lDAFlTJ (New Series) Vol. 3No •.2, 1996:155-168 Gender and Education of People With Disabilities in Tanzania Mwqjabu K. Poss;" Abstract . This paper discusses the concept of disability, its prevalence and incidence. It highlights on the importance of prevalence and incidence and provides prevalence of various disabilities in the country. The paper also discusses the concept of gender in relation to education of people with disabilities in Tanzania. From the discussions it is apparent that there are more males than females with disabilities in Tanzania. The situation may be due to some bias in determining prevalence of disabilities. The bias may result from the fact that boys are biologically vulnerable than males. Girls with disabilities in Tanzania have not had equal access to education compared to boys, especially at higher institutions of learning. Some of the reasons advanced for the imbalances may be. due to negative attitudes towards people with disabilities, lack of role models, as well as lack of teaching-learning materials, and inaccessibility to educational buildings. It is recommended that parents and the Tanzanian community in general, be made aware of the education of children with disabilities; and that role models be nsed to motivate parents to enrol their children with disabilities in school and make sure they graduate .. Introduction The standard rules and equalisation of opportunities for persons with disabilities was adopted by t}le United Nations General Assembly at its 48th session on 20th December 1993 (Resolution 48/96). The Standard Rule Number 6 states that countries should recognise the principle of equal primary, secondary and tertiary education opportunities for children, youth and adults with disabilities in integrated settings. It further states that in countries where education is compulsory, it should be provided t~ girls and boys with all kinds and all levels of disabilities. According to UN Standard Rules, equalisation of opportunities implies. that ~e needs for each and every individuals are of equal importance, and that these needs must be made the bases for planning of societies (UNISE Bulletin, 1995. 8: 22.) The Education Act No. 25 (56) (I) of 1978 states that every Tanzanian has the right to receive such category, nature and level of education as bis/her ability may permit. Despite this act, many children with disabili~es in general, and particularly girls, do not get equal access to • Senior Lecturer and Head of the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Dar es Salaam 156 MwaJabu K. PossJ education. There is however, some kind of equity in education of children with disabilities at primary school level. At secondary school level, enrolment of students with disabilities decreases even further, making it worse for female enrolment at tertiary level. Very few female students with disabilities are enrolled in institutions of higher learning .. For example, ever since the University of Dar es Salaam started enrolling students with Visual Disabilities in 1978, only two female students with Visual Impairment have bee enrolled. There is need of looking at the education of people with disabilities in Tanzania with a gender perspective. For a fruitful analysis, it is necessary to critically discuss prevalence 'and incidence of disabilities. Prevalence and Incidence of Disabilities Prevalence refers to the total number of individuals with disorders or disabilities in a given population. It is calculated for a given period, or for a point in time. Prevalence is often expressed as a percentage of the population; the total number of cases is divided by the total number of individuals in 1bat population. Incidence, on the other hand, refers to the number of new cases of a disorder in a given population. Cases refer to individuals or to episodes of the disorder (that is, an individual might be counted more than once during the incidence period if he/she exhibits the disorder, or subsequently if shelhe does not exhibit the disorder or goes into remission, and then again exhibits the disorders). Incidence, like prevalence, may be expressed as a percentage of the population, but this can be misleading when episodes rather than individuals are counted. Incidence addresses the question, "How often does this disorder occur? (Kauffman, 1989). For the purpose of this paper prevalence will be used since it is considered more meaningful than incidence. Further, teachers and administrators have most often been concemec\ about knowing or estimating the number of students with disabilities at a given point in time so as to assess the trend and provide appropriate services. Literature from developed countries such as the USA indicate prevalence and incidence of a number of disabilities such as Mental Retardation E:notional and Behavioural Disorders, Communication (speech and language) DIsorders, Hearing and Visual Impaimlent, Physical and Severe Disabilities as well as Health Impairments. However, prevalence of disabilities vary according to gender. (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1997). Hall~an & Kauffman (1997) argue that generally, certain problems are associated with gender. For example, Duchnne Muscular Dystrophy is said to occur much more frequently in males ~an . females. The authors further argue that many types of physical Impairments OCcurwith equal frequency in children of both sexes. In terms of prevalence, boys are over-represented than girls in disabilities. Gender and £du~on of People With DISltblllties In Tanzania 157 For example Hallahan & Kauffman (1997) indicate that males are over represented in' Serious Emotional Disturbance and Specific Learning Disabilities. With Learning Disabilities, boys outnumber girls by about 3: 1. The reason behind this ratio is that boys have greater biological vulnerability than girls. Infant mortality rate for males is higher than for females, and males are at a greater risk than females for a variety of biological abnormalities. However, it is worthwhile noting that sometimes there may be referral bias (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1997: 168). The bias exists due to biological vulnerability of males. For example, figures from the American Federal Government indicate that all disabilities are more prevalent in males, including conditions that are difficult to imagine resulting from referral or assessment biases. Hearing Impairment for males is estimated to be 53 %. Regarding speech, it is estimated that more boys than girls have a problem of stuttering (Hallahan & Kauffrrian, 1997:294). Also males form 54% of people with Orthopaedic 1mpairment and 56 % of males have Visual Impairment (Hallahan, Kauffman, 1997). Further, the most common' types of problems exhibited by students placed in special education for emotional or behavioural disorders are extemalising, i.e.~ aggressiveness and acting out and males display the behaviour by a ratio of 5 to1 or more. Overall, boys tend to exhibit more aggression and conduct disorders than girls (Hallahan & Kauffman 1997:281.) Prevalence of Disabilities in Tanzania The population of Tanzanja is about 30,372,000 people. Currently no census of people with disabilities has been carried out since 1981. It is however, expected that approximately 3,372,000 people or 10% of the population in Tanzania have disabilities. Table 1 shows the number of people with disabilities as estimated by the Ministry of Social Welfare Development, Women and Children (1998) Table 1: Estimate of People with Disabilities in Tanzania e of Disabilit ' Number of Peo Ie Physical disability 850,416 Mental disability 242,976 .visual disability 820,044 He~IVYImpact 607,440 Multiple Handicap 121;488 Others 394,836 Total 3 372 000 Source: Ministry of Social Welfare Development, Women and Children (1998): File data 158 Mwajabu K. PossJ The data in Table 1 does not indicate gender. However, the 1981 census indicates the number of people with disabilities as portrayed in Table 2 .. Information in Table 2 testifies that in Tanzania there are more males with disabilities than females. Males with disabilities form 57.22 %, while 42.78 % are females. There are more women with Physical Disabilities, followed by those with Visual Disabilities and those with Mental Retardation as well as those with Hearing Impairment and Albinism. It can be observed here that the difference in number of people with disabilities among the types of impairments is not alarming. Table 2: Population of People with disabilities in 1981 Census. Sex Physical Visual Hearing Mental Albinism Others Total % Disability Disability Imooirment Retardation Males 69622 21176 12097 14491 730 12785 130900 57.22% (58.9%) (51.47%) (56.18%) (57.65%) (53.7%) (56.97 (57.22) 261,801 Females 48559 18962 9433 10644 629 9657 97884 42.78% (41.08%) (46.09%) (43%) (42.38%) (46.28%) (43.03) 42.78 195,768 Total 118,181 41,138 21,530 25,135 1,359 22,442 228,784 100% (100%) (100%) 000%) (100%) (100%) (100%) 100% 457,569 Source: Ministry of Education. Special Education Section (1997) Naturally one would have expected a similar pattern in the enrolment of children with disabilities in educational institutions. Conceptual Issues Having highlighted on the prevalence and incidence of people with disabilities, there is need of looking into issues regarding gender and disability. The following provide some concepts that may facilitate better understanding of the concepts of gender, and some of the related concepts. Gender: this is a special construct referring to distinctive qualities and roles of men and women that are culturally and socially determined as masculine and feminine respectively (Yona, 1992). Because of many denotative anc1 connotative difficulties with the term sex, gender has gradually emerged as the term of choice in discussing male/female differences, identity, social roles, and the like. Gender is at times used as sex-relating to males and females. Gender is understood as the way in which women and men are socially con~tructed from birth and throughout their lives by institutions of family, civil SOCIety, and the state to adopt female and male identities. Each individual's Gender and Education of People With DISdbllltles In Tanzania 159 gender is influenced by class, tribe, religious beliefs, able body, sexual relation, age, current family roles (daughter, sister, wife, mother, exposure to alternative ways of being, geographical location, among other things (Department of Education, South Africa, 1995). In this paper gender will refer to he concept of sex differences and roles of males and females. The concept gender ideology refers to a set of ideas that are basically given justification of relationship between men and women in the household in a society at large-4Yona,1992). The term disability means a physical problem that limits a person to perform certain tasks that most other people can perform. A person with disability is not handicapped, unless his/her physical problem leads to educational, social, vocational or other difficulties. In this text I will adopt Kelly's (1991) definition of disability as the reduced function or loss of a particular part or organ. It is often used interchangeably with the term impairment. A disability limits one to perform certain roles (to see, hear, or walk). Disability may lead to educational problems. For example, a student who has lost both legs uses artificial limbs but does every school work without any problem he/she is not handicapped but impaired. On the other hand, handicap refers to problems that a person with disability or impairment encounters in interaction with the environment. The disability may pose a handicap in one environment but not in another. An example may be a student who has lost sight and is unable to read regular prints. The student may not be able to perform well in his/her academic activities that require reading. The visual disability in this case is a handicap. We may wish to differentiate the terms impairment, disability and handicap by using Figure 1. I IMPAIRMENT I ~I DISABILITY I ~I HANDICAP I Loss of a portion of body Reducedfunction Problems in interaction with environment Loss of sight Cannot see regular Poor academic prints Performance Figure 1: Impairment, disability and handicap 160 MWdJdbu K. Poss/ Gender and Education When discussing issues on gender, disability and education one has to look into issues pertaining to gender stereotypes, types and severity of disabilities, enrolment as well as number of schools and programmes available for both male and female students. All people with disabilities, regardless of their sex have the right to live and participate fully in education. Special education must therefore continue to expand and provide education for all people with disabilities. Also, all men and women have to be treated equally. But equal treatment in all cases has a potential of reinforcing inequity. Equity is necessary in education for students with disabilities. Contextually defined, equity can mean both equal treatment and preferential treatment. Equity also is concerned with the need to set standards and reorganise the nature of environments which were previously exclusive preserved for men, ensuring that they support the development of both men and women. People with disabilities tend to be invisible and denied important services such as education. Fine and Asch (1988) argues that: .... Having a disabilityhas always been synonymouswith dependent, child-like, and helplessness, an image fundamentallychallenging all that is embodied in the ideal male-virility autonomy and independence. Women with disabilities have been traditionally ignored by those concerned about disability, and also by those examining women's experiences. Even the feminist schools to whom we owe great intellectual and political debts have perpetuated this neglect. The popular view of women with disabilitieshas been one mixed with repugnance (Fine and Asch, 1988:8.). Women with disabilities suffer double discrimination; first, as women, and secondly as people with disabilities. The discrimination leads to marginalisation of women. A person with disability should not be discriminated. The UNISE Bulletin (1997) shows that many women with disabilities in Uganda are not sent to school. The Bulletin further points out that if you send a disabled girl and a disabled boy together for registration, the boy would be left behind. Mhoja (Mwalutambi,1995) also shows that most women with disabilities in Tanzania do not get education beyond primary school. Consequently, they lack good education background, which makes them live in poverty. The author argue& further that the disabled women are exposed to all forms of social ills and harassment and live as beggars, dependants, or as prostitutes. About 3 million (10% of Tanzania's population) have disabilities, of which women are 1,530,000 (51 %) (Mwalutambi, 1995). Wimile and Kondo (1997) arg.ue that because of the lack of education. women with disabilities lack Gender and Education of People WHh DlsabllHles In TanZiUJid 161 functional skills necessary to enhance independent living. Most women with disabilities, like any other people with disabilities in Tanzania are "pushed" into streets as beggars. They are homeless, illiterate and neglected In America, one out six disabled woman has had fewer than eight years of formal education as compared to only one out of every 28 non-disabled women in the country. Only 16% of all disabled women are likely to report some college education, compared with 31 % of all non-disabled women (Bowe, 1984). Similar experiences are also found in Tanzania. For example, in 1997 there were 1787 boys in primary schools, and 1374 girls out of a total enrolment of 3221 disabled children in primary schools (Possi, 1998(b». There is need of discussing education of people with specific attention to gender. It is for this reason that this article is written to portray the situation of gender and disabilities in education in Tanzania. The Primary Education Situation in Tanzania Statistics on Table 3 show that in the recent five years (1992-1996) there has been an increase in the number of students with disabilities in primary schools. Table 3: Number Of Students of Major Type of Disabilities in Primary Schools from 1992-1996 Year Type Boys Girls Total 1992 VI 495 295 790 MR 267 142 409 HI 431 292 723 1993 VI 579 476 1055 MR 288 208 496 HI 490 357 847 1994 VI 560 419 987 MR 341 273 614 HI 504 367 871 1995 VI 640 508 1148 MR 641 431 1072 HI 552 433 985 1996 VI 511 422 933 MR 876 587 1463 '. HI 594 440 1034 TOTAL 7769 5650 114'19 Source: Special Education Unit, 1997 Key: VI= Visual impairment HI = Hearing Impairment MR = Mental Retardation 162 MwaJabu K. Possl For example, in 1992 there were a total of 1922 students receiving primary education. In 1996 there were 3442 students: an increase of 1520 students. (55.84%); It should be noted here that children with other disabilities like Learning Disabilities (LD) and Emotional Disorders (EBD) are not indicated. For one to determine access to education by students with disabilities, there is need to know the exact number of children with disabilities who are of school age. Data available indicate that in 1996 there were 7769 boys (68.03%) and 5650 girls (49.47%) in Tanzania getting special education in primary schools. There were more students with Mental Retardation, followed by those with Hearing Impairment, and than those with Visual Impairment (See Table 4). Table 4: Students with Disabilities in Programs For Students with Disabilities in Tanzania Cate or Girls Visual Disability 627 Hearing Impairment 380 Physical Disability 123 Mental Retardation 433 Autistic Deaf Blind Cerebral Pals Total * Break down in gender was unavailable Source: Mboya and Possi (1996). The data in Table 4 show that there are a. total of 3 253 students enrolled in Special ~ucation programmes in Tanzania: 1,863 (in.27%) boys, and 1,380 (42.4%) girls. Therefore boys outnumber girls by 14.85%. Secondary Education Table 5 shows that there are 170 students with visual impairment receiving secondary education in the country, and of these 123 (72.35%) are boys, and 47 (27.64%) are girls .. The data in Table 5 indicates that enrolment of students with disabilities de~rease even further at secondary school level. Also the number of disabilities bemg catered for keep on decreasing: only two are being catered for in secondary schools as far as Special Education is concerned. Gender and Education of People With DIsdbUltlesIn Tanzania 163 Table 5: Number of Students with Visual Disabilities in Secondary Schools of Tanzania Type of Type of Number of Boys Girls Total Disability School Schools VI Intel!rated 8 84 34 118 HI Integrated 3 39 13 52 Total 11 123 47 170 Key: VI = Visual Impairment ill = Hearing Impairment Source: Possi, M. K. (1998) The decrease in the number of girls, and the type of disabilities catered for in secondary schools may be. due to a variety of factors. For example, negative attitudes towards girls' education, coupled with overprotection of girls by their pare~ts, may affect enrolment of girls with disabilities. Dembo (1991) indicates that there are no gender differences in general intelligence, even though girls excel at verbal tasks, and boys at mathematical and visual-spatial tasles-. On standardised tests, girls score higher than boys in subjects requiring verbal ability, while boys surpass girls in subjects requiring various reasoning and spatial skills. Part of this may be due to the nurturing process, whereby boys are encouraged to particiPate in science activities and science-related fields. Research also shows that more boys are non-readers than girls, hence mQre likely to receive special education (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1997). University Education The University of Dar es Salaam started enrolling students _with Visual Impairment in 1978. So far only two female students with Visual Impairment have been enrolled, and graduated from the University of Dar es Salaam. Data from the re~ource centre at the University of Dar es Salaam indicate that in the 1997/1998 academic year, there was a total of 24 students with disabilities at the University of Dar es Salaam, anti of these only four (25 %) were girls. Further, the data indicate that the majority -of the students were majoring in Education; and a few in sciences, Law and Economics. For example, there was only one student in Engineering, and two in the Faculty of Science. It should be noted here that most of the students enrolled at the University of Dar es Salaam have mild disabilities, with the exception of those with total blindness. Adult Education The Directorate of Adult Education in the Ministry of Education and Culture is making every effort to make literacy programmes accessible to all. However, 164 MWiljilbu K. PossJ some people with disabilities have not had access to literacy programmes (Ministry of Education and Culture (1997). It is has been in~icated ~ha~~~re are 193599 disabled learners out of whom 14, 324 showed mterest m J01mng literacy' classes. Table 6 indicates the number of people w~th disabilities requiring literacy education. The data presented are for 1981 smce there has never been any other census. Table 6: Number of adults with disabilities and their education levels in Tanzania Sex Formal Literacy Illiterates Others Total Education Prol!ramme Males 34729 9038 62869 1361 107997 (70.56%) (63.09%) (49.03%) (73.08%) (57.78%) Females 14496 5286 65340 480 85602 (24.44%) (36.9%) (50.96%) (26.07%) (44.21%) Total 49225 14324 128209 1841 193599 (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) Source: Ministry of Education (1998) The data in Table 6 indicate that there are less women (29.44%) compared to men (70.56%) who have formal education. Further, the data show that there are more illiterate women (50.95%) than men (49.03%). Also there were fewer women with disabilities (36.1 %) than men (63.09%) who showed interest in literacy classes. When asked what programmes they wanted, more male adult learners (55.78 %) showed interest in functional literacy programmes than women (44. %). The respondents were interested in activities such as agriculture and animal husbandry, domestic science, and carpentry (See T,able 7). Other activities that learners with disabilities could participate in included commerce, leathers work, tailoring and secretarial duties, depending on the type and severity of disabilities. Table 7 indicates several income generating activities that people with disabilities can participate in. The data do not indicate the activities according to type of disabilities. The data in Table 7 shows that many adults with disabilities joined neither formal education classes nor literacy programmes. Information from the Ministry of Education and Culture (1998) showed that there had been a problem of lack of well-trained specialist teachers. The fact that there were some people with disabilities who participated in literacy classes demonstrated that they could integrate with able-bodied people in their day-to-day activities if given conductive conditions for learning. They were also ready to participate Gender and Education of People WJth DlsabJ//tJes In Tanzania 165 and give advice in decision-making processes in their study groups as well as respective communities, and contribute to community development. Table 7: Number of Adults With Disabilities and Their Involvement in Income Generation Activities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Sex Tel. Tea- AgrIc- AnImal Tal- Carp- Com- Seen- Unem- Other Total Oper- ching nltnre Hnsb- loring entry merce tarIai p10yed ators amlrv Male 743 732 30003 475 285 1131 608 664 7'1247 1109 107997 Female 485 256 20578 . 159 69 161 148 160 63097 462 85602 Total 1228 988 50581 634 381. 1292 756 824 135344 1571 193599 % 0.6 0.5 26.1 0.327 0.196 0.667 0.39 0.4 69.9 0.8 100.% Source: The National'Census of the Disabled Report compiled in 1981 by the Ministry of LabOur and Social Welfare Why Such a Situation for Students With Disabilities in Tanzania? Literature on gender issues show that low enrolment of girls with disabilities in schools does not differ much from that of the non-disabled girls. After all, they are essentially females. It is however noted that the overprotection of children with disabilities may be one of the reasons for their low enrolment in school. Kizito (1993) argued that overprotection of children with disabilities in Uganda was one of the biggest probletns facing children with disabilities. He contended that some parents may do almost everything for their children with disabilities, and this may hold back the children from developing life skills and learning. This situation may be worse for girls with disabilities . .JGzito (1993) also reiterated that some families in overprotectin~ their handic~pped children they often kept them hidden away from the public.: It is importailt that children with disabilities are not hidden, but be provided ~ith .education that will allow them to live as self-reliant as possible. Further, low enrolment of gitl8, with disabilities may be attributed to the general negative attitudes towards edl1Eationfpr women, as well as differential treatment, expectations and reinforcement given to girls (Bendera, 1997). Negative attitudes toward the education of people with disabilities in general .has been indicated somewhere else by Mboya and Possi (1996). Another reason. for low enrolment of children with disabilities, and specifically girls, may be due to the lack of accessible facilities in schools such as toilets for students with handicapping conditions. Most of the buildings in our schools do not facilitate mobility for the disabled. It is hard to imagine a student who walks on fours using the common toilets in schools. 166 Mwajabu K. Possl Lack of teaching learning materials in schools is another problem. Possi (1986) and Mlimahadala (1996) found out that there was shortage of teaching and learning materials for students with Visual Impairments. Such shortage may affect the academic performance of students hindering them to perform well in examinations. For example, when the shortage of materials leads to sharing of them among students, girls might feel shy to share learning materials with boys. Another observation is that some disabilities are not catered for. Such disabilities include Behavioural and Emotional Disorders, Multiple Disabilities, Learning Disabilities as well, as low vision. Lack of correct information about causes of disability and the cognitive ability of children with disabilities may hinder parents from taking their children to school (Mboya and Possi, 1996). The degree of disability may also affect the education of children with disabilities. For example, Tanzania children with severe disabilities are not catered for in educational institutions since there are no services for severe disabilities. Summary and Conclusions This paper attempted to provide a discussion of conceptual issues regarding gender and disability, as well as to look at education of people with disabilities in a gender perspective. The discussion has indicated that parity in education opportunity (enrolment) does not p#nt a bad picture at the primary school level. In primary schools the performance of girls in relation to mat of boys has not been inversely proportioned. However, upward the ladder toward higher education, the number keeps on decreasing, like that of the non-disabled girls in ordinary schools. Further, it has been indicated that there are very few girls with disabilities who have had University or college education. It has also been observed that students with Behavioural Disorders, Learning Disabilities, and severe disabilities are not catered for in special education. The low enrolment of students with disabilities might be due negative attitudes towards girls' education, as well as overprotection of children with disabilities by their parents. Lack of conducive environment or facilities for students with disabilities has also been advanced as one of the reasons for low enrolment. Another reason is lack of role models, or successful educated people with disabilities, who can motivate students with disabilities to join school, work hard, stay in school, graduate successfully, and then get a job or become self- employed. Despite the aforementioned factors there is a need of revisiting our curricula and find out whether or not they are friendly to students With disabilities and whether or not what is offered may assist in making them self-reliant. Gender and Education of People With Disabilities In Tanzania 167 Recommendations Consistent with the above discussions, the following recommendations are made: 1. Efforts should be made by the Ministry of Education and Culture, together with the Ministry of Higher Education to increase enrolment of children with disabilities, with particular emphasis on women. 2. Educators and associations of people with disabilities, as well as those working for the disabled, should conduct awareness seminars on education of people with disabilities. 3. Educators should play the leading role in educating people about the disabled, and developing positive attitudes towards people with disabilities. This can be done through seminars and workshops. 4. Attempts should be made by the Tanzanian government to create conducive physical environments for students with disabilities. For example, physical barriers should be removed by making all rooms accessible for students with disabilities. 5. Early identification, assessment and intervention is necessary for successful provision of education to students with disabilities. 6. Role models visitations to schools of children with special needs should encouraged to motivate children with special needs. 7. Parent education should be provided to ensure that they understand the concept of equality and equal opportunities for education of their children with disabilities. 8. Arrangements should be made to have relevant teaching and learning materials which are gender friendly. References Asch, A & M. Fine. 1988. The Construction of Disability Tn M. Fine, & A. Asch (1988). Women and Disability. London: Zed Books. Bendera, S. J. 1997. Interventions for the Promotion of Girl Education in Tanzania. Papers in Education. 18:84-96. Bowe. 1984. Disabled Women in America. Washington, D.C.: President's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped. Dembo. 1991. Applying Educational Psychology in the Classroom. Fourth Edition. Longman, New York. Department of Education. 1997. Gender Equity. Report of Gender Equity Task Team: South Africa 168 Mwajabu K. Possl Fine, M. & A. Asch. 1988. Women with Disabilities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Hallahan, D. P, & J. M. Kauffman. 1997. 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