There is an emerging body of literature theorizing the role of data as a key instrument for national educational governance in a globalized and neoliberal world. These insights and theorization are predominantly derived from the experiences of Anglo-American countries with test-based accountability (TBA) policies. TBA policies hold schools accountable based on their performance in standardized tests. To expand the discussions on how data can serve as an instrument of national educational governance, in this dissertation I present an instrumental case study of the National Achievement Survey (NAS) in India. Using data from different types of policy literature and interviews with key officials, I argue that since 2017, NAS- a nationwide standardized assessment data collection effort in India is used both as an instrument to continue, promote, and support established bureaucratic governance practices (standard governance) and to introduce governance by cross-state comparisons to extend the central government's "soft power" (comparative governance). In this manner, I argue that NAS as an instrument of data-driven national educational governance differs significantly from the commonly understood models of test-based accountability in Anglo-American countries in its form, motivations, purposes, and possible implications. While the adoption of TBA models in Anglo-American countries has indicated a shift to a "post-bureaucratic governance" approach that more closely adheres to neo-liberal principles (see Maroy 2008; 2009; 2012), NAS continues to maintain the traditional bureaucratic approach. I explore the policy, organizational, and technical context which explains the rise and importance of NAS since 2017 in India. I trace India's education policy and data developments since the 1990s to show the clear demand for data like NAS 2017 in India. Once the demand gained credibility and urgency, I show how NAS 2017 emerged as the only feasible instrument to address this need owing to the Indian bureaucracy's technical capacity constraints at central and state levels. In absence of any alternative, NAS has been targeted for many purposes and towards many users. Lastly, I argue that the rising importance of NAS since 2017, reflected in how it is being employed, can be attributed to path dependency or its ability to enhance existing organizational practices without creating many disruptions. I call this the "new wine in an old bottle" approach. I discuss the key implications of understanding the NAS model for the literature on data-driven national educational governance. I also discuss how understanding India's experience with NAS illuminates the complexities of global education reform for developing countries and provides a distinctly different model of data-driven national educational governance compared to the TBA approach prevalent in Anglo-American countries.
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