275
THE NEW BOTANY.
BY W. J. BEAL.

Before fully considering the new botany, let us glance at the old. Aristotle,
Pliny and other Greeks and Romans paid some attention to plants. So did the
Arabs of the twelfth century. Still later, Grew, Tournefort, Ray, and many
others studied plants and wrote about them. A little progress, and but very
little, was made in classification and description.
Not until the last century, about 1735, less than 150 years ago, did botany
begin to take rank as a science. This was largely due to Linnaus of Sweden,

276
who well earned the title "Father of Botany." His efforts were largely devoted
to describing and classifying plants, and were ably continued by the four Jussieus, Robert Brown, A. P. De Candolle, Lindley, Endlicher, and their contemporaries.

Except for medical students, botany hardly found a place until within the
past forty years. Even in the higher educational institutions, and as late as
1850, botany was usually only considered a pleasant and proper pastime for
young school girls.

As generally pursued, the study consisted mainly in learning from a book
the forms and names of roots, stems, leaves, inflorescence, and the several parts
of flowers and fruits. The teacher was supposed to be a dried up old fossil.
He wore odd looking clothes.  He taught the class from the text-book, and
preferred to pursue the study in winter, that pupils might learn the names and
peculiarities of plants before they appeared in the spring. There were many
hard, unfamiliar names. With no specimens to illustrate the lessons and a dry
teacher, most of the pupils acquired a thorough disgust for the study, long
before warm weather furnished materials for illustration.  It is little wonder that botany found so little favor. Some teachers went so far as to require
pupils to copy the pictures on a blackboard.

In time, spring flowers appear and the pupils are supplied with them. Each
may have a cheap microscope, which he is compelled to hold in one hand.
The teacher and class hastily and superficially run over the various parts of a
plant. They all turn to an artificial key and wade through this part of the
book till the teacher says, "We have found the order to which the plant in
hand belongs." They turn to the page for the order and proceed till they
come to the name, which may be Claytonia Virginica, Hepatica triloba, or
Ranunculus fascicularis. And what next?

"We have found the name of the plant." The pupils have merely had an
introduction to the stranger in the most formal manner. The teacher can
suggest nothing further for the pupil, except that it would be a good plan for
each member of the class to collect specimens, press, dry them, place in a port-
folio, and give each a label on which is written the Latin and common names,
the habitat and time of flowering. The pupil has been taught that it is all of
botany to learn the names of all the parts of a plant, or the parts which are not
too small to be easily seen with a cheap hand glass. Mysteries are still unsolved
and the plant is still a stranger. We ask it no questions; we receive no replies.
We have only glanced at the exterior. Such is the mode of study which can
no longer be palmed off as valuable training.

From 1770, to about 1800, Wolff and Goethe of Germany and A. P. De
Candolle of France developed new ideas of plant morphology. Schimper,
Braun, Dunal and Roper aided in this work; but to no one are we more
indebted for accurate information in regard to the difficult problems of plant
structure and affinity than to Robert Brown of England. He was the most
profound botanist of this or of any age. In this country, Dr. Gray has long
been foremost in developing and popularizing the subject of plant morphology,
which, for twelve years beginning with 1850, may be said to have been the
leading idea in botany.

The year 1862 will ever be memorable as the date in which appeared the
classic works of Mr. Darwin on the fertilization of Orchids. He caught the
first glimpse of the subject from Sprengel, but to Darwin more than to any
one else are we indebted for the light thrown on the subject of fertilization of
flowers. Delpino, Ogle, Hildebrand, Bennett, Hooker, Lubbock, Kerner, Fritz

277
Muller and Hermann Muller and a host of others in Europe and America, aided
in rapidly making new discoveries in the same direction.

In connection with this, many interesting discoveries have been made in
reference to the motions of plants in climbing, catching insects, etc. Carnivorous plants have been examined and experimented upon. New modes have been
discovered by which plants are distributed in various parts of the globe. From
1862 to 1875, in this country, what Gray calls "How Plants Behave," may be
said to be the dominant feature in the science of botany.

In 1875 appeared the English translation of the grand text-book of Julius
Sachs. In following him understandingly, one must employ a good compound
microscope and considerable other apparatus. He must make many experiments to become familiar with the structure and development of cells, tissues,
external conformation of plants, and their physiology. Two years later appeared the translation of another similar work by Otto W. Thome.

Already during 1880 we have an excellent work similar to that of Sachs by
an American scholar, Prof. C. E. Bessey. This is convenient in form and size
and can be had at a price within the reach of students.

Original investigators keep in advance of text-books and make the materials
for them. We still have all that is valuable in morphology, classification,
geographical distribution and many other things, as well as all that pertains to
the topics last named. The field has become too large for any but specialists.
In making a selection, we should choose those topics which will afford the pupil
the best training to fit him for original work.

For young pupils, object lessons are very popular for a while, but in most
cases the interest soon wears away. As too often managed (I may say as
usually managed), object lessons consist in short lectures with specimens in
hand, with some questions plied to the pupils without time for previous study
or preparation. There is too much pouring in and too little worked out by the
pupil. It brings forth the combined information of all the members of a
class, but it adds little or nothing by way of research. To be really appreciated, a student should earn his facts in the study of biology. What I have called

THE NEW BOTANY

began to appear in this country in 1862. It includes a study of the subjects
as set forth by Darwin, Sachs, and others above named in the same connection.
It also includes a new or better way for students to learn the botany of our forefathers. In this we study objects before books; a few short talks are given;
the pupil is directed and set to thinking, investigating, and experimenting for
himself. To be constantly giving information in science makes intellectual
tramps, and not trained investigators.

Teaching the new botany properly "is simply giving the thirsty a chance to
drink." It also creates a thirst which the study gratifies, but never entirely
satisfies. This plan, in a general way, has been again and again brought to
the attention of our best teachers, some of whom are carrying it into practice.
I will now enter into details as briefly as possible, and try to mark out a plan
which may assist some who are always looking for the best way. Specimens
are essential; a green-house or a botanic garden are useful even if they are
small, but almost every neighborhood will furnish materials in abundance,
which may be found in the fields, woods, and by-ways.

Before the first lesson, each pupil is furnished or told where to procure some

278
specimen for study. If it is winter, and flowers or growing plants cannot be
had, give each a branch of a tree or shrub, which may be two feet long. The
examination of these is made during the usual time for preparing lessons,
and not while the class is before the teacher. For the first recitation each is to
tell what he has discovered. The specimens are not in sight during the recitation. In learning the lesson, books are not used; for if they are used, no books
will contain a quarter of what the pupil may see for himself. If there is time,
each member of the class is allowed a chance to mention any thing not named
by any of the rest. The teacher may suggest a few other points for study.
The pupils are not told what they can see for themselves. An effort is made
to keep them working after something which they have not yet discovered. If
two members disagree on any point, on the next day, after further study, they
are requested to bring in all the proofs they can to sustain their different conclusions. For a second lesson the students review the first lesson-report on a
branch of a tree of another species which they have studied as before. Now
they notice any point of difference or of similarity. In like manner new
branches are studied, and new comparisons made. For this purpose, naked
branches of our species of elms, maples, ashes, oaks, basswood, beech, poplars,
willows, walnut, butternut, hawthorns, cherries, and in fact any of our native
or exotic trees and shrubs are suitable. A comparison of the branches of any
evergreens is interesting and profitable. Discoveries, very unexpected, are
almost sure to award a patient study of these objects. The teacher must not
think the time is wasted. No real progress can be made, till the pupils begin
to learn to see, and to learn to see they must keep trying to form the habit,
from the very first, and to form the habit they should make the study of specimens the main feature in the course of training. In nearly all important cases
specimens are examined, and a need is felt for a name or a definition before
these are given. The use of technical names is not avoided, nor are these
"thrust upon a student." They are learned as they are needed-a few at a
time from the teacher or a text book. Common terms for science are usually
too indefinite in meaning to answer a good purpose. The difficulty of learning
technical names is often much overestimated. The discipline required to learn
them is itself worth all it costs to any one.

After from four to ten lessons on small branches the following points and
others, or answers to them are brought out. Is there any definite proportion
of active and dormant buds in any year? Where do branches appear? Is there
any agreement in growth, as to length of branch, and the size of the annular
ring each year? Is there any similarity of rapid or slow growth of all the
limbs on a branch in each year? Is there any certain number of leaves on a
year's growth, or any definite proportion between the lengths of internodes?
Can the smallest old dormant buds be made to grow? Is there any order as to
what buds grow, and what remain dormant? How much, and on what years
did each limb grow? There are three ways of telling the age of a branch-by
the bud rings, stem rings, and color of the bark. The shape, size, color,
degree of smoothness and other peculiarities of buds on any branch, and the
leaf scars are made out. The arrangement and position of the buds and bud
scales are learned. Is there any order in the arrangement of the specks on a
branch? Do the specks change as the branch grows older, and if so, how?
How many leaves each year were required to build up the branch? How large
were the leaves and the amount of surface exposed for a certain branch? Did
the amount of growth in any year correspond to the number of leaves on the
twigs and main axis? Does the ring of wood depend on the growth of the

279
main axis? In this connection pupils may take up phyllotaxis by the study of
cones, catkins, etc., not forgetting to examine a large number of specimens of
one species.

The pupils are now ready for a book lesson on buds, branches, and phyllo-
taxis. They will read it with interest and profit, and be able to make many
additions, and very likely point out some errors in the text book. Pupils must
be careful about drawing hasty conclusions. Because a plant grows or behaves
in a certain way in Central Michigan, it is not always safe to conclude that it
will do the same in New Jersey or California.

I have gone somewhat into detail, in this case, of the lessons with branches.
In like manner, any other topic or the subject of a chapter in the book may
be first taken up by the study of some specimens, as roots, seeds, fruits,
stamens, petals, sepals, leaves. For beginners the following flowers, if they
can be had, will be excellent: buttercup, cranesbill, trillium, berberry, flax,
pink, violet, mustard, potato, sage, bergamot, lilac, cherry, apple, serviceberry.
Missouri currant, snapdragon, pea, vetch, strawberry, rose, iris, the flowers of
poplars, willows, maples, oaks, hazels. After a day, two, three, or more of
study of the specimens pertaining to one topic, then comes the study of the
book. Even with the shortest and most elementary course, a study of some of
the specimens by all of the class should precede a study of the text.

I place very little stress on investigating a number of chapters in the definite
order as given in a text book on botany. For example, it makes little difference whether a pupil begins with a study of petals or stamens, buds or roots,
leaves or pistils, but it is quite desirable after beginning, not to abandon any
one of of these topics till many of the various forms have been thoroughly
studied. It is possible to classify and divide a topic till you take all the life
out of it. A young man of eighteen will begin and pursue the same course as
a child of ten, only he will progress faster and go deeper. Almost any of the
above topics, and hosts of others are admirably well adapted for descriptive
compositions. I usually give each student one or more of them each term.
For the youngest students this year, the following topics will serve as examples:
Compare the leaves and young branches of the Scotch pine with those of the
Austrian pine; or black spruce and Norway spruce; sugar maple and red
maple; butternut and black walnut; any two species of poplars. I have here
on the table the compositions prepared last year by the young beginners in
botany. I made no corrections in the spelling or grammar, but met each
student and heard him state his main facts before writing them out.

(See American Naturalist, January, 1881.)

As students advance in morphology and systematic botany, topics for other
themes are assigned, of which the following may serve as examples: He
studies the living plants, and makes his notes. To him it is just the same as
original research, and not unfrequently young students, in this way, make discoveries new to science. For example, he studies the arrangement and development of the parts of the flower with reference to its self-fertilization, or
fertilization by insects, birds, wind, or by other means. Here are plants suitable for such study: Moth-mullein, dog-bane, sage, thyme, red clover, plantain, milk-weed, mallow, thistle, cleistogamous flowers of the violet, campanula, iris, lobelia, martynia, Indian corn, wild balsam. One studied the vines of dodder; one, the climbing of Virginia creeper; one, the twining of the
wild morning-glory; one, the tendrils of the cucumber; one, unequal lobed
leaves; one, the time of opening and closing of flowers; several, the development of some irregular flower; one, the order of dehiscence among anthers of

280
a flower; one, the honey glands of some flower; some, the glands in other
parts of plants than flowers; one grew beans in pots containing all sorts of
soil, and with more or less light; one experimented on the germinating power
of weevil-eaten peas; one, the relative order of development of stamens and
pistils of many plants of Indian corn ; one, for what do ants visit plants? In
most cases it was necessary to give brief hints to the students to set them to
work intelligently. The theses were made up from original observations and
experiments, and drawings, and were read in the class room. Here they are on
the table, with all the imperfections, just as they wrote them. Teachers can
well make use of such topics for the pupils to write about. In some respects,
topics like these are better for theses than those usually assigned, in which
students must consult books for information. A study of such topics for
theses is equivalent to enlarging a library.

During five-sixths of the academic year in which our students have daily
lessons in botany, full three-fourths of the time is given to the study of plants
in some form or other. The books serve for reference and reviews.
I have been quite particular to indicate the course pursued, because some
think it is difficult. Aside from collecting specimens, which can often be
entrusted to an advanced student, it is an easy way for a teacher when he knows
how to proceed. But little time need be occupied with lectures; short talks of
ten, fifteen, or twenty minutes are occasionally given. I have taught zoology
and physiology in the same manner. Students are thus at once put in the way
of becoming independent and reliable observers and experimenters. They are
trained more than they are taught. As the New York Tribune says: "Teaching communicates ideas; training forms habit. Teaching imparts knowledge;
training develops power. In teaching, the adult explains words; in training,
he shows methods. Under teaching, the child hears what is said; under training, he sees what is done." And I may add, he learns to do it himself.

"Training is food which gives strength to run."

In the whole course in botany I keep constantly in view how best to prepare
students to acquire information for themselves with readiness and accuracy.
This is a training for power and is of far more value than the mere information
acquired during a course of study in natural science.
Of all the natural sciences, botany is the best for beginners. The materials
are everywhere abundant and inexpensive. Many parts of plants are more
interesting than minerals; less complicated and pleasanter to handle than
animals.

For the benefit of young teachers, I will now give in an informal way a large
number of topics which are suitable for students to investigate. A teacher can
select such as he likes, not all, of course, and after using some, others will
suggest themselves to him. Any text-book should suggest many topics to a
teacher. In connection with these topics I will make comments or give hints
as to mode of procedure.

Set pupils to raising or collecting seedlings of maples, oak, basswood, beans,
peas, morning-glory, sun-flower, radishes, wheat, flax, squashes, onions. Let
each study one species at all ages, then another or more and carefully compare.
Most seeds can be neatly started for this purpose between folds of thick paper
or cloth kept warm and damp. Boxes of clean sand are also good. To learn
whether the different parts of a seedling, as radicle, ascending axis and roots
elongate alike, prick with ink a row of spots at equal distances along the side
and let them grow a while longer for further comparison. Grow seeds sus-
pended over water with roots in water. In beans, peas, peanuts, cut off much

281
or all of the cotyledons at different ages to see the result. Cut off tip of
plumule to see whether buds will come in the axils of cotyledons.
Dig very carefully to trace the depth and extent of roots of clover, wheat,
corn, any weed or cultivated plant in various soils, light or heavy, wet or dry.
The structure of the seeds may well be studied and compared in connection
with their germination in any young plants. To the above seeds, I will add
seeds of catalpa, trumpet-creeper, milk-weed, apple, violet, cockle, wheat, oats,
barley, chess. See carefully where the smallest roots come from in corn and
in squash or pumpkin, bean or pea. It is a good plan for a beginner to repeat
some simple experiment which he finds described in some book. Let one or
more compare the runners of strawberries of many varieties, potentillas, buttercup, beef-steak saxifrage, and any other plant which has runners. Work out
the morphology of the tendrils of grape-vines, Virginia creeper, smilax, cucumber, pea, etc. Work out the morphology of spines of various sorts by hunting up
intervening forms. Compare the diverse forms of stipules in prickly ash, locust,
dock, sorrel, clover, tulip tree, beech, oak, and trace the stipules from very small
rudiments to maturity. Observe the position of flowers in the bud while open
and when dead; also the position of the fruit, as peas, violets, columbine, etc.
Compare two or more rhizomas, as Solomon's seal, iris, blood-root, sweet flag,
quack grass or June grass. Compare the tubers of artichokes and potatoes;
the bulbs of a lily and onion; the chips of any two kinds of wood, or sections
of wood made in different directions, as any oak, ash, beech, maple, pine.
Collect and press sets of leaves, arrange and paste on to cards. Give each a
name and name the shape. Study and draw many kinds of leaf scars. Study
the development of some leaf from a very small rudiment to perfection, as pea,
ash, basswood. Study leaves of arbor vita, pines, spruces, larches. In spring
clip off the ends of young branches of pines and see how and where buds develop during summer; the same with peach, beech, maple, poplars. With the
aid of a stage microscope, study and draw the position of scales and leaves in s
bud, as cherry, violet, basswood, etc.; also the buds of flowers, as mustard,
spirea, asclepias, evening primrose, fuchsia, basswood, oxalis, phlox, violet,
lobelia. Do not forget to notice the tip of the bud before opening. Examine
a large number of specimens and make drawings of a cross section of each distinct mode or form. Let a young pupil study all the parts of a head of flowers
of dandelion, aster, or coreopsis; also double flowers of roses, fuchsias, petunias, geraniums, flowering almond. Compare the fruit of a strawberry
with a rose hip and a geranium; the anthers of some two species of compositae,
lobelia, mallow, obutilon, lupine, berberry, spice bush, sassafras, huckleberry,
squash, sage, lily, grass, violet, tulip, spring beauty, buttercup, milkweed.
Compare the pistils or fruits of some two of the following: mandrake, cowslip,
columbine, cherry, bloodroot, trillium, flax, portulacca, iris, melon, pea, bean,
maple, ash, elm, acorn, horse chestnut, plum, apple, cranberry, huckleberry,
gooseberry, currant, raspberry, blackberry, fig, wintergreen, mulberry. Try
to trace out the morphology of each.

From spring and during summer examine every few days to see how the bulb of
adder-tongues is formed. Grow young roots on clear glass to see if they corode
the surface. Carefully pull or take up stools of wheat or chess or oats to find,
after washing, the kernel from which the stool grew.

Remove stamens before the buds open, and by protection for a day or two
get ready and cross-fertilize or hybridize two sorts of strawberries, raspberries,
gooseberries, currants, apples, wheat, corn, etc.

282

THE FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS.
Remarks on this topic have already appeared on the previous pages, with
some subjects for study. Most botanists believe, whether it is true or not, that
honey is placed in flowers to attract insects which are needed to fertilize them.
Flowers are the advertisements to draw insects. Honey is the wages received
and compensates insects for their visits. "The lines and circles on the corolla
guide them to the right spot. To them we owe the beauty of our gardens, the
sweetness of our fields. To them flowers are indebted for their scent and color,
nay, for their very existence, in its present form."-[Lubbock.] No topics
are more attractive to the young student than some under this heading.
Watch insects on the flowers of melons or pumpkins to see how they behave
and transfer the pollen. Tie up or cover the pistillate flowers to see if fruit
will form without pollen on the stigma. Cut the petals from some flowers to
see if bees or other insects can find them readily. In many cases, a crossing of
flowers has been found necessary for the production of seeds; in most, it is very
beneficial. Try it and see. Try a flower with its own pollen and another with
pollen of another flower. For experiment and observation our native plants
are the best if we study them with reference to our native insects.

The wind aids in the transfer of pollen in some cases. Study pines, spruces,
larches, birches, oaks, hazels, hickories, grasses. Are these flowers showy, or
do they secrete honey? Always notice the condition of the pollen, whether dry,
in grains, strings, etc. What parts of a flower secrete honey? See peony,
buttercups, hellebore, pulsatilla, caltha, poinsettia, and others. Observe
stigmas after pollen has been applied and where none has been applied. What
do insects gather, nectar, pollen, or both of these? Observe time of day when
certain flowers open and close, and see whether they open more than once.
See the dandelion, white water lily, evening primrose, oxalis. What insects
visit each flower? Study flowers of willows, poplars, and see what attracts
insects. In every case, observe whether the stamens and pistils are ready for
each other on any flower at the same time, or whether one set of these organs
precedes the other. With this hint study epilobium, angustifolium, thyme,
lobelia, composita, companula, mallow, amorpha, scrophularia, plantago, pink,
geranium. In some violets and oxalis look late in the season for flowers without petals above ground and below ground. Examine carefully for pollen,
seeds, etc. Look in flowers of the closed gentian for bumble bees. Any flowers
of the mint family are excellent for study in relation to fertilization by insects.
What insects visit flowers of the umbelifera, as parsnips, carrots, and the like,
and how do they behave?

Some species are dimorphous. They have plants, different specimens of
which have different forms of flowers. Some have two forms of flowers, so far
as their stamens and pistils are concerned. In some cases it has been found
that the long stamens are best to fertilize the long pistils, the short stamens to
fertilize the short pistils. Try this on primula, mitchella, houstonia, bouvardia,
polyanthus, auricula, and look elsewhere for flowers with the same peculiarity.
A few are trimorphous. See Lythrum salicaria and Pontederia cordata. Hunt
for others. Experiment by crossing a pistil with pollen from stamens of different lengths.
In geranium pratense there are two sets of stamens. They advance and retire
from the stigmas at certain times. See Tropæolum, and also whether this is
true of any other flowers. Valisneria spiralis and anacharis grow in the water.
In a still place look for pollen below water in the flowers and the stigma at the
surface. Study up the whole subject.

283
Study the structure and modes of fertilization of all the species to be found
of any large or small genius, as viola, rosa, spirea, epilobium, lobelia, ranunculus, aquilegia, berberry.

See and study the sensitive stamens of the berberry. See whether the weather
or time of day affects the supply of honey in any flower. In shade or damp
air honey may appear when not seen in dry air or in the sun. Study the
changes which take place in the development of different parts of a flower with
reference to its fertilization by insects or otherwise. Changes sometimes occur
in a very short time. Quickly brush the stamens of portulacca to see them
move in the opposite direction. Try to find other flowers which will behave in
like manner. See where and how an insect alights on a flower, how it gets in
and gets out, and where it begins and leaves off on a cluster of flowers, as peas,
amorpha, mullein, veronica virginica. How does pollen get out of flowers of
composita, lobelia, etc.? Are the stigmas of a head or spike all ready at once?
Is the pollen all ready at once? See also dipsacus and scabiosa. Is nodding
any benefit to flowers? Look for appendages to anthers and inside of corolla,
and study their use. Where are the holes in an anther when at rest and when
visited by insects? See many ericacea, as vaccinium and kalmia. Study sensitive stigmas to see how they can be of any use in aiding a cross. See utricularia, pinguicula, catalpa, martynia, tecoma, begonia, mimulus.

Do any insects gnaw into flowers? See bumble bees in pedicularis and flowers
of labiatea. Orioles sometimes pinch flowers of Missouri currant for honey.
Do any flowers catch and hold or otherwise torture insects, and is it in any way
an advantage to either? See asclepias, apocynum, drosera, martynia, vinca,
cirsium, oltissimum, nemophila. Study carefully the date and length of time
of flowering of timothy, June grass, Indian corn, or other plants. Besides
those named, the flowers of the following are also excellent for study with
reference to the agency of insects or birds in fertilization, viz. : nymphæa,
nuphar, sarracenia, poppy, polygala, silene, chickweeds, hypericum, flax, basswood; all cruciferæ, mignonette, euonymus; all rosacae, as apple, pear, quince,
plum, cherry, strawberry, spirca; also œnethera, ribes, parnassia, rhus, acer,
staphylea, aesculus, cornus sambucus, lonicera, cephalanthus, vibernum, galium,
campanula, convolvulus, pulmonaria, ipomea, scrophularia, snap dragon,
linaria, fox glove, and all other scrophulariacea. All leguminosa are excellent;
all verbenas, phlox, physalis, petunia, datura, buckwheat, hydrophyllum, sassafras, benzoin, gladiolus, iris, smilax, lily, tradescantia.

Through a season look for humming birds on flowers; make inquiries of
others, and keep a list of such plants. See especially fuchsia, impatiens fulfa,
trumpet creeper. Examine the flowers and the birds for small insects, pollen
and honey.

THE UNWELCOME GUESTS OF FLOWERS.

There are many truly wonderful contrivances in flowers by which a cross is
secured. Certain insects are not only welcome but allured to make visits.
Other insects which from any cause can be of no advantage in fertilizing plants
are often kept away by various means. Dr. A. Kerner of Innsbruck has written & very suggestive book on "Flowers and their unbidden guests." This
has been translated into English by W. Ogle. He has in many cases observed
the presence of differently directed hairs and viscid glands which prevent the
access of certain insects and not of others. He took the hint for all of his
book from a single suggestion of Erasmus Darwin, and perhaps also from 'Mr. Belt. Many of our native plants have never yet been studied in reference to

284
this part of the subject. The closed gentian admits the bumble bee, which
can benefit it, but keeps out ants and many others which would be of no advantage. Pedicularis keeps unwelcome insects away by a narrow corolla, by hairs
and awns on the stamens. Small snails and slugs are often kept away by
bristles on the plant or flower. Experiments could be made by removing hairs
in some place and placing a snail on the plants. A few snails could be placed
inside a Wardian case and certain plants in flower introduced. Aphides or plant
lice may be studied in this connection. They like sweet. Do they get it from
flowers?

Of all wingless insects, ants are perhaps the most active and the fondest of
sweet; yet they seldom get much honey from flowers. Look over many kinds
of plants and watch the maneuvers of ants to see where they go, what they do
and why they go no further. Remove some nectar from flowers and place near
ants; take away some obstructions and watch the ants. See if ants can enter
some wilted or old flowers, as snap dragon. Prop open fresh flowers of snap
dragon and watch for ants. Thrips are small, slim, active insects which cannot
fly. Watch them about flowers, as in compositae.

Large animals avoid some plants on account of an unpleasant taste, leathery
foliage, prickles, or thorns. Do cattle eat the fresh flowers of planta the leaves
of which they are fond? Will they eat flowers dried, as in hay?

See isolated plants in water; make s bridge to them for lice or ants. See
dipsacus lacinatus and silphium perfoliatum, with water in the axiles of the
connate leaves, which serves to keep unwelcome insects from the flower; also
a cluster of flowers arising from water held in the leaves of many bromeliacae.
See if dew keeps any insects away, or if some flowers are open only when the
dew is on? Study polygonum amphibium grown in water and out of water to
see if all have protecting hairs alike. Study viscid gum to learn the use on
buds of populus, alnus, betula, iuglans, aesculus. Study robina viscosa or any
others with viscid glands.

Kerner holds "that the position, direction, and shape of the leaf is of just
as great significance for the preservation of a species, as form, color, and smell
of the flower; and that no hair is meaningless, whether found on the cotyledon
on the leaf, on the stem, or the blossom; that it is rare that any part of a
plant is so shaped as to be suitable for the attainment of but one end. Usually
'two birds are hit with one stone;' nay, often three or more." See the riscid
secretion on the internodes of lychnis viscosa. What insects are caught? Place
bridges over for ants. Look for glands or nectar on the leaves or petioles of
pteris aquilina, ricinus, goasypium, poinsettia, helianthus, viburum opulus,
cow pea, acacia, vicia sativa, runus, cassia, the fruit of tecoma radicans.

For viscid glands or hairs see thistles, mulleins, geranium, ribes, circæa,
eryngium, calyx of labiatea, scrophulariacea, phlox, verbenas, mallows, physalis, menyanthus, vinca, tropoeolum. Force ants or other insects to crawl up a
panicle of flowers of asclepias and lettuce and see the milk exude; also hieracium, nabalus, and sonchus. On the inside of flowers see how far it is true
that hairs, etc., act as path-finders to welcome insects. What parts of flowers
produce the hairs?

In some cases access to flowers is impeded by parts of the plant or flower
being bent, dilated, or crowded together. In this connection study linaria,
cynoglossum, antirrhinum, solanum, ericaea, campanula, cactaceæ, potentilla, geum, oenethera, aconitum labiatea, calceolaria, convolvulus, Cruciferae, scrophulariaceæ, many leguminosæ.

285
CARNIVOROUS PLANTS.
Some plants have been found to be carnivorous or insectivorous, as drosera,
dionæs, pinguicula, martynia, and perhaps pelargonium, primula, tomato, to-
bacco, petunia, verbena, several pitcher plants, the small bladders of utricularias. Verify any of the above suggestions by experiment. Irritate tentacles
on the leaves of drosera, dionae. Apply to any of the above, water, sand, meat,
milk, acid, salt, ammonia, chloroform, starch, sugar, etc. Apply heat and cold.

MOTIONS OF PLANTS.
All plants move more or less, while parts of some move quite rapidly.  The
leaves of leersis in a warm day close up quite rapidly if stroked between the
thumb and finger. The stamens of portulacca move when brushed suddenly.
Observe the details of movements and repeat the jarring of the sensitive plants
(Mimosa pudica). Observe the position of the leaves of any other plants day
and night, as in tripolium, melilotus, oxalis, robinia, cassia, desmodium. See
if these can be made to recognize artificial light and darkness. Turn some
plant occasionally in front of a window and note carefully the results. Make
drawings.

CLIMBING BY ROOTS.

Carefully study the climbing by roots of English ivy, poison ivy, trumpet
creeper, etc. Where do roots first appear on a young stem? Experiment with
small mirrors placed in different positions about the stems. Look for liquid
or mucilage on roots. Let them stick to glass to see if it is coroded. See
how some plants are held up by hooks or bending of the stem or leaf, as tomato,
some species of galium, polygonum, rubus, leersia, rose.

A good twiner is said to always turn one way only. Look at many specimens
for exceptions. In a twiner observe the twist of stem and where it twists, at
what age or part. See what the stem does when it arrives at the top of a
straight stick, and stick inclined at various angles. Observe the revolutions
at different times of day, warm and cold. Make diagrams of movements.
What does it do when it hits an object? How far does it reach? How many
internodes are active in the movements? Try to reverse the motion. Wind
up a part while young and study the rest. Study some one certain internode
from the time it is very small till fully grown. Unwind & twiner to some extent
and study. See if an old stem is uniformly twisted when the stake is straight
and when inclined. Study the shape of the young tips of a vine. Take the
support out of a coil to see what it will do. See how large & smooth stick a
vine can climb. Make a cross section of the stem. Examples of plants are
tomato, hop, honeysuckle, morning-glory, bindweed, beans, wax-plant, wistaria,
celastrus, aristolochia, lygodium, menispermum, apios, jasmine, solanum
dulcamara. In case of

LEAF CLIMBERS

see how they climb, what part of the leaf moves and clings. Do the leaves
move so as to be seen? Experiment on small and large sticks. Make diagrams
of cross section of the petiole of a leaf. Observe the changes in any part of a
leaf after it sets. Examples of leaf climbers are clematis, tropœolum, solanum
jasminoides, tomato, nepenthes, cobæa, pea, vetch, fumaria, adlumia. In
case of

286
TENDRIL CLIMBERS,

trace out the morphology of the tendril, whether it is a flower cluster or a real
stem axis. Irritate in some way a tendril and study the result. Observe the
shape of a tendril when young, its length, size, how long before it coils if it
reaches nothing, how fast it coils if it reaches an object. What does the end
do? If a tendril begins to coil back of the top, how does it perform? Observe
the coils of many tendrils and draw them after they have coiled. What is the
advantage of such coils? How much weight will a set tendril hold? Do tendrils in shade and damp air secrete a gum? Why do not tendrils coil on their
own main stem from which they branch? The latter alone is worth much observation. Observe the tendrils of a squash vine after it has spread out on the
ground. Tear it loose and see what happens. In case of Virginia creeper, use
bits of glass to see if a tendril can stick. Look for a gum. How long will it
remain sticky? What becomes of a tendril if it catches hold, or if not? How
many branches has each sort of tendril? How do young and old tendrils of
smilax behave? Irritate a young tendril of a squash or wild cucumber in a
warm part of a warm day and see if it moves. Wait and repeat several times.
Observe any other points. Examples of plants are bignonia, wild cucumber,
melons, squash, pumpkin, grape, Virginia creeper, passion flower, mikania,
smilax.

256

HOW NATURE SOWS SEEDS.

If grains with awns in the chaff can be had of any species of stipa, aira, trisetum, danthonia, avena, andropogon, sorghum, alternately moisten and dry
them and watch the motions. Erodium (found in California) is also excellent.
In a dish of loose sand stick in close together a lot of straws to imitate stubble;
place the seeds on the surface; alternately wet and dry them. Erodium,
stipa, and avena hirsuta, and perhaps others may work into the sand, i. e.,
bury themselves.

SEED DISTRIBUTION.

Make notes of any cases of distribution of seeds or fruits actually seen. Some
examples are given for study: impatiens, brasenia, seeds of pines, spruces,
tulip tree, maples, ashes, elms, thistles, dandelions, basswood, birch; those
with hooks, as bidens, burdock, coreopsis; seeds of tecoma, catalpa, desmodium, echinospermum, cynoglossum, geum, circaa, clematis. See how fleshy
fruits distribute seeds by aid of animals which eat them, as seeds of apples,
hawthorns, cherries, haws, cranberries, blackberries, raspberries, huckleberries, strawberries, gooseberries, currants. See how nuts are carried, as acorns,
walnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, hazelnuts, beechnuts. Watch some fruit of
witch hazel as it is dried near a stove to hasten drying; also pods of the pea,
bean, wistaria, geranium, violet, oxalis, etc. Observe seeds of milkweed, poplar, willow.
In studying up any topic great stress should be placed on good drawings.
Count all the parts. Examine many specimens. Examine young and old as
well as mature specimens. Observe the relative size of the parts. Observe the
relative order of parts. Make many comparisons of specimens of the same species with those of kindred species.
For further topics and suggestions a teacher can consult any of the following
works:
How Plants Behave-A. Gray.

287
Concerning a Few Common Plants-George L. Goodale.
British Wild Flowers in Relation to Insects-Sir John Lubbock.
Climbing Plants-Charles Darwin.
Insectivorous Plants-Charles Darwin.
Nectar, Its Nature, Occurrence, and Uses-Wm. Trelease.
Flower Object Lessons-M. Emm. Le Maout.
On the Mode of Distribution of Plants-Albert N. Prentiss.
Flowers and their Unbidden Guests-A. Kerner, translated by W. Ogle,
Numerous articles and notes in the American Naturalist, and the American
Journal of Science and Arts.

To enter into details in reference to the method of learning morphological
and physiological botany as treated in the text-book of Julius Sachs would carry
me much beyond the limits of this essay. For such work each student needs
& good compound microscope, with some other apparatus. My favorite method
is to require each pupil to study all the parts, or all that his time will permit,
of some one plant, to make accurate drawings and notes. A good plant for
this purpose is the common pumpkin. If there is time after this course, let
the pupil work up some one topic, investigating the corresponding part of many
plants as the stomata, trichomes, spiral or reticulated vessels, starch, crystals,
nucleus, streaming motions of protoplasm, grains of pollen, seive tubes, glands,
fibro-vascular bundles, tips of roots.