With the importance of second language (L2) learning beyond the classroom (e.g., Reinders et al., 2022), language learning apps (e.g., Mango Languages, Duolingo) have shown potential for promoting self-directed L2 learning. Despite research indicating a positive relationship between the extent of in-app activities and L2 proficiency gains (e.g., Loewen et al., 2020), high attrition rates pose a significant challenge to this learning method in self-study contexts (Hwang et al., 2024). Thus, teacher support is crucial for developing learners’ agency in their independent use of technology out of class (Godwin-Jones, 2019).In self-determination theory (SDT, Ryan & Deci, 2017; Noels et al. 2019a in L2 contexts), autonomy—a fundamental human psychological need—refers to a sense of volition and self-endorsement in one’s action. When this need is satisfied, learners take ownership of their own learning and engage in activities out of interest and enjoyment. This, in turn, leads to greater learning success and well-being. In this dissertation, I explored how teachers can support L2 learners’ autonomy need for app-based language learning out of class, thereby influencing their app engagement, app usage, and L2 learning. Particularly, the study examined the moderating role of learners’ initial motivation for English learning in this process.Additionally, recognizing the potential influence of socio-ecological structures, I investigated the implementation of app-based language learning in South Korea’s distinctive educational context. In South Korea, the high-stakes nature of English tests often leads learners to rely on hagwons—for-profit, private educational institutions. Within this landscape, language learning apps are one of many resources available for English learning. Building on this, I explored whether learners’ perceived opportunity cost of using language learning apps (i.e., the sense of sacrificing other valued learning activities to use apps) affects their out-of-class app usage, and how teacher autonomy support can help mitigate this perceived opportunity cost.Participants were seventh-grade beginner learners (N = 258) in South Korea. While learners independently used a commercially available language learning app over 13 weeks, their teachers provided Reeve and Cheon’s (2021) autonomy-supportive instructional behaviors to enhance out-of-class app usage. Using questionnaires, I measured learners’ (a) initial L2 motivation, (b) perceived teacher autonomy support, (c) autonomy need satisfaction, (d) app engagement (behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic dimensions), and (e) perceived opportunity cost. Additionally, in-app usage and learning gain data were collected.Using structural equation modeling, I conducted mediation and moderated mediation analyses, revealing three key findings: (1) greater app usage positively predicted vocabulary learning gains; (2) teacher autonomy support indirectly increased app usage by enhancing autonomy need satisfaction and reducing perceived opportunity cost; and (3) teacher autonomy support was effective even for learners with controlled L2 motivation.These findings suggest that classroom-based autonomy support encourages L2 learners to use technology beyond the classroom and builds their resilience against disengagement from it, enabling sustained self-directed L2 learning. Pedagogical implications are discussed regarding the importance of creating a structured learning climate to ensure consistent and reliable teacher autonomy support.
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