tn'ARTI(NewSerles)           VoJ.3No.2,1996:131-154
                         Tanzanian School Women Talking:
           Are the Traditional Patterns of Thinking Changing?
                                          G.A. Malekela*
           Abstract
           In this article the author presents and discusses responses given by Form IV
           students who were about to sit for their Certificate of Secondary Education
           Examinations. Using focus group discussion method, the school young women
           were asked a number of questions whose answers form part of this report. The
           findings show that their attitudes and values are largely embedded within the
           sexual stereotyped expectations with very few exceptions. The author concludes
           by saying that attitudes die hard, and it is up to the society in general-and
           women in particular-to vigorously change the status quo through raising women
           awareness, and providing opportunities to women in areas hitherto men
           monopolised to'improve the image and the well-being of women so that equality
           between men and women is a reality in practice.
 Introduction
 The 'focus group discussions were held between Form IV students in sample
 schools in Iringa and Coast regions and two women research assistants in 1993.,
 Fohn IV women students were preferred rather than those in lower Forms
 because they were thought to be mature enough to understand the questions and
 issues being raised. More than 80% were 18 years and above hence the use of
 the 'term women rather than girls. The two regions were purposely chosen
because we wanted to see if there would be any differences in the women's
responSes as Iringa is predominantly Christian (about 60%) while Coast is
Muslim (over 90%). Christians are said to have more positive attitudes towards
western schooling than their eouriterpart Muslims.
     It was anticipated that the young women's answers would largely reflect
what they have been socialised to believe by the various agencies of
socialisation starting from the family, the school, the peer group, mass media,
religious teachings, etc. Some of the attitudes or values such gained are
supportive of achievement motivation in school, while others are prohibitive.
The aim was, therefore, to fmd out what students themselves thought was to be
• Associate Professor,Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam


132     George A. Malekela
the mainstream of thinking in society. Out of the discussions, the author
intended to isolate those attitudes "that seem to act against women's
advancement, and suggest possible measures that can be taken practically to
improve women's participation in education, and consequently in the higher
echelons of the economy, administration and politics because access to these is
largely determined by the quantity and quality of education one has attained.
    To ensure that the students were free to ajr their views, men were not
allowed to be around so that the discussions could freely be carried out as
women, particularly adolescents, are often shy to speak their minds in the
presence of men in accordance with African customs prevalent in most African
ethnic groups (Kisseka, 1981). Their teachers were not also allowed to be
present during the' discussions as their presence might have inhibited the
students' freedom of expression for fear of repercussions as some of their
views could be misinterpreted.
    Secondary schools from Iringa region that were included in the sample were
Highlands (co-educational), Iringa (girls only), Lugalo (co-educational),
Njombe (historically boarding for boys but of late enrols girls who are day
scholars in line with the government policy of increasing girls' educational
opportunities), and Mpechi (co-educational). From the Coast region were
Bagamoyo (co-educational as Njombe) and Kaole (co-educational). A total of
229 women students participated in the focus group discussions (46 Highlands,
68 Iringa, 35 Lugalo, 10 Njombe, 41 Mpechi, 12 Bagamoyo and 17 from
Kaole).
    A summary of the major fmdings is given in the following subsections in
accordance with the questions that were- presented in the focus group
discussions.
Parents' Attitudes Towards Their Daughters' Education
The students were asked what their parents' attitudes were toward their
education. Parents in Tanzania have different attitudes toward the education of
their daughters. These differences were shown by the girls themselves. Their
ideas were more or less similar with minor exceptions.
    Several students from Iringa gave a variety of answers with regard to what
they considered to be their parents' attitudes. Some said:
    Most of the parents feel that it is useless to educate their daughters because they do
    not expect much from them. But parents who are educated (literate) value education
    for both boys and girls whereas those who are illiterate believe in educating boys
    because boys are permanent members of the family and they are sure that they will
    take care of the family in future.


         Women: Ale the Traditional Pattems a/ThInking ChangIng?                133
      There is a belief among the poor parents that when an educated daughter
  gets married their investment in her ultimately goes to the husband. Sometimes
 parents complain that they educate girls for the benefit of others. They also said
 that some parents were just too proud of their sons, hence this demoralised
 their daughters who were not treated on equal footing with their brothers. On
 the other hand some parents were said to be fair as they sent to school children
 who were academically capable without regard to their sex.
      Bagamoyo students said, "Most of the parents in Tanzania are interested in
 sending their daughters to school so that finally they can be employed although
 some are not interested in educating them highly fearing that they might not be
 married and get a family". Others were however, of the opinion that parents'
 attitudes toward educating their daughters very much depend on the family and
 its level of education.
      Those from Highlands (a private school charging high fees) said that parents
 had positive attitudes toward educating their daughters. They said, "Parents
 expect their educated daughters like us to show differences with girls who have
 never gone to school or seen a classroom! They expect their daughters to get
 good jobs in future, live better lives and also have new ideas in life. "
      Lugalo students were of the opinion that most of the parents had little hope
 in their daughters as most of them performed poorly academically. This,
however, was said to depend very much on the place where parents lived.
      The responses given above are quite debatable as some might agree with
them and others disagree. However, available evidence shows that parents in
general are increasingly becoming positive toward the education of their
daughters, as it is for their sons. Though there were historically from the
colonial period more schools for boys than girls, thus accounting for their
disproportionate enrolment-especially       starting from the middle school level
(Standard V-VIII) upwards-the pattern has been gradually changing over the
years. For example, at independence in 1961, 40% of the pupils enrolling in
Standard (grade) I were girls. This rose to 49% by 1994, partly as a result of
universal primary education (UPE) that began to be implemented in November
 1977. At the Standard,VIIINIIlevel      (primary education used to be of 8 years
cycle up to 1%6 and thereafter 7), it was 23% of the enrolment in 1961, and
this shot up to 49% by 1.994. This is equally true for the secondary school
level. In 1961 the respective female enrolment percentages at Form I, IV and
VI were 29, 30 and 9; these went up to 45, 41 and 29 respectively by 1994
(MEe, 1995)...
     Often people make sweeping statements like "Parents prefer edu~atmg the~r
sons to daughters." "Parents have negative attitudes towards education o~ t~eir
daughters." These unqualified statements are sometimes made by academiCians
as well. If these statements were true, then one should have expected fewer


134     George A. MalekeJa
women enrolments in private secondary schools which charge higher fees than
those charged in public schools. For example, the official fees (as there are
other unofficial charges, especially in private schools) for boarding private and
public schools in 1995 were Tsh. 70,000 and 15,000 (1 US$::-Tsh. 600)
respectively, and the respective rates for day schools were 50,000 and 8,??<J.
Yet, enrolment figures show that women representation has been more pOSItive
in private schools than in public ones. Whereas in 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1994
the percentages of women enrolment in private secondary schools (Form I-VI)
were: 37.3,43.1,45.6      and 45.1, the respective figures for public schools were
31.9, 33.3, 40.2 and 42.3 (MEC, 1995:34).
    The statistics indicate that the gap will soon close up, especially now that
social demand for secondary education is very high. Social demand will be
augmented by the government policy and plans to attain 1: 1 ratio of boys to
girls by 1998 through fmancially (with the assistance of the World Bank)
helping 5,000 girls who CamIot meet all school costs, increasing the number of
girls' schools, and increasing vacancies for girls in existing schools, including
those that have been exclusively for boys in the past (Sarungi, 1995).
    L?wer representation of women at the Advanced level (Form V-VI) has
more to do with their poor performance in the Certificate of Secondary
Education Examinations at Form IV rather than to limited vacancies for
women. Admission to A-Level requires at least a "C" grade (credit) in all the
three subject combinations. Higher failure rate (for both men and women) is
always in the sciences, but worse for girls, forcing the Ministry of Education
and Culture amIually to leave some of the A-Level vacancies unfilled for a lack
of women candidates with the requisite entry qualifications. In 1995 the
Ministry had to form a committee to look for reasons for the alarmingly high
failure rate of girls in examinations, particularly for science subjects and
Maths, and come up with recommendations for improved performance.
    The higher failure rate in examinations for girls is also reported in Zaire
~Wrze~inska, 1982), and their poorer performance in science-related        subjects
mcl.udm~ Maths'-where in Kenya for example, over 75 % of the girls failed the
subject m the Certificate of Education Examinations in 1985 and 1986
(Kinyanjui, 1993)-seems to be a world-wide             phenomenon (Finn, Reis,
Dulberg, 1982; UNESCO, 1985).
  . Among poor families, under normal circumstances, the boy is likely to be
gIVen the opportunity if the available resources can cater only for one person.
                  :rr
However, the:e e other poor parents who are rational decision makers. 'I11ey
look at the chIld s sch~l progress and the likelihood of the child succeeding if
sent for further educatIon. Their children's teachers are consulted for advice
and will accordingly take it. In some poor families daughters have had
precedence over their brothers.


          Women: Are the Trdd/tfonaJ Pdttems of Thinking Chd/lglngJ                  135
      If there is a religious element, it is perhaps the response from Bagamoyo
 students. Bagamoyo is predominantly Muslim, and some students show fear
 that if a woman is highly educated she may not be married, and thus miss a
 family. To Muslims, marriage for women is taken to be an important event in
 their lives, and slightly less so for Christians.
 African Society's Value Toward Highly Educated Vis-A-Vis Lowly
     Educated Women
 The question was: "Who is valued more in the African society: a highly
 educated woman with a big job, .or a lowly educated woman, married and with
 a family?" This question raised a hot debate in all schools in the sample. The
 majority of the students said that the African society values more the woman
 with low education and married with a family than the highly educated one with
 a good and big job. The reasons they gave were as follows:
     The educated girls have superiority complex and this cannot be tolerated by men
     because men in Africa do not want to be dominated. As a result of this, highly
     educated women do not easily get men to marry and this being the case African
     society does not value such women. However, women who marry in between their
     education period, for instance, university students, are valued more than women
     who continuously study until they complete their degrees without getting married.
    African society believes that highly educated women are very proud, arrogant with
    feelings of accomplishment and have. no respect for others. Such women also like
    emulating the urban style of life.
    A few women, especially from Highlands, said that the highly educated
women can also be valued if their reputations are good. Others who were
positive on the debate commented that such highly educated women with good
jobs are valued because through their jobs they were building the nation.
    The message one gets from the above debate is clear. The African woman
should be educated, fme. However, her education should not raise her above
others, especially men who have always subjugated women. Moreover, what
matters most in many African societies is one having a marriage and children ..
As Savane (1984:217) succinctly sUmmarises it,
    On a psychological level, a woman's achievement is measured by her ability to be a
    good mother. In many African ethnic groups, a successful child is believed to be the
    product of work performed by the mother in her capacity as a «good wife and
    mother."
    When asked what is given priority between formal education and life of a
family to. a woman, almost all students said that life of the family is given
priority because this is what is valued more by the majority of the African


136      George A. Malekela
societies than formal education. This is similar to what Wrzesinska (1982)
found in Zaire. If most students also give priority to raising a family than
schooling, then there is a danger that they aim low in their studies and hence
cannot perform well.
     This applies equally to men. Childlessness or sterility for women and
impotence for men, were-and still are-lamentable in most African societies.
In the past if a married man were proved to be impotent (of course
confidentially!), a relative or a close friend helped him get out of the stigma,
and when his wife bore a child, society would know it was his as very few
would have been aware of his predicament. In the case of a sterile woman, a
man was compelled by social pressure to marry a second wife. This social
pressure still persists, although some highly educated Christians try to brush it
off.
Parents'   Hope of Their Daughters Completing Studies Successfully
In answering the question, "Do your parents have hope that you will
successfully complete your studies?" students had a variety of responses to this
question. The majority, however, said that most of the parents were worried
that their daughters might not complete schooling successfully. Parents fear that
anything might happen to a girl in between before she completes schooling.
They are mostly worried that their daughters might become pregnant and be
expelled from school. Sometimes pregnant girls attempt abortions (through
crude methods as abortions are illegal) which in some cases lead to death. They
are also worried about foreign culture, particularly Western culture. The free
mixing of boys and girls, especially adolescents, worries parents that their
daughters would be loose and involve themselves in love affairs with boys or
men instead of concentrating on their studies. Grown-up girls and women also
become avaricious of a lot of things, for instance, competing with women from
rich families in dressing up, facial make-ups, behaviour, etc. Those coming
from poor families, in particular, may fall victim of men as they may end up
being cheated in an attempt to acquire those material things.
     Others, particularly from Iringa and Lugalo said that it depended on the
girls' reputation and how they performed in class and examinations. If a girl is
good-m~ered       and very conscientious, then parents have high hopes in her
academiC performance; and are somehow sure that she will successfully
complete her studies. Having high hopes on the girl's performance also depends
very much upon the family, and where one comes from.
     In one study it was found that 81 % of parents disagreed that when a girl is
old enough she should leave school and get married. However, some remarked:


           Women: Ale the Traditional Pdttems of Thinking Changing?                        137
            If a girl is not doing well and someone wants to marry her, better take the bride-
            price than risk the chance of her continuing and getting pregnant, in which case
            there will be no cows. She won't pass anyway, so she might as well get married
            (Cooksey, Malekela, Lugalla, 1993:16).
       Family planning services are new. They are mainly available in urban
   health clinics to married women, or other grown-up women with children out
   of wedlock. Very few women in rural areas have information about birth
   control and the use of contraceptives as people believe in having as many
   children as possible. The use of condoms by men is very slowly gaining
   acceptance by both men and women mainly due to the AIDS scourge. Some
   highly placed women regard using the condom with those they trust as an insult
   as they are being equated to prostitutes who are normally urged to use them.
       It is socially abominable for a school girl, even for an unmarried young
  woman to be' found looking for contraceptives or having devices for prevention
  of pregnancy. Very often it is misconstrued for one being promiscuous or
  morally lax, as it is equally true elsewhere in Africa (Kisekka, 1981). Access
  to contraceptives by girls and young unmarried women is vehemently deplored
  by married women as they argue this would be tantamount to licensing their
  husbands to disregard their marriages.
       School girls are not expected to have very intimate relationships with males.
  To date primary and secondary school students who are medically proved to be
  pregnant are expelled from school despite that there is no law which sanctions
  this long-time practice from the colonial days. In one study, most of the school
  teachers were found to favour the current practice of dismissing pregnant
  school girls on the grounds that it instils "discipline" in others, while many
  members of the Tanzania Women organisation and Tanzania Parents'
 Association thought that girls should be readmitted aftel delivery (Malekela,
 Cooksey, Ndabi, 11990). Those who argued against girls' ~smissal pointed out
 that girls' self-image and equality of the sexes should be enhanced, and that
 investment made in their education should not be wasted.
      Premarital virginity is still highly valued among man)' Tanzanian ethnic
 groups. Women found tp be virg~ by their husbands on the wedding day in
 some tribes are normally welcomed on the following day' by ululation, and
 presented with gifts and congratulated by their parents and reJatives f or having
 led a "clean" life. This sometimes leads to cynicism as men are often
 compelled to declare to have found their wives virgin to save their face and
.those of1heir spouses wl1en they know very well it is untrue.
 Qualities of a Successful Woman
 Asked to give their views on what they considered to be the qualities of a
 successful woman, the following were suggested by most of the students.


138     George A. Malekela
    •   A woman who is very highly educated: should at least          be a For'll VI
        Ieaver , and passed her Advanced Certificate of Secondary EducatioIl;
        Examinations, and at most be educated up to university level.
    •   She should have a good and well-paying job .
    •   She should be married but after getting good education and job, and
        must have children .
    •   She should be a woman who lives as a Tanzanian so that society can
        accept her. A woman who is accepted by the Tanzanian society is one
        who interacts with people of all walks of life and does not have
        superiority complex. She should be a well-behaved person, and be able
        to help and cooperate with all regardless of their social, economic, or
        political status in society .
    •   A woman should be hard-working, and be able to keep her house clean
        and tidy .
    •   A woman who has had a study tour abroad for at least three months so
        that she can also be able to see how other people elsewhere live and
        have advanced themselves.
    Some of the attributes given above are modern while others-such as having
a family and children, and being a person who is respectful and humble-are
traditional. In most African societies the status of a woman is measured not
only by her productive role but also by the reproductive roles of wife and
mother (Adeyokunnu, 1984; Savane, 1984; Wrzesinska, 1982). Having a
family and children is also expected of men, failure to which may place one in
the lowest hierarchy, especially when performing traditional rituals. In most
tribes having sons among the children gives a woman more status, reaffirms the
marriage, and assures her more or less that her husband is not going to be
polygamous if he is a devout Christian. Sons are held high in esteem due to the
fact that most of the ethnic groups are patriarchal, and it is the male children
who are going to perpetuate the lineage.
Religious Norms or Teachings
The smdents were asked what the religious norms or teachings were about
women in society. The majority of the students seemed not to understand
religIous norms or teachings. A few students said,
    A woman is given the lowest status, particularly in Islam. In Muslim societies
    women are also given very limited opportunities in social activities. For example,
    women do not attend funerals and are rarely given chances of leadership. Women
    ar~ supposed. to stay at. ho~e and raise the family, whereas men are expected to
    brmg everythmg for their Wives, including shopping in the market for foodstuffs.


            Women: Ale the TradltJonaJ Pattems of ThInkIng ChangIng?                 139
        The practice is prevalent in predominantly Muslim areas. In Zanzibar, for
   example, where over 98 % of the population is Muslim, men do shopping for
   foodstuffs at the 'markiti' (market). Once out of the compound, women must
   veil their heads and cover their leg" and are restricted from having
   conversations with male non-kin in public (Kisekka, 1981). These are some of
   the Koranic injunctions which have been accepted by customs and traditions.
       However, students from Iringa pointed out that in Islam women are given
   equal opportunity with men in "madrassa" (Koranic schools), where the Koran
  is taught.
       In life it is emphasised that every woman must be married and every man must also
       be married. Therefore marriage is a necessity to all.
            In Christianity the place of man is equal to that, of a woman. In all the
       denominations of Christianity, with the exception of Ron~n Catholicism, women are
       given equal opportunity in church, for example, there are; few women pastors.
       It would seem, these students have hazy ideas in some ot the issues,
  particularly with Christianity, and tend to partly cOJ,ltradict themselves. Even
  among Protestant churches that are progressive, the majority in the top of the
  hierarchy are men. The students are correct whelJl they point out that the
  Roman Catholic church does not give equal opportumty to women, as to date it
 has refused to even discuss about the possibility of ordaining women into
.priesthood.
      When asked what their life expectations were in religion, most of them
  seemed, to fmd the question difficult because there was no straight forward
 response. They just remained quiet, and did not ask a question on the subject.
 Clarifications on the question were made but without success.
      It would seem religion is not well-taught in schools today as it was during
 the colonial period when most of the schools were tinder religious
 denominations. During the colonial period "missionaries expected African men
 to take on the ideal character traits of white women: industriousness, docility,
 obedience, .gentleness, and passivity - of course in relation to Europeans,
 especially to males. African women were to display the same humility but also
 toward African males" (Yates, 1982:i30). The African wife was thus expected
 to be subservient to her husband.
      Despite the fact that there are two periods of religious instruction a week,
the attendance of the preachers, pastors, priests or sheikhs is sometimes
 irregular. Even when the religious teachers come, the students are not obliged
to attend the sessions. Furthermore, since religion as a subject is not examined
in secular schools, students do not pay much attention to it. It is only in
seminaries that religious, instruction is organised, and their students take
religion in the examinations.


140     George A. Ma/ekela
Whether the Education System in Tanzania is Equalising
"Does the education system in Tanzania give equal opportunities to both girls
and boys?" This question was tackled. Students from Lugalo, Highlands,
Mpechi and Iringa concurred that the education system in Tanzania was not
discriminatory, Le., both boys and girls are given equal opportunities in
education.
    Students from Kaole, Njombe and Bagamoyo said that in the formal
education system there were more boys than girls, and usually boys performed
better than girls. Those from Njombe further added that in primary schools,
girls and boys are given equal chances, but in public secondary schools girls
are. given better treatment as more chances are allocated to them because of the
quota system (although this also applies to boys from low performing districts
- author's observation).
    In a survey carried out in 1989 (Malekela, Cooksey, Ndabi, 1990), it was
found out that in some regions, girls would have lost half of the vacancies
allocated to them to boys if merit alone was used as the criterion in selection to
Form I public schools. In some "backward" districts like Mafia in the Coast
region, not a single girl would have been selected if the quota system was
removed. The quota system in Tanzania does not, however, provide academic
counselling or remedial courses to the intended beneficiarie!t who are
academically weak.
     According to the comments above, and the legal system in Tanzania in
theory there is no discrimination in the education system in Tanzania.
However, due to cultural values and societal expectations, women find
themselves at the lower end as they climb the educational ladder as already
demonstrated above. Furthermore,         textbooks have been found to be
gender-biased.      Illustrations portray women as passive,          engaged    in
non-remunerative or poorly-paid and less prestigious occupations. Verbal
discussions, jokes, innuendoes, attitudes and other interactions in the
classroom, and the school in general, are often :the acting out of
gender-stereotyped roles which have been internalised from society.
     Research has revealed that teachers tend to encourage boys to be more
expressive and creative while fostering an inferiority complex in girls. In co-
educational classrooms, boys demand and get a greater share of the teachers'
attenti?n. Teachers sho:" preference for boys in the classrooms because boys
are SaId to be more active and hence more rewarding to teach, while girls are
over-concerned with their physical appearance (Mbilinyi, Mbughuni, 1991). A
study of textbooks in Zambia is also reported to have contained many more
m~le t~an. female characters and female characters, who appeared " ... were
pnm~nly ~n.~omestic role~ and were presented as passive, stupid and ignorant.
Men s actIVItIes were admIred, women's ignored" (Hyde, 1993: 123).


        Women: Am the Traditional Pattems oETh/nk/ng Changing?                 141
 Subjects They Like and the Reasons
 The women students were also asked about the subjects they liked and why.
 The subjects which were favoured were almost the same, and this also
depended on the kind of subjects taught at a particular school. Most of the
students said that they like arts subjects which included Kiswahili, English,
History and Geography. They also said that they liked Commerce,
Bookkeeping, Home Economics, and Biology.
     The reasons they gave for liking these subjects were that these were subjects
are easy to them, and also they could easily be explained by their teachers.
Therefore their scores in examinations in these subjects were higher. They
further said that they liked Biology because "it teaches us how a human being
develops and how his/her body works." They were particularly interested in the
topic on the reproductive system.
     Besides the. subjectS mentioned above, students from Njombe added Maths
and Chemistry because these were the other subjects they selected to specialise.
This was an exception from the norm. In most cases arts subjects were
favoured because they do not require extensive time for reading and preparation
like the science subjects. The students themselves admitted that they did not
have enough time to devote to serious studying.
     Asked which subjects were hard for them, the majority of the women
students mentioned Maths, Physics, and Chemistry. The reason they gave for
their difficulty was that girls do not have enough time to do private study. They
spend most of their time cooking, washing dishes, fetching water and firewood,
etc., in the case of day scholars; and also beautifying themselves. In addition to
the above reason, Bagamoyo students said that fear among girls toward these
subjects was created by the society. Most of the people believe that science
subjects are hard or difficult.
     In Tanzania, the problem could be exacerbated by the fact that women
students lack female-role models, as most of the science and Maths teachers are
men. For example, in 1995 out of 166 student-teachers enrolled in B.Sc.
Education at the University of Da:r es Salaam, only 46 (28 %) were women.
Very few of these were taking Maths and/or Physics. A few were in
Chemistry, but the majority of the women who took science education were
concentrated in Botany, Zoology (and end up teaching Biology and Geography
4i secondary schools, if at all they report).
    Women are poorly represented at university and technical colleges. In 1995,
for example, women constituted 9%, 17%, 23%, 28% and 6% at the Open
University of Tanzania, University of Dar es Salaam, Sokoine University of
Agricultnre, Muhiffibili College of Health Sciences (part of the University of
Dar es Salaam), and technical colleges respectively. Their representation is


142      George A. MalekeJa
more conspicuous in faculties that offer humanities or other subjects with a
combination of Biology, as is the case with Medicine. Courses, such as RSc.
Engineering, B.Sc. Agricultural Engineering, RSc. Electronics,             and B.
Computer Science that require a strong Mathsematical and Physics background
were represented by 3 % and below, or by none at aU as in electronics and
agricultural engineering (MSTHE, .1995).
    This is more or less similar to what happens in other developing countries
where women enrolment at higher levels is heavily skewed toward the
humanities, home economics and the arts (Hill, King, 1993). UNESCO (1985:
11) also reports this phenomenon, which seems to be tl,1egeneral trend in most
countries where women lag behind men in .enrolment in scientific, technical,
and vocational education: and the higher the level of that education the greater
the gap. In the same report it is said that a study by the French Association of
University Women found that 75% of women students were studying arts and
humanities subjects, and only 25% were studying science. Within science, the
favourite subject was physiology. This was a matter of fact despite having .only
14% more men than women. The situation does not seem to have improved by
1995 as the United Nations (1995:98) reports that the "numbers of women in
scientific and technical fields at college and university level are much lower
than in health, education and law." Women are also less represented in senior
scientific positions despite the presence of well-qualified women.
    Reasons advanced for the status quo are societal, psychological, limited
female-role models, misguided career counselling, or what others put as rigid
stereotypes carried by both sexes as what constitutes sex-appropriate adult roles
(Finn, Reis, Dulberg, 1982).
    The intended government policy of reviewing school curriculum to
strengthen and encourage participation and achievement of girls in Maths and
scienc~ subjects; and that of eliminating gender stereotyping through the
curricula, textbooks and classroom practices (MEC, 1995a:20) are steps in the
right direction to improve girls' participation and quality performance in these
subje~ts. But how it is going to be implemented to achieve these noble goals
remams to be seen as currently the education industry in Tanzania is greatly
underfunded.
Sex of Teachers Teaching Favourite Subjects
Stu~ents "were asked "What type (sex) of teachers teach your favourite
subjects? The. question was answered depending on the curriculum bias (there
are four: technical, domestic science, agriculture and commerce) of the school
and al~o on the availability of the teachers at a particular school. Bagamoyo and
Lugalo students said that men teachers taught the most difficult subjects, Le.,


        Women: Aile the Tradltlondl Pattems of Thinking Changing?                 143
science subjects and Maths, while arts subjects were taught by women. lringa
students had a similar pattern, but sometimes had a combination of both men
and women teachers teaching them science subjects.
    Highlands students said that men taught them the arts subjects they liked
most because there were very few women teachers in the school. At Kaole (a
private school), it was not easy to get a clear demarcation because most of the
teachers were part-time from Bagamoyo. The school had only one woman
teacher on the permanent staff list. She was an English teacher, and all said
that they liked her very much.
    It is difficult to say here whether the women students like the arts subjects
primarily because they are mainly taught by fellow women, or because they
fmd them easier. Could the presence of more women teachers teaching the
difficult subjects tilt the balance in favour of science subjects? Are there any
studies on this from any other country to see what women students say about it?
The Sex of Teachers Students Would Like to Have
The responses to the question, "What type (sex) of teachers would you like to
have and why?", were'very interesting, varying from one school to another. A
few of the most popular remarks from Iringa (single sex and boarding) students
should be instructive to show students' views and interests. The majority of the
students said that they liked to be taught by men rather than women teachers,
and gave the following reasons:
    1.. Women teachers are very hot-tempered. For example, if you annoy a
         woman teacher she can lose temper and stop teaching, punish students,
         etc.
    2. Sometime$ women teachers share boyfriends with their students. and
         this annoys them very much.
    3. 'Sometimes women teachers hate students indiscriminatelY embodying
         those who have annoyed them and those who have not.
    4 . Women teachers are usually lazier than men teachers.
    5. Women teachers often go for maternity leave (it is normally 84 days
         paid leave) and sometimes during the examinations period when their
         services are badly needed.
    6. Women teachers also waste a lot of time in taking care of their
         children, husbands, sick, relatives and other members of the family.
    There was only one student who had a different view. She said,
        In understanding the subject matter, both men and women teachers are equal.
        Therefore, the option of having both men and women teachers is recommended.
    Students from Bagamoyo said that they wanted to have an equal number of


144      George A. MaJekela
men and women in the list of their teachers because some of subjects are well
mastered by women teachers-such as economics-and others, such as, Physics
and Maths arewell-masteroo by men teachers. Kaole students preferred a
mixed staff with inclination toward more women teachers because they had
oI1lYwoman teacher in the whole school.
     Students from Highlands preferred history and Kiswahili be taught by
women teachers, while Physics, Chemistry and Maths by men. They said that
the latter subjects were very difficult and women teachers do not understand
them well. In addition to that, they said "women teachers are irascible, jealous
of women students who have better things than themselves. Men teachers do
not care about these things."                                           •
     Some of the remarks given by these women students show the already
 embedded societal attitudes that women cannot easily succeed in "difficult"
 subjects like Maths and science subjects, which are considered to be better
handled by men. There is a mystification that only women can teach subjects
like Home Economics. It is perhaps a result of horizontal stereotyped sexual
 stratification of some courses and occupations. Cannot a man receive training
 in Home Economics and be able to teach it? The word 'home' often scar~s men
 and women alike as it is generally construed to be for a woman who is a wife
and house keeper.
     The roles of reproduction and taking care of the children, husband and
relatives for a working woman were reproduced in the students' discUssions.
Some of the women teachers are consequentlyless efficient in production (i.e.
teaching) due to the multiple roles they play. These muhiple roles affect most
working African women employed in other occupationsas well.
     The teaching force at the secondary school level is dominated by men. In
1994, only 2018 (35%) of the teachers in public schools were women while in
private schools there w.ere only 69-9 women teachers (14%) out of 4794
teacher~ (M~C, .1995:30). It would seem women students will for some time
have to continue relying on men teachers, particularly so in the private schools
where the problem is serious. This situation makes it difficult for them to have
appropriate models as they might think that women are incapable of achieving
what men have attained.                                        '
Teachers' Assurance Of Passing Science Subjects And Mrican Outlook
~en stude~ts were asked, "Do your teachers assure you that you can pass
SCIencesubjects without any problem?", the majority of them said, "Yes".
Studen~ from Kaole and Mpechi said that their teachers told them repeatedly
that they could pass science subjects if they studied hard. Those from Iringa
said that their teachers told theI!lthat they could be'very successful determined.


         Women: Ale the. Tradltfonal Pattems oFTblnk/ng Chanjpng?             145
     The next question was, "What is the African outlook of women who excel
 ~ science subjectS?" From their answers it seems that the African society has a
dIfferent outlOOk toward the girls who perform very well in science subjects
both theoretically and practically. Students from Highlands and Mpechi said
that the African society sees such girls as exceptionally intelligent. Students
from Lugalo said that such girls were valued and praised, although the majority
of the girls would not like to do jobs requiring a solid science background.
Bagamoyo students said, "Such girls cannot take care of their family, and they
do not become good mothers. "
    lringa students did not seem to understand the. question immediately until
after clarification. One student said, "A woman scientist is well respected in
the Tanzanian community. For example, one woman was doing electric.al
wiring along the road; then a man who passed by said, 'I will marry from your
family'."              .
    Those from Njombe said that some people saw such women as unusually
gifted, and others were happy with them. One of the students said, "I would be
happy to have a daughter who is capable of science subjects theoretically and
practically." Students from Kaole had no experience on this issue as they just
kept quiet despite clarifications given for the question.
    From the preceding comments, women students seem to be caught in a
dilemma. Despite their teachers (who are mostly men) being positive in
assuring them that they can do well in science if they were subjects, yet the
society is divided between those who see girls doing well in science as being
intelligent and praising them, and those who think such women are strange, and
do not like to see such women doing jobs requiring a science background for
fear that their families will suffer in the future. This might be true if such
women are going to spend a lot oftime in laboratories or in factories. If most
of the women students believe in the latter school of thought, then it may be
that the majority of them set low aspirations and motivation to succeed in
science subjects as it socially signifies that they are not likely to become good
mothers, contrary to African expectations of a woman being a good mother in
spite of her other achievements.
ls Girls' Abilities Equal to That of Boys?
The students were a$ked another question, "Do your teachers see your
acad.emic ability to be equal to that of boys and how?" Njombe students said
that their teachers normally saw boys as more capable than girls. Those from
Kaole said that most .of their teachers expected boys to perform better than
girls. Bagamoyo students said that their teachers saw the girls' and boys'


146      George A. MalekeJd
academic ability to be the same, although sometimes girls' ability becomes poor.
because they fear boys in class.
    Lugalo students on the other hand said that teachers saw that the academic'
ability of girls was equal to that of boys, and the reason they gave was that bo~
boys and girls answered questions in class, and also performed well m
examinations .
    The debate as to whether boys and girls should study together is
controversial. During the whole colonial period, only at the lower primary
school level were schools co-educational. The rest were segregated by sex, and
were mainly boarding. Christian missionaries in particular, insisted an the
separation believing that mixing adolescents would groom immorality. Today
the policy is to make most secondary schools, day and therefore co-educational.
However, some people are of the view that girls are better off when they are
separate, and made to compete among themselves than with boys. A review of
research on girls' achievement in Sub-Saharan Africa has shown more positive
results when they are in single sex than in co-educational schools (Hyde, 1993).
    The govermnent policy seems to lean toward the latter view as it encourages
the establishment of girls' schools, and is not going to deboard existing girls
government boarding schools. The govermnent also intends to establish special
financial support schemes for girls and women in education and training
institutions (MEC, 1995.19-20). These measures in themselves may not be
sufficient if remedial instruction or academic counselling is not given to the
girls; teachers are not motivated, learning materials, chemicals and equipment
are not adequately made available; and job opportunities in the public and
private sectors ere non-existent, among other things.
Opportunities    for Rich and Poor Girls
Another question that was discussed was constraint. "Are girls from rich and
poor families given equal opportunities in education?" Most students said that
they were given equal opportunities although they could not show how.
However, NjoIi1be and Bagamoyo students had a different view and
categorically said, "No." Njombe students said so because they alleged that
usually girls from rich families were given priority. This could, especially, be
seen during selection for A-Level. Those selected to enter A-Level were mainly
f:om ric~ ~amilies. Equally, Bagamoyo students said "No' "because girls from
nch f~lhes usually get more opportunities in education due to corruption.
People In charge of selection for Form I are bribed by the rich parents, and
therefore the academically incapable ones are selected instead."     .
    Corruption in selection cannot be totally ruled out in a country which in
the       df             .                                             '       ,
     wor s 0 Mwl. Juhus Nyerere, the retired first president, "is stinking of


        Women: Are the Traditional Pattems oETh/nk/ng Changing?                147
corruption." However, studies on selectivity show that girls from high
socio-economic backgrounds tend to be disproportionately represented than
their counterpart boys (Malekela, 1987; Weis, 1979). Furthermore, girls (as
well as boys) from rich families have an added advantage of attending private
tuition sessions where high fees are charged besides attending conventional
classroom sessions with the poor (Malekela, 1994; Guranywa, 1995).
     Once in school, the plight of girls from rich background is different from
that of poor background. Many students from various schools mentioned a lot
of problems faced by girls from poor families. They said, "such girls cannot
afford to pay school fees in time, cannot also afford to buy the necessary items
required at school because their parents or guardians do not have the money."
Students from Kaole said that some girls were given loans by their relatives
which covered school fees only. In such cases, as well as cases Of parents who
can pay school fees only, girls do not have money to buy other things like soap,
vaseline, exercise books, pens, sweaters in cold areas, etc. Girls with such
problems cannot concentrate on their studies. Njombe students said that at one
time such girls had to be helped by their teachers. Students from Lugalo added
the following:
     1. Girls from poor families are usually frustrated, and do not pay attention
        in class.
     2. They are USGallyphysically weak because they do not get good breakfast
        or have none at all before coming to school.
     3. They usually waste time on thinking what they are going to eat when
        they go back home. They mainly think of the kind of dinner they are
        going to have.
Students from Highlands added the following:
    4.   A poor girl is forced to work for their richer girl friends. so that they
        can get money. They can wash and/or iron other girls' clothes, for
        example.
    5. Sometimes such girls are forced to become promiscuous. They run with
        men in order to get money and 'other necessities.
    6. Very often such girls spend a long time working at home. This cou~d
        involve gardening, petty businesses, etc., in order to get money and m
        this case they waste most of their time which they could have used for
        private study.
    The above reasons partly explain the comparatively poor perf?~~ce           ~y
girls from low socio-economic background, and thei~ low partiCipation m
education systems that are selective, particularly at the higher levels.


148      George A. MaJekeJa
Conclusion and Policy Implications
Mainland Tanzania has a surface area of 881,100 square kilometres (excluding
Zanzibar with 2,460 sq. Ian.), and had a population of 22.5 million in 1988 of
whom 51 % were women. With population annual growth rate of 2.8%, it was
estimated that by 1995 there were 27 million people. Life expectancy at birth
was 49 (50 for women and 47 for men). Literacy rate by 1992 was estimated to
be 84; and it is on the decline as there are no follow-up reading materials, and
literacy programmes have almost come to a halt.
     There are more than 120 ethnic groups speaking different languages.
However, Kiswabili, the national language, unites all the groups as it is well-
understood in over 95% of the country. By 1988, 85% of the population lived
in rural areas and largely depended on cultivation using the hand-hoe. The
majority of the people (79%) are peasants. Agriculture forms the backbone of
the economy. There are very few industries, and the bulk of the urban
population is concentrated in services sectors. The estimated per capita income
by 1995 was US$186, making it one among the lowest in the world.
     Disaggregated by sex, one [mds that the majority of the women were in the
 agricultural sector according to the 1988 census. Whereas 71 % of the
economically active men were in agriculture, the percentage for women was
 86. In the professionals category, men comprised 5.7%, while women
 comprised 1.6%. In the administrative category-which might be considered as
 the highest level of occupation-men           constituted 0.7%, while women
 constituted only 0.1 %. Similarly, women are a minority in politics. In the 1990
 cabinet of 25 ministers, only 3 (12%) were women. Out of 248 members of
 parliament in 1990, only 28 (11 %) were women (Bureau of Statistics, 1992). It
 can therefore be safely concluded that most of the key positions in Tanzania are
 monopolised by men.
      Despite the fact that by 1988, 15% of the population was urban, it is
 primarily rural in background as by 1978 census only 8% was urban. In 1967
 census the urban population constituted only 5% of the tdtal population. In the
 21 year period, i.e. 1967-1988, the urban population increased three-fold, most
 of it being a result of rural-urban immigration.
      The mass media are concentrated in Dar es Salaam, the de facto capital (the
 de jure capital is Dodoma). Television broadcasting was first introduced in
  !9~4: and is largely confined in Dar es Salaam, and in homes of very few rich
  mdlVlduals. The national radio is hardly heard in distant districts from Dar es
  Sal~am and by peasants who rarely own radio sets, and if they do, very often
  theIr sets are not functioning as they are without batteries because they cannot
  afford to buy ~hem whenever they run down. Newspapers are printed in Dar es
  Salaam, mun!cipalities, and rarely reach district headquarters (towns) with
  small populatIons as their demand and market are limited. One can hardly see


           Women: Are the Traditional Pattems of Thinking Changing?             149
   them in rural areas, and the population in general does not have a reading
   culture. The few available libraries are often frequented by students who are
   preparing for examinations.
        Ro~d transport is improving and most of the regional headquarters are
   accessIble. However, most of the roads going to rural areas are accessible
   during the dry season, and rarely in the rainy season. Railway transport reach
   only a few areas, and air transport is irregular - where it is available, it is
   found in the major towns. Telephones are in urban areas, and mainly found in
   government offices, commercial areas, and in residences of highly placed
   people and the rich. Often they are not working.
        Taking the above facts into consideration, Mainland Tanzania is therefore
   largely a traditional and very poor developing country where diffusion of ideas
   for social change is bound to take a slow and long process. The bulk of the
  population is rural, peasantry and traditional. The few elite living in urban
   areas today have a rural origins, and it is there where they received their first
   socialisation. Whatever socialisation they pass on to their offspring, is most
  likely dual: traditional and modern. There are values and attitudes which have
  already been internalised, and these are automatically passed on to the children;
  and there are others which have to strike a balance between the traditional and
  the modern (or western) ones. It is also well-known that peasant societies
  generally tend to be conservative. Due to the fact that a higher proportion of
  women than men is in the traditional sector, Le. agriculture, women's attitudes
  are likely to be more traditional than their men counterpart.
       Due to the facts that there are many ethnic groups in the country, different
  literacy rates, beliefs (mainly Christian, Muslim and traditional), incomes and
  opportunities for access to the mass media, coupled with the rural-urban
  dichotomy, there is bound to be cultural heterogeneity. Accordingly, not all the
  observations given by women students above will be the same across all ethnic
  groups in Tanzania due to cultural diversity, although more similarities may be
  the norm than the exceptions.
       Having briefly contextualised the general position of women and men in
  Tanzania, it may now be easier ~o understand the young women's thinking.
  Some of them think that parents favour their brothers' education than theirs.
  This was largely true when opportunities for secondary education had
  stagnated. However, with current opportunities of access broadening, such
  attitudes may disapp~ar in the near future since the gap is closing up, as it has
, been at the primary school level.
       Investment in children's education is treated as a contribution to an
  insurance policy toward one's old age given the fact that there are no pension
  or social security schemes for people once they are old, especially among the


150      George A. Mdlekela
rural masses. The preference for sons in case of scarcity is partly due to.this.
Since women are married through bride-price-and               educated ones normally
fetching higher dowry due to investment incurred by the bride's parents-one             is
not sure if once married the daughter would continue remitting her
contributions as she will be under the control of the husband. To other parents
who are afraid of taking risks, the possibility of their daughter getting pregnant
while at school, and thus being expelled is a scare. The son remains part of the
family, and is not rusticated from school even if he impregnates other people's
daughters. Furthermore, parents have more freedom to demand part of their
sons' incomes than those of their married daughters (Smock, 1981).
     When people see. the material benefits of educating a woman, some start
having positive attitudes like one woman who was quoted as saying,
     If my young sister had got married instead of continuing with her studies, she would
     never have seen the University of Dar es Salaam. Today she is a marketing
     manageress. She has built good houses in town, and has a lot of money. She helps
     finance our children in secondary schools. All this would not have materialised if
     she were married in the village by a farmer (Cooksey, Malekela, Lugalla, 1993:17).
     Regarding qualities of a successful woman within the Tanzanian context, it
 is interesting to note that students acknowledge the importance of one being
highly educated, and getting a good job. However, these achievements in
themselves are inadequate if one is not married and having children. The
thinking is typical of peasant societies where children are valued because they
 form part of the production units for the survival of the families. Furthermore,
 the fertility rate of 6.2 children per woman (Bureau of Statistics, 1992) might
 exacerbate the necessity of every woman having children. Women are prepared
 to quit school or a job for the sake of raising a family. Probably with improved
 technology in production and more women joining white collar jobs, these
 values might slowly change to value marriage and children as secondary rather
 than as a primary goal in a woman's life. Despite the few examples of
 successful women they see in society, it would seem old attitudes die hard even
 in the minds of these slightly enlightened women.
     Religion does not seem to be a serious inhibiting factor toward young
 women's schooling. Past practices are not enforced in secular schools today.
 Young women's acceptance that there is no discrimination in the education
 s~stem should inspire them to work harder. The system at the moment favours
 gIrlS .as ~rough the quota system, for example, girls with lower grades in
 exammatIons are selected to address equity concerns.
     The oth:r. policies, such as retaining existing boarding government girls'
 schools, bu~ldmg hostels for day scholars, providing special fmancial assistance
 to needy gIrlS, reviewing curriculum in order to strengthen and encourage


         Women: Are the Traditional Pattems of Thinking Changing?                     151
 p~i~ip~tion        and achievemffnt of girls in Maths and science subjects,
 ehmmatlOn of gender stereotyping through the curricula, textbooks and
 classroom practices, provision of special in-service training programmes
 designed and implemented for women teachers; and enrolling some girls in
 formerly boys' schools only (MEC, 1995a) should enhance their increased
 access and paiticipation in education. Their success will, however, depend on
 the government being committed to the policies by ensuring that enough
 resources are given to the education sector in order to implement these paper
 policies.
     Women students' liking of humanities rather than Maths and science
 subjects may be detrimental to them in terms of attaining jobs that are well-
paying and of higher status. It is a misconception in some women's and men's
minds that hard subjects can be handled more successfully by men, or men
have greater abilities than women. They are not to blame anyway. Historically
 science subjects have been monopolised by men as well as jobs requiring a
sound scientific background, such as for pilots, engineers, astronauts and
computer programmers. The few women who initially penetrated "these men's
spheres of influence" were always regarded by society as specially talented, or
others saw them as abnormal. The society's thinking that only men are talented
may force women to intemalise low expectations, and if not careful, contribute
to a self-fulfilling prophesy of underachievement. This happens even when
students admit that their science teachers are positive in their ability of doing
well provided they work hard. The prevalence of men science teachers might
be a factor in thinking that women cannot do well in sciences. "If not, how
come that there are very few women teachers in science or none at all in some
of the schools?", these students might question.
     Women's underachievement is not only recorded in sciences, but in all
subjects starting from the primary level. Explanations for their poor
performance include,
         ... societal stereotyped attitudes on women and low expectations for women, low
        self-concept, belief by girls that they do not have to work hard as eventually
        husbands will take care of. them, overburden of household chores, biased
        curriculum, learning materials and teaching methods, and teachers' expectations
        of girls (Malekela, 1995:71).
     The students also admit that girls from poor background face double
problems: that of being a woman, and that of poverty .. As young women ~~o
need special items unlike their counterpart brothers, girls from poor famlhes
need special attention to enable them pursue their educational careers.
    The policy implications out of the focus group discussions with the young
women are multiple if we would like women not only to gain access, but also


152     George A. Ma/eke/a
to acquire quality education to help them climb the social ladder and be able to
change the socicty's imagc that women are better-off pursuing careers th~t lead
them to be bettcr wives and mothcrs in the home. In the case of TanzanIa, the
following is important.
    1. The current policy of the quota selection for girls in Form I public
        secondary schools should be continued. However, if girls who are
        selected with poor scores are to benefit, then academic counselling
        and/or remedial courses have to be introduced, unlike now when they
        are treated as if their background ability were at par with those scoring
        passing grades. This should, however, only be a temporary measure.
        Measures have to be taken not only to improve the quality of education
        from primary through tertiary levels by increasing resources and using
        them efficiently, but also looking for a more appropriate technology to
        alleviate women's burden in the production sector as well as in the
        home.
     2. Women who are doing well in education should be helped by the
        government to get jobs in its sector, private sectors and non--
        governmental organisations; or be given soft loans to start self-
        employment ventures in the informal sector so that others can see the
        benefits of schooling. Society can change its attitudes when it sees more
        and more women being successful as experience is the best teacher.
     3. There is a need for society in general to be conscientised that women
        and men are equal partners in development, and each depend on the
        other. Laws that discriminate against women, such as inheritance rights
        should be got rid of. Heavy reliance on customary law is dangerous as
        in many ethnic groups it undcrmines the rights of women. Women
        scientists and few others who have to the top through education should
        organise themselves in such a way that they visit women students in
         schools, teU thcm about their life histories, the hurdles they had to face
         and how they ovcrcame and are still overcoming them. The awareness
         campaigns should be a process: through regular visits, meetings and
         video shows not only of "successful" Tanzanian women, but also of
         other women world-wide. This can be a great inspiration to the young
         women to follow the footsteps of their sisters who have made it. It will
         enable them to change their attitudes and values; and set their
         motivations and aspirations in the right direction. Patience and time are
         necded as attitudes and values do not change overnight.
 . If these recommcndations          and the government's policies are well-
 ~mplementcd, womcn's image and standing in the Tanzanian society could be
 Improvcd. Thc possibilities are there: each should play her/his part.


         Women: Are the Trad/tJonal Pattems of Thinking Changing?                    153
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