability of drugs in Tanzania. The majority of Tanzanians
do not know the origin of drugs or their accessibility. The drug business is so
secretive that when one is not in the 'loop' of the business, s/he may not know
that it exists, and that there are drug-related problems.
     However, it is evident from the media in Tanzania that Dar es Salaam,
Zanzibar, and Tanga have had more cases of drug trafficking than others,
possibly because of their access to sea transportation. This issue of drug
trafficking in the regions needs further research. Youths from Tanzania-and
even allover the world-have stowed away, most of them with fake passports in
attempts to ferry drugs to countries other than those of their origin. Some youths
end up either coming back to their home countries with money, and some
valuable items; and unfortunately some are at times killed in the process.
Drugs Commonly Heard in Tanzania
 According to Msambichaka, Mjema, and Ndanshau (1994), drugs commonly
heard in Tanzania are hashish, raw opium, bhang, marijuana, mandrax, and
heroin. These drugs are given slang terms such as 'ice' for crack-cocaine (The


  116    M.K. Pass;
 Economists, 1993); 'unga' (a Kiswahili word denoting flour) for h:roin,
  'msokoto' 'ganji', 'sigara kubwa', and 'mneli' for the ones smoked like CIgars.
 Other drugs used include aerosol or gaseous fumes other than smoke which
 make people 'escape' from realities. Table 2 includes a brief definition of some
 of the drugs commonly used, their slang names, and affect.
 Cocaine
 This drug is grown in Bolivia and Peru. Today cocaine is taken in the form of
 either crystal or powder (crack). Cocaine can be smoked, sniffed, or injected
 into the body. Cannabis (in herbal form) and other psycho-tropic substances
 originate from many sources allover the world. The media in Tanzania has
 showed frequent interceptions of the drug on its way to other countries. The
 drug is said to be brought in the country from other places (see Msambichaka,
 Mjema and Mbatia, 1994:41).
Bhang
 This drug is grown in some places in Tanzania, such as Mbeya, and Irlnga,
where it is believed to be' consumed as a vegetable or relish during meals. In
Shinyanga and Tabora regions, bhang is grown and used as a stimulant to enable
a person work longer hours in the farm.
The Transportation of Drugs and Financing the Trade
A recent study revealed that traffickers have established two networks or
corridors both of which originate from the major suppliers of the narcotic drugs
Le., Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, moving southwards through the Middle
East-notably through Syria, Lebanon, Djibouti-and          then to East Africa,
including Tanzania, and lastly to South Africa, the final destination (Mbatia,
1994).
     MsanIbichaka, et. aI., (19994) reports that in 1988 Tanzania had the largest
amount of drugs ever reported to have been seized at the Oar es Salaam
Int~mational Airport. The drugs were imported from Pakistan, and were on
theIr way to an unknown destination.
    Drug producers, as well as drug buyers, devote an enormous amount of
money ~d en~rgy to cover operations of the drug business. They have to have
co~ectiOns WIth people who have [mandaI power. Most fmanciers are said to
be nch people by the mere fact that in order to be involved in the drug business
one has to have enough money set aside for corruption.


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  118     M.K. Pass;
      The youths are mostly drug pushers and traffickers who get money from the
  drug dealers. Mbatia (1994) show.s that drug dealers and their organisations can
 counter law enforcement efforts with corruption and violence, using money for
 bribing and killing anyone who threatens their efforts.
 Theories and Reasons Behind Drug Abuse
 Drugs can act as hallucinogen (Msambichaka, et .. al., 1994). Youths want to
 become 'high', or be in a state of euphoria and feel "cool". The users attribute
 the use of drugs to forgetting their social-economic problems, and other social
distress. This justification may be dangerous due to the fact that with the current
economic and social problems, more youths may abuse drugs which may lead to
creating a 'drug culture', and the problems associated with drugs.
     Drugs are said to increase performance and endurance as in cases of athletes.
Several athletes have been caught and found guilty of using drugs to facilitate
their performance. One such incidence was that of Diego Maradona, a soccer
player from Argentina who used drug in soccer, and was banned from the 1994
world soccer cup games.
     Gilmer (1973) provides three theories of drug abuse as: chane;ine; social
systems, interactional behaviours, and personality variations.
     1. Changing social systems theory: At social level, drug abuse is a response
        to pressures generated by social change. For example, one sociological
        theory holds that drug addiction among lower-class youth is a result of
        failure to get ahead in current social climate, 'withdrawal from the
        system through drugs', or turning to drugs to show opposition to the life-
        styles of the 'established' generation.
    2. Interactional theory: The theory holds that opportunities for a person to
        use drugs <!I'egenerated by hisJher association with users. Thus a person
        frods support and varying reinforcers from his peers, and becomes a
        member in the group. Interactional theories include conforming to peer
        group e~pectations where drug usage is part of the expected behaviour,
        along WIthcertain tasks in music, clothes, and leisure activities.
    3. Theory of personality: The theories focus on psychological needs, for
       exampl.:, escape behaviour. Gilmer (1973) argues that one popular view
       of marlJ~       is that it is a relatively safe way to escape from reality. A
       related VIew holds that people with severe insecurity have underlying


               Effects of Drug Abuse    on  Cognitive and   Social Behaviors    119
        emotional problems and neurotic conflicts that predispose them to turn
        into drugs.
    It has been theorised that individuals may use heroin or other opiates to
relieve anxiety, to drop out of society, or to fulfIl self-destructive wishes. Thus
personality theory is opposed to interactional theory.
    Despite these theories, it is hard to pinpoint one theory as the causative agent
for drug abuse or drug trafficking in Tanzania. However, the following is a
swmnary of reasons why youths take drugs.
     1. Insufficient influence of the family over the individual's actions and lack
        of parental guidance. The situation may arise due to family disruptions
        and disfunctioning, leading to separation or divorce. Further, working
        parents do not have time to take care of their children, while poor social-
        economic conditions my lead to drug trafficking and use as a source of
        income and escape.
    2. Personal factors like low success at school and poor interpersonal
        relationship between individuals may be the cause in some cases of drug
        abuse. When students cannot perform well in school, they may resort to
        drugs as an escape. Skinner (1965) agrees with this by arguing that drug
        use and addiction is a form of escape behaviour. He labels it as escape
        behaviour because certain drugs provide temporary escape from
        conditioned or unconditioned aversive stimulation, as well as from
        accompanying emotional responses. People take drugs to get temporary
        relief from social-economic problems, or what they would call painful
        thoughts.
     3. Easy availability of legal and illegal drugs. With negligence and lack of
        law enforcement on what drugs should be over the counter, as well as on
        what constitutes the legal age limit of purchasing drugs, this may lead to
        easy access to some drugs by minors.
     4. Attitudes towards the use and effects of drugs and the presence of models
        and social reinforcers, particularly peers and friends. Some youths think
        it is •cool, to take drugs, especially when they see their peers 'getting
        high'.
     5  Gilmer    (1973)  shews   that there  are people   \vho employ    Jnlg"  k.r
        situational purposes like trying to keep awake during examinations, when


120                                   M.K. Poss;
                                       on a long journey, or doing some work that requires one to be awake at
                                       night. Night shifts may cause someone to use drugs. In Tanzania, some
                                       drivers chew 'mirungi' (leaves from some types of trees growing in
                                       some areas of Kilimanjaro region) so that they can drive long distances at
                                       night without falling asleep on the way.
                  6. There are spree uses of drugs like the ones by high schools students or
                                        college students looking for excitements.
Effects of Drugs on Society in General
What are the effects of drugs on cognitive and social behaviour, the common
symptoms of drugs, possible behaviours of drug abusers, and their physical
emotional consequences? Table 3 provides the information.
              Table 3: Common Behaviours and Symptoms of drug/substance                                                                                                                                                                                                              Abuse
                                                                                                              ..•..................                                                                                                                                    ,"          '                         -
•..•.•.•.
     ~.•.•.:.•..•.•.                 :.•.~.i.:..•.i.;..•.•:II.....:•..
                ~.•.•.:.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•..•.••.                       :.1I:_F:\I.:~:::
                                                                       :.:.;.;:::::::...::;.;.;.;::::.::;:::;::.;.;.;....;.... ':':"':-:'::: ::::~:~t:::~:;:;::.:::::::;:;:1::;::;:;::::;~;;~~~~~~. ::~~;rtt??~  i•.•. e..•.••.•.•..•
                                                                                                                                                                                                        •..',',',•...•.••.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  I.r.: .••..•..•.••..•.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  ~...••...••.•....
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               ~.•.•.•.•.•...••.•.•...•....••.•. ;.~
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 .•.  i.:....••.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 ~.:.:~
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  ...•.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  :.:
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   .•..•.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   .:.~.:
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   ; ..
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     :•
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      •.•.::•...•.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              ...••.•..•.•.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               :!.•.I.•.!.••.••.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  !: ).I.!.!,- .. !.:.•
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Lung, brain, and liver
       Glue                                                              Violence, appearance                                                    Tubes of glue,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     damage, death through
       (sniffing)                                                        of drunkenness,                                                         glue smears, large
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      suffocation or choking,
                                                                        dreamy or blank                                                          paper bags or
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      and anaemia
                                                                         expression                                                              handkerchiefs
       Heroin                                                            Stupor, drowsiness,                                                     Needle or hypodermic                                                 Death from overdose,
                                                                         needle marks on                                                         syringe, cotton                                                      mental deterioration,
                                                                         body, watering eyes,                                                    tourniquet string rope,                                             destruction of brain and
                                                                         loss of appetite,                                                       belt, burnt bottle caps                                              lever, hepatitis
                                                                         blood stains on shirt                                                   or spoons, and glassine                                              embolism
                                                                         sleeves, and running                                                    envelopes
                                                                         nose
        Marijuana                                                        Sleepiness,                                                             Strong odour, or of                                                   Inducement to take
                                                                         wondering mind,                                                         burnt leaves, small                                                   stronger narcotics
                                                                         enlarged eye pupils,                                                     seeds in pocket linings
                                                                         lack of co-ordination,                                                   cigarette paper,
                                                                         craving for sweetS,                                                      discoloured fingers.
                                                                         increased appetite
                                                        Source:                          Extracted from 00001 & Shane (1982:350)


                  Effects of DruB Abuse on Co",itive and Socia/ BehaWon         121
      At the local level, any community with drug abusers faces problems of
insecurity as drug abusers are prone to crimes. Because drugs alter feelings, the
abusers may be involved in fighting. Further, they may steal so as to get money
for purchasing drugs. Also, except for the few drug dealers, a community with
drug ab~rs        will always be in low social economic status because the youth,
who form the majority of drug traffickers and abusers, Will not be able to do any
constructive work. As a result there will be low production, poor education and
poor social services.
      Another disadvantage is that a community with many drug abusers may end
up with people under health risks such as mental il1ness and HIV risks. There
may also be a lot of accidents such as motor accidents or even home accidents
such as houses catching fire, etc.
      Just as at the local Community level, a nation with a lot of drug abusers will
be all the poor for it. For example, it is estimated that world-wide a total of $ 1
trillion in profit of drug trafficking is laundered in various banks all over the
world. Politically, drug trafficking and abuse could have negative effects to the
country. Countries involved in drugs are blacklisted by other nations which may
have negative implication to trade relations (Msambichaka, et. aI., 1994).
Effects    'of drugs on   individuals
All drugs affect the brain. That is why they are called psychoactive drugs since
they alter feelings (mood altering), and work primarily in the areas of brain
 called the limbic system, the part where the person's feelings are altered.
      It is estimated that there are 30 million drug addicts world-wide, with heavy
 concentration among the youths, and that drug addiction has spread through the
 populations, especially the youth (Mbatia, 1994). The exact number in Tanzania
 is yet to be known.
      The addicts are affected in different ways depending on the type of drug.
 Marijuana causes relaxation, ~nsified         perception of stimuli, increased self-
 confidence, a sense of erihanced awareness and creativity, impaired mocor c0-
 ordination, reduced short-term memory, and distorted judgements (Osdol &
 Shane, 1982). From its effects, it is apparent that students or youths using
 marijuana may have their brain impaired, lack creative minds, and the ability to
 think properly. In an experiment involving two groups, where one group was
 provided; with a placebo and the other marijuana, it was found out that the group
 which smoked marijuana could not recall words from a list of words they were
 given for recall (Santrock, 1984). Such students may not be able to remember


   122     M.K. Pass;
  things taught in class such as mathematical facts, diffe~     theories, or any other
  things requiring decoding in the sc)wol or classroom setting.
      Further, given that the use of marijuana results into distorted judgements
  (Santrock 1984), youths uSing marijuana may not be able to think objectively
 'and criti~y.    This can have adverse effects on the school population. Critical
  and objective thinking are tools for scientific experiments. Santrock (1984)
  argues that when marijuana is used daily in heavy .amounts, it may impair the
  reproductive systems.
      Cocaine is a stimulant which provides increased feelings of stamina, enbance
  mental capabilities, excitability, and occasional hallucinations. One of its side-
  effects is depression. For sure, a depressed student may Dl;:ver be actively
 responding in class, consequently his/her performance in the classroom may be
 low, and in the final analysis the student may not be able to perform well
 academically. Crack cocaine addicts have overt aggression and extreme
 withdrawal characteristics. Such behaviours may also increase drop-outs from
 school, or poor academic performances.
      Cocaine intoxication occurs within one hour of using it, and includes at least
 two of the following symptoms: euphoria, grandiosity, excessive wordiness,
 excessive vigilance, and psychomotor agitation. It also induces at least two of
 the following physiological conditions: dilated pupils, elevated blood pressure,
 nausea and vomiting, chills or respiration, and also symptoms pf antisocial
 behaviour (Barry, 1990).
      Anderson and Atta (1990) estimated that by the end of the century the first
 generation of crack cocaine babies will be teenagers. It is warned that the worst
 side-effect would surface for the children born now to women who smoke
 crack. These children born by crack mothers will need a lot of money for health
 and education costs. The children will have behaviour. problems caused by
 addiction, neglect, and despair. Crack babies are often born prematurely, and
need costly medical care to survive. The majority of the children do not survive,
and those who survive will have severe learning problems, calling for special
education techniques.
     Crack cocaine children are said to have birth defects such as deformed
hearts, lungs, digestive systems, or limbs due to cocaine exposure in the uterus.
Most of the children are underweight, tremulous, with neurological damage and
problems in coping with normal life. The children have eXtremely dislike
behaviours such as scattering things, hyperactivity. hypersensitivity, withdrawal
?r.. in~olvement, unable ~o engage in free play, lack of self organisation,
lUltmtlve, or follow-up Without adul.t guidance. Further, the children have low


                  Effects of Drug Abuse on Cognitive and Social Behaviors       123
tolerance of frustrations, and difficulty'in structuring information because they
are easily overwhelmed by incoming information (Possi, 1990; 1993).
      It is often argued that there is an overlap of crack and AIDS cases. Some
crack users engage in high-risk behaviours, and therefore contract AIDS and
give birth to babies addicted.to crack and infected with AIDS. 'Ice', which is
more expensive than crack, is known to cause rapid and extensive foetal
damage. The most severely damaged children by drugs are likely to be in need
of special education. That means schools will have to prepare for drug affected
children who will also have special education needs.
      Cocaine-exposed children show extreme disturbed behaviour. Babies born
with crack-cocaine avoid eye contact. Guildford (1979) argue that crack cocaine
babies will be emotionally flat, a type of behaviour that will jeopardise the
child's later ability to learn and adapt to a classroom situation. Such children
will end up having behavioural disorders which will require a lot of attention.
      The effects of heroin are equally severe. Heroin is a derivative of opium, a
dangerous drug which may be toxic if taken in large quantities, even after one
month of use. It is said to have a long time effect. Toxicity from heroin may
harm the brain, and impair academic thinking and functioning.
      Consequences such as lunglbrainland lever damage may be some of the
results of drug abuse. Death through suffocation, overdose, and drug addiction
 are also some of the outcomes. Other consequences                  include mental
 deterioration, destrUction of the brain, hepatitis, and embolisms.
      Drugs can I;ause temporary insanity since one may become drug-addicted or
 highly dependent. The user may almost be reduced to an imbecile or zombie
 when sJhe does not continue with the drugs. Such states may lead to brain
 dysfunction which may call for special education services. A person can become.
 physiologically addicted to drugs, meaning that sJhe must continue taking drugs
 to avoid painful withdrawal symptoms. Further, drug abuse can lead to drug
 addition, which is a compulsive desire to continually use drugs either to
 experience its effects (get high), or avoid painful realities despite adverse
 medical, fmancial, and legal consequences. To that extent, a person's body must
 have drugs in order to function.
       It is therefore evident that drug abuse may affect one's learning as well as
 cognition and personality. Such effect add greatly to the burdens of managing
  learners and learning (Smith, 1978). There are also unusual memory gaps,
 uncharacteristic clumsiness, inability to reason, and inclination to be quarrel
  some and aggressive.


 124     M.K. Possi
     Having discussed the effects of drugs on academic and social behaviour.
 several ~tions     crop up. For example, how would a parent or a teacher
 discover that a child/student is engaging in drug abuse? What things or
 behaviours should one be looking for in drug abusers? Where would one look
 for drug abusers in case of some suspects? It is very important for the public to
 know some of the characteristics/mannerisms and behaviours of drug abusers.
Hints for TeachersJParents      on Symptoms of StudentslChUdren        Abusing or
     Dealing with Drugs
 Teachers and parents should be aware and watch for some evidence of drug
 abuse among drug suspected students/children (see Table 3 for material evidence
 of drug abusers). Normally children/students abusing drugs will possess tubes of
glue, have glue smears, and large paper bags or handkerchiefs to hide such
drugs. The items may be signs of glue sniffing. As for heroin, needles or
hypodermic syringes, cotton wool, string, rope, belt, burnt bottle, caps or
spoons and glassine envelopes are indicators of heroin use. Marijuana users will
always have a strong odmtr of burnt leaves, small seeds in pocket linings and
cigarette paper. Further, they may have discoloured fingers.
sUmmary and Recommendations
There is no sufficient data on the prevalence of drug abusers in Tanzania. It will
consequently be difficult to have early detection of children aff~ted by their
parent's drug ab~. Further, since the problem is not yet understood by many
Tll"vmhmll, it is hard to convince the society that there is need for special
schools and trained teachers to cater for students with learning problems
growing out of drug ab~.
    The following are some recommendations against drug abuse in Tanzania.
    1. The government and lawyers should see to it that laws against drug
        dealing and abuse are clearly formulated, stipulated, and adhered to.
    2. Arrangements should be made by the government so that preventive
        measures against drugs are taken. It should be remembered that it is
        cheaper to prevent than cure a disease. A disease may have detrimental
        eff~ts even after curative measures have been taken. Consequently, the
       polIce and other concerned parties should be empowered and provided


             Effects of Drug Abuse on Cognitive and Social Behaviors       125
    with equipment to detect and arrest drug abusers, and those concerned
    with the drug business.
3. The Ministry of Agriculture and other concerned lxxties should join
    efforts in attempts to detect those areas and people who grow illegal
    drugs. Agricultural and extension officers may 'be used to facilitate the
     enforcement and implementation of the law.
4. Efforts be made so that our youths have recreational areas with a variety
     of recreation activities like games and sports that may fully occupy them
     during weekends and evenings. One good example is that of the USA
     where some Black neighbourhoods have prepared and utilise play
     grounds for basketball at night. Such steps might be too demanding for a
     developing country like Tanzania. However, some arrangements may be
     made with church organisations, the Ministry of Labour and Youth,
     together with Ministry of Education and Culture which may arrange for
     social, religious, sports, and other activities that may productively
     occupy our youths.
5. Publicising the case against drug abuse is important. The radio, TV, and
     local newspapers should be used to warn the society against drug abuse.
6. Co-operation among nations should be made so that there are flfm plans
     against drug traffickers and abusers.
7. Teacher training colleges or any other bodies involved with teacher
     preparation should make sure that teachers are adequately prepared to
     handle the academic and social problems of drug-abused youths.
8. Surveys be carried out to fInd out sources of drugs in different countries
     and the solutions to the problems.
9. The Ministry of Education and Culture should make arrangements for
     sensitising students on the adverse effects of drug abuse. Also teachers
     should be provided. with skills on how to handle students with
     behavioural problems, since most children born of drug abusing parents
      may have behavioural problems.
 10. The anli-drug squad which slarted in Tanzania in 1990 should reveal the
      suspects and make sure they are severely punished.


 126     M.K. Possi
     11. Parents must be educated and advised to be good role models        for their
          children by not taking drugs, and also warning their children against drug
          abuse. Parent workshops, meetings or open days may be used to educate
         parents and children on the dangers of drug abuse.
     12. It is necessary for parents to provide proper support for children affected
         by drug abuse.
     13. Parents and teachers should see        to it that the students get early
         intervention, testing and treatment or therapy on drug abuse and related
         behaviours. This may be effected through liaison with medical and social
         welfare personnel.
     14. Behavioural programs should be planned        and be carried out to help
         affected youth to cease dealing with drugs.
     15. Teachers should see to it that the affected children are educated in a
         structured environment with low adult/child ratio and strong emotional
         support. Further, there should be conscious efforts by teacher to form
         emotionally satisfying attachments. The affected youths should be
         provided with intensive education environment and medical care, as well
         as counselling.
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